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Scheme of work
Cambridge International AS and A Level
Biology
9700
For examination from 2016
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Contents
Overview ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Key concepts ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Practical work .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Suggested teaching order............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Teacher support........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1: Biological molecules ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Unit 6: The diversity of life .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes ................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 111
Unit 9: Respiration ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 129
Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination ........................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
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Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Overview
This staged teaching scheme of work provides ideas about how to construct and deliver a two-year course of study with all of the AS Level syllabus taught in Year 1
and the remainder of the A Level syllabus taught in Year 2. The syllabus has been broken down into teaching units, which incorporate one or more of the syllabus units,
with suggested teaching activities and learning resources to use in the classroom.
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should have attained at least a grade C in IGCSE or O Level Biology, or the equivalent in another award such as Co-ordinated Science.
Outline
Whole class (W), group work (G), pair (P) and individual activities (I) are indicated, where appropriate, within this scheme of work. Suggestions for homework (H) and
formative assessment (F) are also included. The activities in the scheme of work are only suggestions and there are many other useful activities to be found in the
materials referred to in the learning resource list.
Opportunities for differentiation are indicated as basic and challenging; there is the potential for differentiation by resource, length, grouping, expected level of
outcome, and degree of support by the teacher, throughout the scheme of work. Length of time allocated to a task is another possible area for differentiation.
Where a learning objectives has been divided so that part of that learning objective content is taught at a different time to the rest of the learning objective, these are
identified by (i) or (ii), etc., and the specific part of the learning objective is in bold.
Key concepts
The key concepts on which the syllabus is built are set out below. These key concepts can help teachers think about how to approach each topic in order to encourage
learners to make links between topics and develop a deep overall understanding of the subject. As a teacher, you will refer to these concepts again and again to help
unify the subject and make sense of it. If mastered, learners can use the concepts to solve problems or to understand unfamiliar subject-related material.
Biochemical processes
Cells are dynamic: biochemistry and molecular biology help to explain how and why cells function as they do.
Natural selection
Natural selection is the major mechanism to explain the theory of evolution.
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Some of the ideas in this syllabus can take time to be fully understood. By linking them together through the key concepts, learners will have more opportunity for
those ideas to make sense to them and how they connect to other areas of the syllabus. The key concepts themselves will not be directly assessed; rather they are
themes that learners will be able to use to order their thoughts, themes and knowledge to express answers in examinations and interviews for work or the next stage of
their study.
As learners progress through the course, it is important that they do not regard the different topics as being totally self-contained and unconnected, studied in complete
isolation from one another. By keeping the key concepts to the fore at all stages of your teaching, you can strongly encourage learners to regard the subject as a set of
interconnected themes.
Learners should be aware that an ability to see how different strands of the syllabus can be pulled together within one key concept is a high-level transferable skill.
Linking different areas of their knowledge through a common thread of ideas, or ways of understanding and explaining, is enhancing their higher-order thinking skills.
These skills are the building blocks of deeper and broader learning, those that universities look for in their students and which allow learners to answer examination
questions fully and with links from more than one part of the syllabus.
Teachers can introduce key concepts as an integral part of their teaching approach and consolidate them when appropriate. This will help their learners to appreciate
that some themes and theories are revisited and built upon during the course and that, by bringing together very different areas of the syllabus, these themes are
fundamental to our understanding of the subject.
Focussing on these concepts will improve learners self-confidence in their ability to progress, as well as enabling them to revise more effectively; learners could make
mind maps across the syllabus on each of the key concepts as a way of revising. By visualising the subject as being formulated from these basic ideas, they will
become better prepared for interviews and future study at university, or be more adaptable to themes currently under research and development in industrial and
academic institutions.
There is also merit in showing learners how, during the course, they will be biologists studying in a number of inter-related fields that can be drawn together by the key
concepts. Examples of these fields - cell biology, biochemistry, physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology, microbiology, epidemiology, immunology, biotechnology,
ecology, population biology and conservation biology - can be discussed and linked to the different areas of the syllabus.
The key concepts are listed under the relevant learning objectives, those in bold are where the coverage of the learning objective makes a significant contribution to the
key concept.
Practical work
Practical work is an essential part of science. Scientists use evidence gained from prior observations and experiments to build models and theories. Their predictions
are tested with practical work to check that they are consistent with the behaviour of the real world. Learners who are well trained and experienced in practical skills will
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be more confident in their own abilities. The skills developed through practical work provide a good foundation for those wishing to pursue science further, as well as for
those entering employment or a non-science career.
Twelve Practical Booklets have been developed for this syllabus, six for Paper 3 and six for Paper 5, and are available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk
and are referenced within this scheme of work.
The Teaching A Level Science Practical Skills booklet is also available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk which contains useful information and
suggestions for teaching A Level practical skills.
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2.3.d
2.2.b, 2.2.a, 2.2.c, 2.1.a(i), 2.1.b, 2.2.d, 2.2.e
2.2.f, 2.2.g, 2.1.a(ii)
2.1.a(iii), 2.3.a, 2.3.b, 2.3.c
2.1.a
6.1.a, 6.1.b
3.1.a, 3.1.b, 3.1.c, 3.1.d, 3.2.a, 3.2.b, 3.2.c, 3.2.d
1.1.d, 1.1.a, 1.1.c
1.1.b, 1.1.e
1.2.b, 1.2.c, 1.2.a
1.2.d
1.2.e
10
Viruses
Cell membrane structure and function
Transport across membranes
Unit 3. DNA and the mitotic cell cycle
Chromosome structure
The mitotic cell cycle - overview
The mitotic cell cycle DNA replication
The mitotic cell cycle mitosis and cytokinesis
Protein synthesis, introduction to genes and mutation
Unit 4. Transport and gas exchange
Plant anatomy and histology
Transport of water and mineral ions
Transport of assimilates
Structure to function: plants
The mammalian circulatory system
The mammalian heart
The human gas exchange system
Carriage of respiratory gases
Unit 5. Disease and protection against disease
Disease and smoking
Infectious disease
Antibiotics
The immune response
Antibodies
Vaccination
Unit 6. The diversity of life
Definitions
Classification
Biodiversity
Fieldwork
Conservation, population control and maintaining
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1.2.f
4.1.a, 4.1.b, 4.1.c
4.2.a(v), 4.2.c, 4.2.a(i), 4.2.d, 4.2.b, 4.2.a(ii), 4.2.a(iii), 4.2.f,
4.2.e, 4.2.a(iv)
5.1.a
5.1.c
6.1.c, 5.1.d
5.1.b, 5.1.e, 5.2.a, 5.2.b
6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.2.c, 6.2.d
7.1.a, 7.1.b, 7.1.c
7.2.a, 7.2.c, 7.2.b, 7.2.d, 7.2.e, 7.2.f
7.2.g, 7.2.h, 7.2.i
7.1.d
8.1.a, 8.1.b, 8.1.c, 8.1.d, 8.1.e
8.2.a, 8.2.b, 8.2.c, 8.2.d
9.1.a, 9.1.b, 9.1.c, 9.1.d
8.1.f, 8.1.g, 8.1.h
10.1.a, 9.2.a, 9.2.b
10.1.b, 10.1.c, 10.1.d, 10.1.e
10.2.a, 10.2.b, 10.2.c
11.1.d, 11.1.a, 11.1.b, 11.1.e, 11.1.c, 11.1.f
11.2.a, 11.2.b, 11.2.c
11.2.d, 11.2.e
18.1.a
18.2.a, 18.2.b, 18.2.c, 18.2.d
18.1.b
18.1.c, 18.1.d, 18.1.e, 18.1.f
18.3.a, 17.3.e, 18.3.b, 18.3.g, 18.3.c, 18.3.d, 18.3.e, 18.3.f,
14
10
biodiversity
18.3.h
Unit 7. Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes
Understanding terms
16.1.a, 16.1.b, 16.2.a(i)
Meiotic cell division and heredity
16.1.c, 16.1.d, 16.1.e
Genetic crosses
16.2.a(ii), 16.2.b, 16.2.c, 16.2.d
Biological variation
17.1.a, 17.1.c, 17.1.b, 16.2.e, 16.2.f, 16.2.g
Natural selection and population genetics
17.1.d, 17.2.a, 17.2.b, 17.2.c, 17.2.d
Evolution and speciation
17.3.a, 17.3.b, 17.3.c, 17.3.d
Artificial selection
17.2.e, 17.2.f
Unit 8. Molecular biology and gene technology
The control of gene expression
16.3.b, 16.3.a, 16.3.c, 19.1.i
Recombinant DNA technology
19.1.a, 19.1.b, 19.1.h, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g, 19.2.c, 19.3.a,
19.3.b, 19.3.c
Molecular biology techniques
19.1.c, 19.1.d, 19.2.g
Bioinformatics
19.2.a, 19.2.b
Prevention and treatment of inherited conditions.
19.2.d, 19.2.e, 19.2.f
Unit 9. Respiration
Energy and ATP
12.1.a, 12.1.b
Aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis
12.2.a, 12.2.b, 12.2.c, 12.2.d, 12.2.e, 12.1.c, 12.2.g, 12.2.f,
12.1.e(i), 12.1.d, 12.2.i
Anaerobic respiration
12.2.k, 12.2.l
Comparing anaerobic and aerobic respiration
12.2.j
Yeast practical
12.2.h
Respiratory substrates, RQs and respirometers
12.1.f, 12.1.g, 12.2.m, 12.1.h
Unit 10. Mammalian physiology, control and coordination
Communication systems
15.1.a
The nervous system
15.1.b, 15.1.c, 15.1.d, 15.1.e, 15.1.f, 15.1.g, 15.1.h
Muscle contraction
15.1.i, 15.1.j, 15.1.k
Homeostasis
14.1.a, 14.1.b, 14.1.c
Excretion of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation
14.1.d, 14.1.e, 14.1.f, 14.1.g
Control of blood glucose concentration
14.1.h, 14.1.i, 14.1.j
Detection of biological molecules in blood and urine
14.1.k, 14.1.l
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10
10
15.1.l, 15.1.m
13.1.b
13.1.c, 13.1.d, 13.1.e, 13.1.f
12.1.e(ii)
13.1.a, 13.1.g, 13.1.h
13.3.a
13.2.a, 13.2.b, 13.2.c, 13.2.d, 13.2.e, 13.3.b
15.2.a, 14.2.a, 14.2.b, 14.2.c, 15.2.b, 15.2.c, 15.2.d, 16.3.d
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Resources
The resources for this syllabus, including textbooks endorsed by Cambridge, can be found at www.cie.org.uk and Teacher Support http://teachers.cie.org.uk.
Endorsed textbooks have been written to be closely aligned to the syllabus they support, and have been through a detailed quality assurance process. As such, all
textbooks endorsed by Cambridge for this syllabus are the ideal resource to be used alongside this scheme of work as they cover each learning objective.
Where other textbooks have shown to be useful for some learning objectives they are referred to by the first author. These include:
King T, Reiss M, Roberts M. Practical Advanced Biology. Nelson Thornes, 2nd Edition 2001. ISBN: 9780174483083
Siddiqui S. Comprehensive Practical Biology for A Level. Ferozsons, 1999. ISBN 9690015729
Bio Factsheets. Curriculum Press www.curriculum-press.co.uk
These cover a wide range of topics and are also useful for revision and extension work. Individual factsheets can be obtained, as can a complete CD-ROM.
Biological Nomenclature, published by the Society of Biology (formerly the Institute of Biology).
This publication can be ordered by emailing the Education Department at the Society of Biology https://www.societyofbiology.org. The symbols, signs and
abbreviations used in examination papers follow these recommendations.
CD-ROM
Bioscope. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781845650261
A simulation of a real microscope that includes a large number of botanical and zoological microscope slides at a range of magnifications, accompanied by paperbased tasks. It can be used for whole class teaching via a whiteboard or data projector, or by individual students on PCs.
Websites:
This scheme of work includes website links providing direct access to internet resources. Cambridge International Examinations is not responsible for the accuracy or
content of information contained in these sites. The inclusion of a link to an external website should not be understood to be an endorsement of that website or the
site's owners (or their products/services).
The particular website pages in the learning resource column of this scheme of work were selected when the scheme of work was produced. Other aspects of the sites
were not checked and only the particular resources are recommended.
Websites in this scheme of work, and some other useful websites, include:
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/
http://www.saps.org.uk/
The National Centre for Biotechnology Education: protocols and useful information
Science and Plants for Schools: protocols
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_library/index.asp
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology.html
http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookTOC.html
http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/notebook/index.php?area=&page=
Biology 4all: wide range of resources and links to other useful sites
S-cool: revision website
The Online Biology Book, hosted by Estrella Mountain Community College
The Molecular Biology Notebook
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http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/
http://www.cellsalive.com/
http://www.worldofteaching.com/A-ZBiologypowerpoints.html
http://www.ase.org.uk/resources/
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology
http://www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk/sciencepracticals
http://www.biology-resources.com
http://www.biologyjunction.com/ap_biology_animations.htm
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/index.htm
https://www.societyofbiology.org/
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10
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 1: Biological molecules
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners will need some background knowledge in chemistry before embarking on this unit. They should understand the terms atom, molecule, electron and ion. They
should also have a basic understanding of covalent and ionic bonding, and of molecular and structural formulae. They should be able to write and understand simple
chemical equations. Some knowledge of energy changes (potential energy and bond energy) would be helpful.
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/basicchemistry.htm is a good starting point for learners to revise their knowledge of chemistry.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/page1.html this also covers basic chemistry for biologists.
Context
This unit provides essential reference material for learners when studying all future units in their Cambridge International AS and A Level course. Knowledge of how the
structure and properties of biological molecules are related to their functions in cells and in organisms is fundamental to an understanding of many areas of biology.
The molecule of heredity, DNA, is a key concept. Cells can be visualised as structural units requiring biological molecules and as dynamic units carrying out
biochemical processes. Cells carry out biochemical processes, a key concept, and enzymes catalyse biological reactions. A thorough understanding of enzyme
function can be applied to studying processes such as:
DNA replication and protein synthesis in Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle;
the carriage of carbon dioxide in Unit 4, Transport and gas exchange;
gene technology in Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology;
respiration in Unit 9, Respiration;
photosynthesis in Unit 11, Plant physiology and biochemistry.
As part of biotechnology, enzymes are used commercially in a range of applications, with many of these using immobilised enzymes for a more efficient process.
Outline
This unit introduces learners to the biological molecules that are required by cells for both structural purposes and physiological processes. The main groups of organic
biochemicals, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, are studied. For carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, there is an emphasis on the relationship between
molecular structure, properties and functions in living organisms. Learners study the structure of nucleic acids and discuss DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance in
preparation for Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle. Learning objective 2.3.d introduces the concepts of hydrogen bonding and solubility and considers the
roles of water in living organisms. This unit builds on knowledge of protein structure in describing and explaining enzyme activity. The mode of action of enzymes and
factors that affect enzyme action, including inhibitors, is covered. Learners are introduced to some basic enzyme kinetics. There are many opportunities to carry out
practical work, where learning can be reinforced and individual and class results can be analysed. The last section of the unit considers the differences between
enzymes free in solution and immobilised enzymes.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
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11
Learning objectives
Learning resources
2.3.d
explain how hydrogen bonding occurs
between water molecules and relate
the properties of water to its roles in
living organisms (limited to solvent
action, specific heat capacity and
latent heat of vapourisation)
Online
http://faculty.fmcc.edu/mcdarby/majors
101book/chapter_03-chemistry/03Water_Properties.htm
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
/Resources/cfb/water.htm
http://www.worldofmolecules.com/solv
ents/water.htm
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 30: The biological
importance of water.
Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
biological molecules
Note
Ensure learners can use the following terms (see Unit 2):
hydrophilic
hydrophobic
polar
non-polar
charged / ionic
uncharged / non-ionic
water soluble
water-insoluble
lipid insoluble
lipid soluble
2.2.b
define the terms monomer, polymer,
macromolecule, monosaccharide,
disaccharide and polysaccharide
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
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Online
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
biological molecules
12
Learning objectives
Learning resources
2.2.c
describe the formation of a glycosidic
bond by condensation, with reference
both to polysaccharides and to
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Provide details of the molecular structure of glucose (see 2.2.b) which, in solution, is
mainly in ring form (W) (Basic)
o Show learners how to use a logical sequence to build up the ring form of the
glucose molecule and number the carbon atoms. Learners practise then draw
the molecule from memory. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners complete a range of incomplete diagrams prepared by you, e.g. by
adding the -OH and -H groups. (F)
o Progress learners to be able to identify and draw a glucose molecule. (I)
(Basic)
Learners make molecular models of and forms of glucose using plastic sphere /
bond models or drinking straw models. (P) (Challenging)
Explain that knowledge of the and forms of glucose will help understanding of
disaccharide and polysaccharide structures and properties. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/bonline/e17/17.htm
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm#2
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)
Textbooks/Publications
13
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Work through the formation of a , 1-4 glycosidic bond (to form cellobiose). (W)
(Challenging)
Tell learners that the glucose monomer of sucrose is -glucose and ask them to use
a molecular diagram of a sucrose molecule to work out the structure of a fructose
molecule (no need to memorise this). (W) (Challenging)
Learners use the -glucose models previously constructed to form a glycosidic
bond. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Produce a section of a polysaccharide, e.g. from an amylose or cellulose
molecule. (G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Note
Maltose is formed in nature from degradation reactions (i.e. breakdown) of starch, so
focus the activity on the concept of a condensation reaction to build up a
macromolecule and the formation of a glycosidic bond. The formation of maltose
illustrates the principle of glycosidic bond formation by a condensation reaction.
2.1.a (i)
carry out tests for reducing sugars
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine
in potassium iodide solution test for
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and
the biuret test for proteins to identify
the contents of solutions
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
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Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests for reducing
sugars and non-reducing sugars, and the iodine in potassium iodide solution test for
starch to identify the contents of solutions
Discuss the tests and explain they are useful to identify biochemicals in a range of
plant and animal material. (W) (Basic)
o Learners should describe the biochemical tests (food tests is a less helpful
term) and the results obtained, giving conclusions. (W) (Basic)
Practical work: carrying out the Benedict's test for reducing sugars.
o Explain that a negative test does not mean an absence of carbohydrate. (I)
(Basic)
o Learners test substances that will give positive results (e.g. glucose/fructose/
maltose/lactose solution) and negative results (e.g. sucrose solution, water,
protein/starch suspension, vegetable oil). (I) (Basic)
o Learners test natural liquefied biological materials (e.g. fruits, tubers) and
liquefied foods from the diet. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners test a thin section of fruit placed on a microscope slide (add a few
drops of Benedicts and heat over a spirit burner use forceps): use a
microscope to observe colour changes. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Discuss the negative result for reducing sugar with sucrose and explain that hot acid
is used to hydrolyse sucrose, but neutralisation is required before adding Benedicts.
(W) (Basic)
Practical work carrying out the test for a non-reducing sugar, where learners use
Practical booklet 2
Online
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
es.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
14
Learning objectives
Learning resources
fresh samples of each of the substances that gave negative results for the reducing
sugar test. (I) (Basic)
Practical work to consolidate reducing sugars and non-reducing sugar tests.
o Learners identify which unmarked solution is: glucose; sucrose; a mixture of both
glucose and sucrose. (I) (Basic)
o Extend this (excess of Benedicts solution) to filtering the precipitates for
comparison and using a colorimeter (if available) to compare filtrates. (P) (I)
(Challenging)
Practical work to test for starch in a range of different types of starch (suspensions)
and food substances using iodine in potassium iodide solution. Learners see a range
of blue-black colours obtained (owing to the differing proportions of amylose to
amylopectin). (I) (Basic)
Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teachers practical
notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
Note
Remind learners to control variables.
AR (analytical reagent) sucrose is preferred to LR (laboratory reagent) sucrose
(preferred to cane sugar) for the non-reducing sugar test (if cane sugar is used,
explain that it will contain impurities and may give a slight positive Benedicts test
results).
2.1.b
carry out a semi-quantitative
Benedicts test on a reducing sugar
using dilution, standardising the test
and using the results (colour standards
or time to first colour change) to
estimate the concentration
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
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Practical work: learners practise, and get a visual impression of, diluting a coloured
liquid, using water, to set concentrations. (I) (Basic)
Practical work: learners prepare glucose solutions of known concentration and then
carry out the Benedict's test, recording the time taken for the first indication of colour
change and to obtain colour standards. (I) (Basic)
o Follow-up with a semi-quantitative analysis, comparing time taken and
colour/colour depth to determine the approximate concentration of an unknown
solution. (I) (Challenging)
o Evaluate the test with learners and ask for ideas of other semi-quantitative tests
(e.g. allow precipitate to settle, dry and weigh). (W) (Challenging)
Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teachers practical
notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
Practical booklet 2
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/103-estimatingglucose-concentration-in-solution
15
Learning objectives
Learning resources
2.2.d
describe the breakage of glycosidic
bonds in polysaccharides and
disaccharides by hydrolysis, with
reference to the non-reducing sugar
test
Online
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
/Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm#2
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
Note
Learners should describe the breakage of the glycosidic bond in sucrose when
explaining non-reducing sugar test results (see 2.1.a)
2.2.e
describe the molecular structure of
polysaccharides including starch
(amylose and amylopectin), glycogen
and cellulose and relate these
structures to their functions in living
organisms
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
2.2.f
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Use the molecular models to show short sections of amylose and amylopectin (or
strings of beads on wire) and discuss glycogen structure. (G) (Basic)
Learners describe the difference between the structures (include bonds formed) and
highlight the idea of structure to function .
o More compact structures for storage linked to the coiling effect (amylose) and
branching (amylopectin).
o Branching of amylopectin and glycogen provides large number of ends to
attach /detach glucose units. (I) (Basic)
Demonstrate (molecular model / animation) how a straight chain is produced when
forming polysaccharides with alternate -glucose residues that rotate by 180.(W)
(Basic)
Emphasise the structure to function of cellulose is different to that of the cell wall.
(W) (Basic)
Discuss the role of cellulose, then learners produce explanatory notes with diagrams
of how straight parallel chains are useful for structural purposes and how hydrogen
bonding (2.3.d) allows parallel cellulose molecules to form fibrils (links to cell wall
structure in Unit 2). (I) (Challenging)
Learners complete a gap-filling worksheet prepared by you to serve as a summary
of the main learning points for carbohydrates. (F)
Draw the general formula for a fatty acid.
Online
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbioch
em/MBWeb/mb1/part2/sugar.htm
http://www.calfnotes.com/pdffiles/CN1
02.pdf
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 39: Carbohydrates:
revision summary
Bio Factsheet 174: The structure and
function of polysaccharides
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (d)
Online
16
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Explain that it is a carboxylic acid and outline -COOH as the carboxyl group.
o Explain R is a hydrocarbon chain, and extend this to explain saturated or
unsaturated fatty acids. (W) (Basic)
Draw the molecular structure of glycerol and state that a triglyceride is produced with
the attachment of three fatty acids in condensation reactions. (W) (Basic)
o With prompting, learners work out how ester bonds form and add the name of
the bond to their table of 2.2.b. (I) (Challenging)
Learners make simple paper cut-out models of triglycerides to illustrate the absence
of polar groups and show the non-polar exposed fatty acids (so not soluble when in
contact with watery liquids). (W) (Basic)
Learners describe evidence that makes triglycerides good energy stores (many C-C
bonds; highly reduced so energy can be released by oxidation; insoluble in water so
can be localised in the organism). (G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/lipidcond
ensation.html
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicpr
ops/esters/background.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 42: The structure and
function of lipids.
Bio Factsheet 74: The structure and
biological functions of lipids.
Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
biological molecules
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
2.2.g
describe the structure of a
phospholipid and relate the structure of
phospholipids to their functions in living
organisms
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
2.1.a (ii)
carry out tests for reducing sugars
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in
potassium iodide solution test for
starch, the emulsion test for lipids
and the biuret test for proteins to
identify the contents of solutions
Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests
emulsion test for lipids to identify the contents of solutions
Practical work, testing for lipids using the (ethanol) emulsion test.
o Test vegetable oil and yellow-dyed water. (I) (Basic)
o Test crushed fruits and seeds. (I) (Basic)
Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the
emulsion test as described above.
Key concepts
Note
Ensure learners understand that lipids include triglycerides (fats and oils).
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 152: Phospholipids
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)(ii)
(c)(d)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Practical booklet 2
Online
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
es.html
17
Learning objectives
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
2.1.a (iii)
carry out tests for reducing sugars
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in
potassium iodide solution test for
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and
the biuret test for proteins to
identify the contents of solutions
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
2.3.a
describe the structure of an amino acid
and the formation and breakage of a
peptide bond
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests biuret test
for proteins to identify the contents of solutions.
Practical work, testing for proteins using the biuret test on a solution of egg white,
skimmed milk, chicken or tofu and water. (I) (Basic)
Extension practical using a semi-quantitative biuret test: learners prepare a set of
standard solutions and compare the intensity of colour obtained of an unknown with
the standards (control variables). (P) (I) (Challenging)
Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the biuret
test as described above.
Practical booklet 2
Online
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
es.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
Familiarise learners with the names of the 20 amino acids (encoded by the genetic
code see Unit 3) and their three-letter shortened version from labelled diagrams.
Learners write out the general formula of an amino acid, and on the diagrams use a
colour code to identify the: R group; part common to them all; amine group;
carboxylic acid group. (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Learners make notes to show understanding that the side-chain or R (residual)
group can take different forms and that the amino acids can be grouped
according to the properties of their R-group. (I) (Basic)
Learners draw simple diagrams of: peptide bond formation (choose two amino acids
from their diagram sheet) by condensation (add the name of the bond to their table
of 2.3.b); hydrolysis of the dipeptide. (I) (Challenging)
Discuss how a series of condensation reactions leads to the formation of a
Online
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/aa.html
http://www.worldofmolecules.com/life/
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
biological molecules
Bio Factsheet 80: Structure and
biological functions of proteins
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
18
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Note
The names and structures of the amino acids are not required learning.
Learners could be introduced to the one-letter abbreviations (useful for Unit 8).
2.3.b
explain the meaning of the terms
primary structure, secondary structure,
tertiary structure and quaternary
structure of proteins and describe the
types of bonding (hydrogen, ionic,
disulfide and hydrophobic interactions)
that hold these molecules in shape
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Learners write down their own polypeptide, 25 amino acids long (choose from the
sheet of 2.3.a) using encircled three-letter abbreviations and share with the rest of
the group to highlight how an enormous number of different polypeptides can be
obtained. Discuss the term primary structure. (W) (I) (Basic)
Make links forward to Unit 2 to the roles of cell structures in protein synthesis to fold
/ further modify the polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic)
Expand knowledge of hydrogen bonding (from 2.3.d) and 2.2.e) with an explanation
of secondary structure. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest what will hold the chain in place to form a specific 3-D structure
before discussing tertiary structure. (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Include interactions between R groups and the different types of bonding. (W)
(Basic)
o Give a simple definition of quaternary structure. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss how the loss of tertiary (and quaternary where it exists) results in the
loss of function of the protein. (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes on levels of organisation to highlight the relationship
between the structures and role of bonding in determining shape /stability. (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://www.pdb.org/pdb/home/home.do
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/bioche
mistry/tutorials/chemistry/page2.html
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
Note
For quaternary structure learners should know that this is a protein composed of
more than one polypeptide chain details of the association between chains is not
required.
Do not allow learners to think that proteins with quaternary structure must be
composed of four polypeptides.
2.3.c
describe the molecular structure of
haemoglobin as an example of a
globular protein, and of collagen as an
example of a fibrous protein and relate
these structures to their functions (The
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin
http://www.pdb.org/pdb/101/motm.do?
momID=4&evtc=Suggest&evta=Mole
culeof%20the%20Month&evtl=TopBa
r
19
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
2.1.a
carry out tests for reducing sugars and
non-reducing sugars, the iodine in
potassium iodide solution test for
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and
the biuret test for proteins to identify
the contents of solutions
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
structure & function
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (c)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (c)
Note
Mention that haemoglobin has a role in the carriage of carbon dioxide (for Unit 4).
Practical investigation, without using instructions, to analyse the biochemicals in a
range of unknown solutions or liquefied solid foods. (F)
Practical booklet 2 is a suitable protocol (designed to develop skills for Paper 3).
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
6.1.a
describe the structure of nucleotides,
including the phosphorylated
nucleotide ATP (structural formulae
are not required)
Learning resources
Practical booklet 2
Online
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
es.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60,
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
Online
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/atp.html
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
L/GG/basePair1.php
20
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 129: ATP what it is,
what it does.
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
Note
Base names must be spelt correctly, e.g. thymine not thiamine, and learners must
be clear about the difference between adenine and adenosine.
Emphasise that the structural/skeletal formulae of the bases is not required.
6.1.b
describe the structure of RNA and
DNA and explain the importance of
base pairing and the different
hydrogen bonding between bases
(include reference to adenine and
guanine as purines and to cytosine,
thymine and uracil as pyrimidines.
Structural formulae for bases are not
required but the recognition that
purines have a double ring structure
and pyrimidines have a single ring
structure should be included)
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.dnaftb.org
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dna/
index.html
http://accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/P
ROTOCOLS/DNA/extracting.html
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
abs/extraction/
http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/ar
chive.html
Past Papers
21
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
Learning resources
Learners fully label and annotate pre-existing diagrams of DNA. (I) (Basic)
Extension activity (see website recommended): learners read about the discovery of
DNA. (I) (Challenging)
Progress to RNA structure, giving an outline of the three types of RNA before
learners make notes, including diagrams. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners construct a summary table of the similarities and differences between DNA
and RNA. (F)
Summary discussions (small group and class) about requirements of the ideal
molecule of inheritance, resulting in a large poster. (W) (G) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Carrying information to allow proteins to be synthesised (sequence of
nucleotides).
o Expression to obtain the proteins (transcription and translation, learned later).
o Stability (strong sugar-phosphate backbone, many H bonds).
o Faithful replication to pass on information to daughter cells (complementary
nature of the strands).
o Ability to provide variation (mutations, learned later).
Note
Save the nucleotides for DNA replication in Unit 3.
3.1.a
explain that enzymes are globular
proteins that catalyse metabolic
reactions
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/animation__how_enzy
mes_work.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/enzymes/enzy
mes.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 163: Answering
Questions: enzyme activity.
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
3.1.b
state that enzymes function inside cells
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that enzymes are produced within cells. Learners volunteer the meanings of
intra- and extra- and discuss these with respect to enzymes that remain to function
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 24: Human digestion.
22
Learning objectives
(intracellular enzymes) and outside
cells (extracellular enzymes)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
3.1.c
explain the mode of action of enzymes
in terms of an active site,
enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of
activation energy and enzyme
specificity (the lock and key hypothesis
and the induced fit hypothesis should
be included)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Learning resources
intracellularly and others that are released to act extracellularly (e.g. digestive
enzymes) (this links later to role of the Golgi body). (W) (Basic)
Note
Learners will benefit if they know the meaning of prefixes e.g. intra, extra, poly, milli,
mono. Explain that some have the same meaning but Latin or Greek origins (e.g. uni
versus mono).
Learners make notes on the mode of action of enzymes (remind them of protein
structure), highlighting structure to function. (I) (Challenging)
o Describe and explain enzyme structure, including the active site.
o Include a set of annotated diagrams of the lock and key and induced fit
mechanisms (noting the role of the R groups of amino acids at the active site in
binding with the substrate).
o Explain that many/most reactions can be catalysed in both directions.
Learners use paper cut-out models to show how enzymes can break up substrates
into smaller molecules or can build up larger molecules from smaller ones. (P) (I)
(Basic)
Discuss the concept of lowering activation energy. (W) (Challenging)
o Learners annotate a boulder analogy graph to highlight that, although the
energy content of substrate and products is not changed, the reaction pathway
follows a lower energy course. (H) (Basic)
o Learners summarise a discussion about the different ways activation energy can
be lowered by adding notes to their diagrams or the graph. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/animation__how_enzy
mes_work.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/enzymes/enzy
mes.html
http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
nimation.php?ani=161&cat=Biology
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
Note
Use the term complementary to describe how the substrate fits into, and binds at,
the active site. Matches is incorrect.
Check understanding of the term substrate - some may have used the term reactant.
3.1.d
investigate the progress of an enzymecatalysed reaction by measuring rates
of formation of products (for example,
using catalase) or rates of
disappearance of substrate (for
example, using amylase)
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklets 4, 5
Online
http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/a
dvanced/bio-molecules/factorsaffecting-enzymeactivity/investigating-an-enzymecontrolled-reaction-catalase-and-
23
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
hydrogen-peroxideconcentration,47,EXP.html
www.csub.edu/~kszick_miranda/Enzy
mes%20part2.doc
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/293-learner-sheet-24microscale-investigations-withcatalase
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 130: Investigating
catalase
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
3.2.a
investigate and explain the effects of
the following factors on the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions:
Temperature
pH (using buffer solutions)
enzyme concentration
substrate concentration
inhibitor concentration
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment
v2.1 5Y02
With prompting, learners explain why measuring the time taken for complete
removal of substrate is unsuitable if trying to measure the effect of substrate
concentration (with more substrate the rate of reaction is faster, but it takes longer
for it all to disappear). (W) (I) (Challenging)
Discuss with learners why, ideally, initial rates should be calculated when comparing
enzyme activity under different conditions. (W) (Challenging)
Develop planning skills: learners design an investigation in which several variables
need to be controlled and carry this out (ensure that a range of plans is covered).
(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Learners carry out practical activities on factors affecting the rate of an enzymecatalysed reaction (examples below). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Effect of temperature: the catalase experiment in 3.1.d.
o Effect of pH: use trypsin to digest protein in a suspension of milk powder.
o Effect of enzyme concentration or substrate concentration: use amylase or
diastase to digest a starch suspension.
Then learners present their results and contribute to whole class discussion,
following up with a written explanation. Construct and annotate graphs showing:
o the impact of rate of collisions (temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme
concentration).
o the effect on hydrogen bonding, tertiary structure, shape of active site and
complementary fit of substrate (temperature, pH, inhibitors).
Practical booklet 5
Online
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
PROTOCOLS/menu.html
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
PROTOCOLS/juice.html
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/95-investigating-theeffect-of-competitive-and-noncompetitive-inhibitors-on-the-enzymess-galactosidase
http://www.southernbiological.com/
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/261-the-inhibition-ofcatechol-oxidase-by-lead
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/106-the-effect-of-endproduct-phosphate-on-the-enzymephosphatase
Textbooks/Publications
24
Learning objectives
3.2.b
explain that the maximum rate of
reaction (Vmax) is used to derive the
Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) which
is used to compare the affinity of
different enzymes for their substrates
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
King p.64-68
Siddiqui p.69-75.
Bio Factsheet 43: Factors affecting
enzyme activity
Note
Ensure learners can interpret correctly graphs with the same shaped curve, e.g.
course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction / the effect of increasing substrate
concentration on the rate of a reaction.
For inhibitor concentration, 3.2.b should be covered first or incorporate this part of
3.2.a with 3.2.b.
To show that an inhibitor is competitive is difficult as separate reaction mixtures with
different concentrations of the substrate need to be made up.
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q4
Paper 32, June 2013, Q1
Explain Vmax and Km (great detail not required) before learners make notes. (W) (I)
(Basic)
o Show learners how to obtain Vmax and Km from a graph.
o Learners arrive at the idea that the enzyme is saturated with substrate at the
maximum rate of reaction, Vmax.
o Show learners how to obtain Km from a graph, the concentration of substrate that
enables the enzyme to achieve half the maximum rate of reaction, or half Vmax
Learners obtain (Vmax) and (Km) using one of the graphs constructed from their
practical work. (I) (Basic)
Extend learner understanding of Km by discussion or a worksheet providing some
information accompanied by questions. (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Explain that (Km) is the affinity of enzyme for its substrate.
o Allow learners to suggest that an enzyme with a low Km
has a high affinity for its substrate
needs a lower concentration of substrate to reach Vmax than an enzyme with
a high Km.
o Explain that an enzyme with a low Km is more likely to be saturated with
substrate in the normal conditions of substrate within a cell, so variations in
substrate will have less effect on the rate of formation of product.
o Ask learners to explain why an enzyme with a high Km is likely to vary its activity
more (i.e. the concentration of substrate becomes more important).
Learners sketch out two graphs to show the differences between an enzyme with a
high Km and an enzyme with a low Km
o Annotate graphs with explanations. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.worthingtonbiochem.com/introbiochem/substrate
Conc.html
25
Learning objectives
Learning resources
3.2.c
explain the effects of reversible
inhibitors, both competitive and noncompetitive, on the rate of enzyme
activity
Following class discussion, learners use resources to make notes and annotated
diagrams about enzyme inhibition. (I) (Challenging)
o Draw graphs of increasing substrate concentration with and without inhibitors.
Learners construct a summary table showing the differences between competitive
and non-competitive inhibition (include the different graphs). (I) (Challenging)
Extension activity: learners investigate and discuss the use of inhibitors as medicinal
drugs, including the different uses of competitive versus non-competitive inhibitors.
(G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/04
70003790/animations/enzyme_inhibiti
on/enzyme_inhibition.htm
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
3.2.d
investigate and explain the effect of
immobilising an enzyme in alginate on
its activity as compared with its activity
when free in solution
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 31: Enzyme control of
metabolic pathways.
Note
Irreversible inhibition and allosteric regulation could be worth mentioning briefly
when covering 3.2.c.
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Practical: Better milk for cats or similar protocol using a different enzyme.
o Discuss how immobilised enzymes are used in everyday applications. (W)
(Basic)
o Introduce the use of dipsticks containing glucose oxidase (useful for 14.1.k). (W)
(Basic)
Demonstrate the same enzymatic reaction using the enzyme free in solution.
Learners suggest the advantages of immobilising the enzyme rather than using it
free (not immobilised) and summarise with a comparison table. (W) (Challenging)
Extension practical: learners use immobilised yeast cells to investigate the
effectiveness of their sucrase or catalase enzymes. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you to interpret and compare graphical
and tabulated data for immobilised enzymes with free enzymes.
o Data extraction to compare both for the following factors: temperature; pH;
substrate concentration; inhibitor presence.
o Learners consider explanations of the differences between free and immobilised
enzymes, e.g. protective and stabilising effect of the alginate matrix; degradation
over time; active sites of immobilised enzymes may not all be available; time
taken for diffusion to occur; possibility of slightly altered active site shape when
immobilised, amongst others. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chemeng/BiotechEnviron/IMMOB/Immob.htm
http://www.scienceinschool.org/reposit
ory/docs/issue10_catmilk.pdf
http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/enztech/i
meconom.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.69-73
Siddiqui p.72-73
Bio Factsheet 148: Industrial uses of
enzymes.
Past Papers
Paper 32, June 2012, Q1 (b)
Paper 43, June 2011, Q2
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Note
Experiment and observation, a key concept, has increasingly been used to develop
biotechnological applications here learners can appreciate how biological systems
can be used to benefit humans in the everyday world.
Learners should know the method to prepare alginate beads.
v2.1 5Y02
26
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life
Recommended prior knowledge
Little prior knowledge is required but a basic knowledge of cell structure and practical knowledge of the light microscope would be helpful. The ability to carry out simple
mathematical calculations is required. Learners should understand kinetic theory (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/kt/basic.html is a good basic introduction). If
Unit 1, Biological molecules, is taught after this unit, some knowledge of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates is useful.
Context
Unit 1, Biological molecules, leads on to an understanding of the structure of cells and the functions of cell structures, including biological membranes. This unit deals
with topics that are fundamental to almost every area of study covered in the AS and A Level course. Cell structure, and the functions of the various organelles, will
reappear in numerous contexts. Learners should appreciate the key concept that cells are the basic unit of life and that all living organisms are composed of one or
more cells. Learners will need to be reminded, or taught, how to use a light microscope. An understanding of how substances are transported across membranes is
essential reference material for other topics in this syllabus, especially those covering plant and animal physiology.
Outline
Early on, learners are introduced to the use of the microscope in cell studies, including use of the graticule and micrometer to measure cells. Calculations of
magnification and actual sizes are included in this unit. This unit covers the two fundamental types of cell, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Details of cell structure are
studied, including the functions of organelles. The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure highlights how membranes can fulfil their roles. The role of the membrane
in cell signalling is introduced. The unit also covers the different mechanisms that enable the movement of substances into and out of cells.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 9% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
27
Learning objectives
Learning resources
1.1.d
explain and distinguish between
resolution and magnification, with
reference to light microscopy and
electron microscopy
Show images of both microscope types and agree more detail can be obtained
about cells / cell structure using microscopes. (W) (Basic)
Agree the meaning of magnification learners write a worded version and link this
later to the formula used in 1.1.c. Explain how the overall magnification is obtained
(eyepiece x objective lens). (W) (Basic)
Introduce resolution, explaining why the resolution of electron microscopes is much
higher than that of light microscopes (only enough detail of the workings of each to
help understanding of resolution). (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Explain that detail smaller than 200nm (approximately half the wavelength of
light) cannot be resolved by the light microscope. (W) (Challenging)
Explain that increasing magnification is only desirable up to the limit of resolution,
e.g. up to approx. x 1000 for the light microscope (electron microscopes vary
considerably).
Compare the TEM and SEM (no details of working required) and the micrographs
produced, so learners see the difference between, and usefulness of, both.
Learners suggest advantages and disadvantages of the two types of microscope.
(G) (Basic)
Learners observe a range of photomicrographs and electron micrographs and
explain which type of microscope was used to produce the image. If these have a
mixture of magnifications and scale bars on them, they can be used in 1.1.e. (G) (P)
(Basic)
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
llessons/#fesemsimulatie
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
/tutorials/cells/cells2.html
http://zeisscampus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basic
s/index.html
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
1.1.a
compare the structure of typical animal
and plant cells by making temporary
preparations of live material and using
photomicrographs
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Practical: learning how to use the light microscope. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Brainstorm knowledge of the plant cell structure and animal cell structure and
discuss cells as the units of life. (W) (Basic)
Learners construct a comparison table, generalised animal cell v generalised plant
cell, the first row containing simple labelled diagrams. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Practical: learners make a temporary preparation, check and give comments on
technique and slides made of peers. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Discuss the slides and compare with the constructed table (links to the ideas in
1.1.d). (W) (Basic)
Textbooks/Publications
King p.39-41
Bio Factsheet 75: Microscopes and
their uses in Biology
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (a)
Paper 22, June 2013, Q2 (b)
Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (a)
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.28-29
Note
This may be combined with 1.1.c and 1.1.e.
Diagram-drawing skills may be introduced here.
1.1.c
v2.1 5Y02
Revise the units of length commonly used during the course (see 1.1.c) with the
Practical booklet 1
28
Learning objectives
Learning resources
CD-ROM
Bioscope teaching and learning tool
for the skills required to use a
graticule and stage micrometer
successfully.
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Note
Discourage measuring in cm as many forget to multiply by 10 to convert to mm
before converting to m.
The eyepiece graticules can be fitted permanently into the eyepiece of the
microscope.
Inexpensive stage micrometer scale kits and eyepiece graticules can be obtained
from the Cambridge publications catalogue www.cie.org.uk/cambridgefor/teachers/order-publications
1.1.b
calculate the linear magnifications of
drawings, photomicrographs and
electron micrographs
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Hold up an apple, then drawings of the apple: at the same size = magnification x 1;
double the size = x 2; half the size = x 0.5. Discuss the mental calculation learners
have made to get the right answer.
o magnification = image size / actual size. (Group) (Basic)
Explain how to use scale bars to calculate magnification, emphasising that learners
should measure the scale bar length and not the image. (W) (Challenging)
Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you with images of varying stated
length (nm to mm) and with scale bars only. Use copyright-free images to prepare
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
ells/scale/
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
llessons/#fesemsimulatie
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
/tutorials/cells/cells2.html
http://zeisscampus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basic
s/index.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.20-22
Siddiqui p.42-43
Past Papers
Paper 31, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
Paper 33, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 35, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 12, Nov 2011, Q5
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (b)
Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (a)
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
Paper 31, June 2011, Q2 (c)
29
Learning objectives
Learning resources
1.2.b
recognise the following cell structures
and outline their functions:
cell surface membrane
nucleus, nuclear envelope and
nucleolus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or
Golgi complex)
mitochondria (including small
circular DNA)
ribosomes (80S in the cytoplasm
and 70S in chloroplasts and
mitochondria)
lysosomes
centrioles and microtubules
chloroplasts (including small circular
DNA)
cell wall
plasmodesmata
large permanent vacuole and
tonoplast of plant cells
Discuss how the actual sizes can be calculated using the rearranged formula to
calculate magnifications. (W) (Basic)
o Explain also how to use scale bars to calculate actual sizes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners calculate actual sizes from diagrams and the photomicrographs and
electron micrographs from 1.1.d using the given scale bar or magnification. (P)
(I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Learners tackle worksheets prepared by you with exam-style (differentiated)
questions to calculate actual sizes and magnifications (use past papers). (I) (H) (F)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Interactive session using diagrams and electron micrographs: agree descriptions of
the cell structures and discuss their functions.
o With reference to plant and animal cells, introduce the terms eukaryote and
eukaryotic, explaining the meaning of true nucleus. (W) (Basic)
Provide an overview of how different cell structures are linked, e.g. outline sequence
of events in protein production and secretion. (W) (Basic)
Learners identify particular cell structures and state their function using electron
micrographs and photomicrographs, at various magnifications. Include examples of
both plant and animal cells (names of cell types not required). (G) (P) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Learners label the cell structures on diagrams drawn from electron micrographs of
both plant cell and animal cells, and annotate each with a function. (F)
Note
Learners should understand (no definition required) that an organelle is a structure
within a cell that has a function.
Discuss the idea of the advantages of cellular compartments.
For mitochondria and chloroplasts see also 1.2.c.
Online
http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
Online
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/bonline/library/falk/CellStructure/cellStr
ucture.htm
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/inside
thecell/chapter1.html
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_mo
del.htm
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
ells/insideacell/
http://www.bscb.org/?url=softcell/index
http://cellpics.cimr.cam.ac.uk/
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM006.html
http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/not
ebook/index.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 4: Structure to function
in eukaryotic cells.
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)
Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)(e)
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
30
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Online
http://www.biologyinmotion.com/atp/ind
ex.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 129: ATPwhat it is,
what it does.
Note
This sets the scene for other learning objectives, e.g. 4.2.a, 12.1.a, 12.1.b, 13.1.f,
13.1.h and 15.1e, so do not be tempted to give too many details at this stage.
1.2.a
describe and interpret electron
micrographs and drawings of typical
animal and plant cells as seen with the
electron microscope
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
1.2.d
outline key structural features of typical
prokaryotic cells as seen in a typical
bacterium (including: unicellular, 1-
v2.1 5Y02
Emphasise that although cells are the basic unit of life, they can have different
structures depending on their function. (W) (Basic)
State that membranes range from approximately 5-9 nm thick and allow learners to
explain that the boundary of the cell /nucleus is only seen with the light microscope
because of the contrast (membranes are not visible). (W) (Challenging)
o Learners volunteer that detail such as membranes are visible using the electron
microscope. (W) (Basic)
From electron micrographs of different cell types, learners can identify:
o whether plant or animal, stating the features that enabled the choice,
o all the cell structures seen, adding labels and annotations.
(P) (I) (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Extension activity: learners compare electron micrograph images and drawings with
those obtained with the light microscope. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners construct a descriptive list of the additional features seen. (G) (P)
(Basic)
Online
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/tec
hniques/contrast.html
http://www.unimainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/works
hop/EM/EMAtlas.html
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
ells/insideacell/
Short answer test to revise plant and animal cell structural details. (F)
Linking to the key concept of cells as the units of life, explain to learners that there
are two fundamental types of cell: eukaryotic and prokaryotic.
o Explain how the term prokaryotic arose.
Online
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactcell
.htm
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria
/bacteria.html
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2012, Q2
Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (b)
31
Learning objectives
5m diameter, peptidoglycan cell
walls, lack of organelles surrounded by
double membranes, naked circular
DNA, 70S ribosomes)
Key concept
Cells as the units of life
o Discuss how the single cell comprising a unicellular organism will exhibit all the
characteristics that define life. (W) (Basic)
Build up a typical bacterial cell (example of a prokaryote) by introducing each key
structural feature in turn (e.g. overhead transparency overlays/PowerPoint slides).
(W) (Basic)
From 1.2.b, learners suggest functions of prokaryotic structures. (I) (Challenging)
Learners label a diagram, or draw a labelled diagram, of a typical bacterium /
prokaryote. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Annotate the diagram with an outline function. (H) (Basic)
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 73: The prokaryotic cell
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q4
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1
Note
Reference could be made to the bacteria responsible for cholera and TB (see Unit
5).
Archaea as prokaryotes are covered in Unit 7.
You could mention (to prepare for Unit 7), the kingdom Prokaryotae and the four
eukaryotic kingdoms, Fungi, Protoctista, Plantae and Animalia.
1.2.e
compare and contrast the structure of
typical prokaryotic cells with typical
eukaryotic cells (reference to
mesosomes should not be included)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Note
Mention to learners that mesosomes (in many textbooks) are now considered to be
artefacts from preparation for electron microscopy.
1.2.f
outline the key features of viruses as
non-cellular structures (limited to
protein coat and DNA/RNA)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
v2.1 5Y02
Outlining the key features of viruses for learners to produce annotated diagrams.
(W) (I) (Basic)
Learners investigate a range of viruses. (H)
o A follow-up discussion/debate about viruses as complex entities that do not fit
the cell theory of life (also applies understanding of the key concept of cells as
the units of life are viruses living organisms?). (W) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=52
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 107: Answering exam
questions cells
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2012, Q6 (c)
Note
Mention that some viruses have an additional outer envelope similar in nature to a
cell surface membrane (preparation for HIV in Unit 5).
32
Learning objectives
Learning resources
4.1.a
describe and explain the fluid mosaic
model of membrane structure,
including an outline of the roles of
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids,
proteins and glycoproteins
Learners make protein, cholesterol and phospholipid (mix of fatty acid tails both,
saturated and unsaturated or one of each) cut-outs from templates provided by you.
(H) (Basic)
Learners complete a short test to recall knowledge of phospholipids, proteins and
carbohydrates. Go through this and make links to membrane structure. (F)
(Challenging)
o For a phospholipid, use a symbolised or molecular model to point out the
hydrophilic phosphate head portion and the two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails
(fatty acid residues).
o Relate protein structure to the main membrane protein types e.g. enzymes
(globular); channel (lining of amino acids with hydrophilic R groups), etc.
o Describe carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins as chains of
sugar molecules.
Discuss the basic model to describe the structure of membranes, explaining that the
physical boundary is based on phospholipids. (W) (Challenging)
o Draw a line indicating a water/air boundary and a diagram of a symbolised
phospholipid. Learners suggest how phospholipids would behave if they were
spread as monolayer (tails in the air, heads in water).
o Discuss the behaviour of phospholipids immersed in water (spheres, heads out,
tails to centre, natural self-assembly).
o Highlight the idea of a fluid phospholipid bilayer forming a compartment (e.g.
cell/membranous organelle) and discuss which substances could cross the
hydrophobic core.
o Discuss the scattered (hence mosaic) proteins and their various overall roles,
e.g. enzymes, receptors for binding ligands, and the transport of polar molecules
and ions.
o Mention interspersed cholesterol molecules (lipids).
Learners use their cut-outs to build a section of a membrane, noting the larger gaps
when phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails occur within the bilayer. (P) (I)
(Basic)
Discuss and explain factors affecting membrane fluidity, including: the role of
unsaturated and saturated fatty acids; how cholesterol acts to regulate; temperature.
(W) (Challenging)
Learners label the different membrane components on a range of different diagrams
(prepared by you) of the fluid-mosaic model. (I) (Basic).
Learners make notes to explain why the fluid mosaic model is an appropriate term to
use. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/754-using-beetroot-inthe-lab
www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPa
ges/C/CellMembranes.html
http://www.wisconline.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?
ID=ap1101
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/fl
ashanimat/lipids/membrane%20fluidit
y.swf
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 8: The cell surface
membrane.
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q2 (a)
33
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Link the presence of glycolipids and glycoproteins to the cell surface membrane and
outline their roles. (W) (Basic)
Learners practise drawing a labelled diagram of a section of a membrane that can
be completed under exam conditions in 3-4 minutes. (I) (F) (Challenging)
o Learners can annotate with the roles of the components. (F)
Note
Learners should know the terms given in the notes in 2.3.d (Unit 1) to explain
transport of substances across the phospholipid bilayer or using membrane proteins.
4.1.b
outline the roles of cell surface
membranes including references to
carrier proteins, channel proteins, cell
surface receptors and cell surface
antigens
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
4.1.c
outline the process of cell signalling
involving the release of chemicals that
combine with cell surface receptors on
target cells, leading to specific
responses
Learners suggest and list the desired features of cell surface membranes. Explain
that there are some specialised cells that can engulf e.g. bacteria to introduce
phagocytosis / endocytosis. (W) (I) (Basic)
Brainstorm a list of materials/substances entering and leaving cells. (W) (Basic)
Learners give a written explanation of the role of phospholipids and proteins in
controlling the passage of substances across the cell surface membrane, making
reference to its partially permeable nature. (I) (Challenging)
Learners research and note the differences between carrier and channel proteins
(how they act to transport solutes across the membrane), and explain how
aquaporins increase the membrane permeability to water. (I) (Basic)
Question and answer session revising protein structure, discussing cell surface
receptors for learners to make notes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners suggest / research examples of ligands, e.g. hormones,
neurotransmitters. (I) (Basic)
Outline how glycoproteins and glycolipids can act as antigens (also in Unit 5). (W)
(Basic)
Learners write out a summary of this learning objective. (F)
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellm
embrane.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
K9847/
A reminder of cell receptors introduces the idea of cell signalling. (W) (Basic)
Learners draw one or more annotated diagrams to show the general sequence of
events occurring in cell signalling. (I) (Challenging)
Extension work: learners apply knowledge to specific examples. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/scienc
e-maths-technology/cellsignalling/content-section-0#
Past papers
Paper 22, June 2013, Q4 (c)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
v2.1 5Y02
34
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Only the fifth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the
processes of endocytosis and exocytosis
Learners refer to the list of substances that enter/leave cells (4.1.b)
o State that there is also unwanted entry of, e.g. bacteria.
o Discuss how the nature of the substance and its size will direct which
mechanism of transport across the membrane is used.
o Learners place each item on the list into the correct group: through the
phospholipid bilayer; through membrane proteins; neither (too large/bulk
transport). (W) (I) (Challenging)
Learners recall membrane fluidity and read about bulk transport across membranes.
(I) (Challenging)
o Explain pinocytosis and phagocytosis (see 11.1.a in Unit 5) as forms of
endocytosis.
o Learners draw diagrams showing the sequence of events involved in
endocytosis and exocytosis (revise Golgi vesicle formation).
o Point out that endocytosis and exocytosis are active (energy-requiring)
mechanisms of movement of substances across membranes.
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
Biochemical processes
4.2.a (v)
describe and explain the processes
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis (no calculations
involving water potential will be set)
describe and explain the processes of
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,
active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis (no calculations involving
water potential will be set)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
4.2.c
calculate surface areas and volumes of
simple shapes (e.g. cubes) to illustrate
the principle that surface area to
volume ratios decrease with increasing
size
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
4.2.a (i)
describe and explain the processes
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis (no calculations
involving water potential will be set)
v2.1 5Y02
Learners use cubes to build 'organisms' of the same shape, with different numbers
of blocks, and calculate surface area to volume ratios. (I) (Basic)
o Discuss the discovery that SA:V decreases as size of organism (same shape)
increases.
o Highlight the relative distances from the outside to the inside.
Textbooks/Publications
Biological Nomenclature. Explains the
terminology that should be used
when teaching osmosis.
Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential
Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Mechanisms in cells
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 165: Surface Area and
Volume.
Note
This serves as an introductory exercise before considering diffusion (4.2.a (i)).
Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the
processes of diffusion
Explain that diffusion is a passive (thermodynamic) method of movement across
membranes. (W) (Basic)
Learners write a definition, make bullet-pointed notes to expand and draw simple
diagrams. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
35
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Mechanisms in cells
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
4.2.d
investigate the effect of changing
surface area to volume ratio on
diffusion using agar blocks of different
sizes
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
4.2.b
investigate simple diffusion using plant
tissue and non-living materials, such
as glucose solutions, Visking tubing
and agar
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
4.2.a (ii)
describe and explain the processes
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/2518.
html
http://www.neiljohan.com/projects/biolo
gy/sa-vol.htm
Past Papers
Paper 35, Nov 2011, Q1
Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain
the processes of facilitated diffusion
Emphasise that facilitated diffusion is also a passive method of movement across
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
36
Learning objectives
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis (no calculations
involving water potential will be set)
describe and explain the processes of
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,
active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis (no calculations involving
water potential will be set)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
ew0/chapter2/
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Mechanisms in cells
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
4.2.a (iii)
describe and explain the processes
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis (no calculations
involving water potential will be set)
describe and explain the processes of
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,
active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis (no calculations involving
water potential will be set)
Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the
processes of osmosis (no calculations involving water potential will be set)
Remind learners that movement of water molecules by crossing the bilayer or via
aquaporins is passive. (W) (Basic)
Explain water potential. (W) (Challenging)
Learners define osmosis, make bullet-point notes and draw simple diagrams. (I)
(Basic)
Learners write a paragraph stating the similarities and differences between osmosis
and (passive) diffusion. (F)
Note
Terminology to use: partially permeable; water potential; solute potential; pressure
potential. Learners should ignore other terms that they come across such as
hypotonic and hypertonic, osmotic potential, etc.
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
Textbooks/Publications
Biological Nomenclature. Explains the
terminology that should be used
when teaching osmosis.
Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Mechanisms in cells
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
4.2.f
explain the movement of water
between cells and solutions with
different water potentials and explain
the different effects on plant and
animal cells
v2.1 5Y02
Recall the different permeabilities of the cell surface membrane, partially permeable
and cell wall, (freely- or fully-) permeable. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the terms that can be used to describe cells: plasmolysis / plasmolysed,
flaccid, turgid / turgidity and lysis / haemolysis.
Learners describe what happens when animal and plant cells are placed into
different external solutions at the same, lower and higher water potential than that of
Practical booklet 3
Online
http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/
plasmolysis.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/osmdia.
37
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
the cells. Diagrams drawn and explanation given in terms of osmosis and water
potential.
Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) with the cellular environment and
the external solutions identified only with values of water potential. (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Practical: learners use water and different concentrations of salt solutions to observe
onion cells and make high power drawings. (I) (Challenging)
Extension practical: as above, learners observe changes in red blood cells (use a
safe, acceptable source). Making estimates of cell numbers makes this a semiquantitative investigation. (I) (Challenging)
html
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology/cells-andorganelles/revise-it/movement
http://www.neosci.com/demos/101041_cell%20processes/Presentation
.html
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
ch%202%20%20getting%20in%20and%20out%2
0of%20cells.pdf
Past papers
Paper 52, June 2011, Q1
4.2.e
investigate the effects of immersing
plant tissues in solutions of different
water potential, using the results to
estimate the water potential of the
tissues
Learners immerse pieces of root or stem (e.g. potato tuber tissue) in sucrose
solutions of different concentrations. The water potential of the solution in which
there is no change in length or mass is the estimate of water potential of the tissue.
(I) (Basic)
Practical booklet 3 develops skills for Paper 3 (see Teachers practical notes),
followed up by Q1 in Paper 52, June 2011 (data interpretation).
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Practical booklet 3
Online
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/carrot.ht
ml#top
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/286-measuring-thewater-potential-of-a-potato-cell
Textbooks/Publications
King p.60-63
Siddiqui p.38, 40-43.
Past papers
Paper 52, June 2011, Q1
4.2.a (iv)
describe and explain the processes
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
osmosis, active transport,
endocytosis and exocytosis (no
calculations involving water potential
v2.1 5Y02
Only the fourth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the
processes of active transport
Discuss examples of active transport to show why it is necessary to transport
substances against the concentration gradient. (W) (Basic)
Learners make notes on active transport, including the role of membrane (carrier)
proteins. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
38
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Mechanisms in cells
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
transport mechanism
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
active
passive
passive
diffusion
facilitated
diffusion
bulk
transport
endocytosis
phagocytosis
v2.1 5Y02
active
transport
exocytosis
pinocytosis
39
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should have covered cell structure in Unit 2. Building on the key concept of cells as the basic unit of life, they should be familiar with the terms unicellular and
multicellular and know the definition of a tissue. Knowledge of the cell structures involved in protein synthesis and in mitotic cell division is essential so that learners
understand where and when the biological processes described in this unit occur. The role of enzymes in biological processes should be appreciated.
Context
This unit brings together important ideas from Units 1 and 2. Eukaryotic cells can divide by mitosis and meiosis. Cells arising as a result of mitosis are genetically
identical to each other and their parent cell, owing to faithful DNA replication during the cell cycle. DNA transcription and translation occurs during the cell cycle and
results in protein synthesis. Learners will have studied the structure of nucleic acids and proteins and will know the cell structures involved in protein synthesis. DNA as
the molecule of heredity, a key concept, contains coded information for the synthesis of proteins. The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in a cell
and is a concept that works at a molecular level to help explain the more general statement that the nucleus controls the cells activities. Mitotic division by stem cells
allows multicellular organisms to develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation. Malfunctioning of cells may cause uncontrolled growth and
division and lead to tumours, or could cause the early death of cells. An understanding of the processes involved in the cell cycle will underpin later studies of genetic
control and detailed knowledge of mitotic division will facilitate understanding of the events occurring in meiotic division, studied later in the scheme of work.
Outline
This unit covers the mitotic cell cycle and begins with detail of the structure of chromosomes. After gaining an overview of the cell cycle, DNA replication by the semiconservative mechanism is tackled as part of late interphase of the cell cycle and then consideration is given to the importance of mitosis to unicellular and multicellular
organisms. Stem cells are introduced and an explanation of how uncontrolled division can lead to tumours is given. To aid understanding of the events occurring during
mitosis, especially of chromosome behaviour, learners also have the opportunity to study cells in stages of mitosis in prepared or temporary slides. The unit finishes
with a molecular definition of a gene and a gene mutation, and provides detail of DNA transcription and translation, which gives learners further insight into processes
occurring during interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 7% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
40
Learning objectives
Learning resources
5.1.a
describe the structure of a
chromosome, limited to DNA, histone
proteins, chromatids, centromere and
telomeres
State that the structure of chromatin alters during the cell cycle and explain that in a
non-dividing cell, chromatin is in its least condensed state. (W) (Basic)
o Learners describe a chromosome in a non-dividing cell or a cell in interphase as
a molecule of DNA complexed with histone protein.
o Remind/explain that the length of DNA in a chromosome is organised into
functional units, genes.
Learners draw and annotate a chromosome at prophase/metaphase to include two
sister chromatids, the centromere and telomeres
o Learners write a paragraph to explain that an identical sister chromatid is formed
before cell division. (W) (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners find out more about euchromatin and heterochromatin. (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/07how-dna-is-packaged-basic.html
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics
/chromosome
Explain that only some cells carry out mitotic cell division (most remain in the
interphase state) and one mitotic cell cycle results in two cells, following a nuclear
division (mitosis) and a cell division. (W) (Basic)
Learners research and produce an outline, annotated diagram of a cell cycle. (I)
(Challenging)
o Include the two main phases, interphase and a mitotic phase and note that the
timing of cell division is controlled by a number of genes.
o Indicate that DNA replication takes place in late interphase and that protein
synthesis occurs throughout interphase.
o Indicate that cell growth occurs in interphase.
o Include for the mitotic phase (mitosis) the main stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase and also indicate cytokinesis following telophase.
Add background information, e.g. cytokinesis only takes place if new cells are to be
formed (without cytokinesis a multinucleate cell is formed); notes on the G1, S and
G2 phases (use a key to indicate background information only).
Learners label incomplete diagrams (prepared by you). (F)
Introduce and give a general outline of stem cells (for 5.1.e), explaining that they
divide to become more stem cells and cells that differentiate.
o Discuss the location of stem cells in the bone marrow and within epithelial tissue
(describe this as lining or surface tissue).
o For plants, use the terms meristem, meristematic and cambium and discuss
locations within plants where this tissue occurs. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.ht
m
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
5.1.c
outline the cell cycle, including
interphase (growth and DNA
replication), mitosis and cytokinesis
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
6.1.c
v2.1 5Y02
Revise 5.1.a and 5.1.c so learners understand the need for interphase
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q1
Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (c)
Online
41
Learning objectives
describe the semi-conservative
replication of DNA during interphase
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
chromosomes (and hence DNA) to replicate before mitosis occurs. (W) (Basic)
Learners match events/descriptions (printed on strips of card) to unlabelled
diagrams of semi-conservative replication to correctly describe the sequence of
events that occur in the process (youll need to prepare this in advance). (P) (I)
(Challenging)
o Ensure learners are clear about the role of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase and
the concept of activated nucleotides.
o Include a description pointing out that replication occurs in opposite directions for
each strand.
Learners explain what is meant by (define) semi-conservative replication. (I) (Basic)
Learners use their cut-outs of DNA nucleotides to simulate DNA replication.
o Use very short sections of double strands, separate them to show the template
strands and build up the two complementary strands. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Extension: simulate as it occurs one strand built-up in one direction as a
continuous process and the other in Okazaki fragments (not required
knowledge). (P) (I) (Challenging)
Discuss how this process allows for faithful replication to produce identical DNA
molecules and hence genetically identical sister chromatids, ready for mitotic cell
division. (W) (Basic)
Learning resources
http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/047
1393878/student/animations/dna_repl
ication/index.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0072437316/120
076/bio23.swf
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G
G/dna_replicating.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 207: How science
works: Meselson and Stahls classic
experiment.
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Note
The Meselsohn and Stahl investigation is not required learning but learners could be
given the information to test application of knowledge and understanding.
The poster (from Unit 1, DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance) should remain
visible as this unit is covered.
5.1.d
outline the significance of telomeres in
permitting continued replication and
preventing the loss of genes
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that DNA replication results in loss of a short section of the ends of the
chromosome and that telomeres are made from repeating sequences of nucleotides.
(W) (Basic)
Learners suggest how telomeres are useful, with a follow-up outline of their role
discussed and notes made: (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Telomeres serve to prevent the ends of chromosomes from being degraded.
o Without telomeres the ends would appear damaged to the cells repair
machinery so they prevent the ends from being joined to the ends of other
chromosomes.
o Telomeres protect genes and the integrity of the genetic material and allow
continued replication.
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
hromosomes/telomeres/
42
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Extension: learners investigate the shortening of telomeres with age and the role of
telomerase. (I) (Challenging)
5.1.b
explain the importance of mitosis in the
production of genetically identical cells,
growth, cell replacement, repair of
tissues and asexual reproduction
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
5.1.e
outline the significance of mitosis in
cell replacement and tissue repair by
stem cells and state that uncontrolled
cell division can result in the formation
of a tumour
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/replication-and-distribution-of-dnaduring-mitosis-6524841
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC256985/pdf/03-10043_p214.pdf
http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/c
ollection/
Learners research examples, e.g. the repair of damage to intestinal epithelial cells,
replacement of old cells in the gas exchange system. (I) (Basic)
o Extend learning to discuss how cells that are structurally and functionally the
same need to be genetically identical. (W) (Basic)
o Remind learners that all cells in the body have the same set of instructions and
explain that control of cell function is by the organised switching on of relevant
genes. (W) (Challenging)
Explain (see 5.1.c) that the timing of cell division is under genetic control; an
alteration in a gene could lead to the cell dividing uncontrollably to form a tumour
an example of how a cell malfunctioning upsets the delicate balance. (W)
(Challenging)
Learners sequence a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing changes that occur
to result in a tumour (should include an abnormal mass from which two arrows
emerge to a benign growth and a cancerous (malignant) growth (see Unit 5). (I)
(Basic).
o Following research, learners add brief annotations to the diagrams. (H)
(Challenging)
o Extension: learners research differences between the two types of tumour. (I)
Online
http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/pag
es/basics4.aspx
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info
/stem_cell/
http://science.education.nih.gov/supple
ments/nih1/cancer/guide/guide_toc.ht
m
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (b)
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
43
Learning objectives
Learning resources
(Challenging)
Extend 5.1.c to discuss the statement: "Stem cells allow multicellular organisms to
develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation. (W) (G)
(Challenging)
Extension: learners investigate biotechnological applications, e.g. the use of adult
stem cells in research and therapy. (I) (Challenging)
5.2.a
describe, with the aid of
photomicrographs and diagrams, the
behaviour of chromosomes in plant
and animal cells during the mitotic cell
cycle and the associated behaviour of
the nuclear envelope, cell surface
membrane and the spindle (names of
the main stages of mitosis are
expected)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
5.2.b
observe and draw the mitotic stages
visible in temporary root tip squash
preparations and in prepared slides of
root tips of species such as those of
v2.1 5Y02
Demonstrate using a model of a cell (2n=4) (2 short and 2 long pipe cleaners =
chromosomes; cell surface membrane and nuclear envelope = string). (W) (Basic)
o Model the events as a continuous process.
o Model replication by attaching a second pipe cleaner to the first. Simulate
nuclear envelope disassembly by cutting the string into smaller lengths.
o Cytokinesis should be described for both animal and plant cells.
o Learners describe and make suggestions as to why various events occur. (W)
(Basic) (Challenging)
From a list (prepared by you), learners match an event that occurs in relation to the
spindle fibres and spindle (centrioles in animal cells only) to the behaviour of the
chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle. (W) (Basic)
Learners work with their own models and talk through each stage. (P) (Challenging)
Learners make annotated diagrams of stages in mitosis. (I) (Challenging)
Learners practise identification of the stages and description of events using a range
of photomicrographs and diagrams of both plant and animal cells. (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Learners sequence images of a cell at various stages during the cycle, naming the
stages and noting chromosome behaviour. (F)
CD-ROM
Bioscope has material which covers
this
Online
http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/not
ebook/courses/guide/movie/mitosis.ht
m
http://faculty.nl.edu/jste/mitosis.htm
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
/tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/animation__control_of_
the_cell_cycle.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 76: The eukaryotic cell
cycle and mitosis
Note
Condensation/coiling of DNA to form the prophase chromosome can be simulated
by taking a very long piece of thin wire that is then wrapped round a pencil (which is
removed) to make a coiled, string-like structure that is now much shorter, fatter and
more visible.
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (c)
Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (a)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)
Learners draw from a prepared slide a plan diagram of a root tip to indicate: the root
cap; meristematic area (zone of cell division); zone of elongation (expansion); and
zone of differentiation. (I) (Basic)
Learners identify, draw and annotate cells (high power) in all stages of mitosis. (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/micropolitan/index.html
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/552-floating-garlic-
44
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners prepare a root tip squash (e.g. garlic or onion root tips with acetic orcein or
toluidine blue) and examine their slide and those of others for stages of mitosis. (G)
(I) (Basic)
Learners use the eyepiece graticule by measuring the relative length and width of
chromosomes and cells. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners use the calibrated eyepiece graticule to measure the size of
chromosomes in m. (I) (Challenging)
Extension: learners investigate why each step of the procedure in the root tip squash
preparation is necessary. (I) (Challenging)
growing-rootshttp://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/288-investigatingmitosis-in-allium-root-tip-squash
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/109-staining-a-roottip-and-calculating-its-mitotic-index
Learners recall primary structure and a polypeptide (Unit 1) and suggest a definition
of a gene from previous learning objectives.
o Refer to the DNA as the ideal molecule poster and ensure learners understand
the idea of the term coded (see 6.2.c, 6.2.d). (W) (Basic)
o Discuss the fact that the sequence of nucleotides comprising a gene codes for
the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic)
Background discussion/extension research about the human genome project. (W) (I)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Online
http://evolutionlist.blogspot.co.uk/2006/
10/new-definitions-of-gene.html
http://www.sanger.ac.uk/
http://www.yourgenome.org/
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
6.2.a
state that a polypeptide is coded for by
a gene and that a gene is a sequence
of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA
molecule
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
6.2.b
state that a gene mutation is a change
in the sequence of nucleotides that
may result in an altered polypeptide
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
King p.236, 207, 209
Siddiqui p.79-81.
Note
If learners query the origin of RNA, explain that there are genes that code for tRNAs
and rRNAs and that mRNA is an intermediate molecule in producing the
polypeptide. (W) (Basic).
For A Level, learners should understand that these proteins, including enzymes, will
ultimately allow development and control of cells and hence organisms (i.e. they
determine the nature of organisms).
After learners write this definition, use question and answer to recall (from Unit 1)
that primary structure determines secondary and tertiary structure, which then
determine the shape and shape of, e.g. active site, specific channel, receptor site.
This determines the function of the protein. (W) (Basic)
Stress to learners that the gene is responsible for a particular feature, trait or
characteristic and that a mutation is just an alternative form of the gene, an allele.
(W) (Basic)
Online
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutati
onsanddisorders/genemutation
http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/gener
al/var/var_3.shtml
Note
45
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Online resources may be best understood after learning about the genetic code and
transcription and translation
Learners do not need to define an allele at this point, see 16.2.a.
6.2.c
describe the way in which the
nucleotide sequence codes for the
amino acid sequence in a polypeptide
with reference to the nucleotide
sequence for HbA (normal) and HbS
(sickle cell) alleles of the gene for the
-globin polypeptide
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection
Online
http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/gener
al/proteins/proteins_2.shtml
http://www.kumc.edu/gec/
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3H
VVi2k2No
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (b)(c)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
Paper 21, Nov 2013, Q5
Note
Learners should also be able to use the sequence on the non-template strand to
work out the amino acid sequence (using the DNA triplet table)
The sickle cell -globin polypeptide and sickle cell anaemia also occur in Units 5 and
7.
It is a common error for learners to state that DNA is a chain of amino acids. When
learners guess or are given incorrect matches, many will learn the incorrect match,
so only reinforce the correct relationship between nucleotides and DNA / RNA, and
between amino acids and protein.
6.2.d
describe how the information in DNA is
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/
46
Learning objectives
Learning resources
molecules/transcribe/
http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_
d/templates/student_resources/share
d_resources/animations/protein_synt
hesis/protein_synthesis.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/dna/
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 22: Protein synthesis I
nucleic acids
Bio Factsheet 49: Protein synthesis II
mechanisms
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q3 (c)
Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (d)
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (c)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
Note
TransCription comes before transLation alphabetically as well as in protein
synthesis.
With website animations, check the level of detail before recommending to learners.
v2.1 5Y02
47
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange
Recommended prior knowledge
Knowledge of cell structure, as covered in Unit 2, will enable learners to apply knowledge to cells involved in transport and gas exchange. An understanding of
diffusion, osmosis and active transport from Unit 2 is required, including confidence in understanding the movement of water in terms of differences in water potential.
Learners will need to have an understanding of haemoglobin structure and of hydrogen bonding between water molecules from Unit 1. It will be helpful if learners have
acquired basic knowledge of the mammalian circulatory system in previous studies.
Context
This unit extends the key concept of cells as the units of life by looking at the way in which cells and tissues of plants and mammals, multicellular organisms, are
provided with their requirements and how humans, as multicellular organisms, exchange gases in the lungs. The unit builds on learner knowledge of cell structure and
movement into and out of cells and highlights the importance of water as a transport medium. The work on blood in this unit leads into the immunity section in Unit 5.
Much of this unit lays the foundations for further work on physiology at A Level. In Unit 9, learners will study the way in which oxygen is used by cells for the
biochemical process of aerobic respiration, and how carbon dioxide is produced as a result of this process.
Outline
The topic of transport in plants is introduced by improving learner knowledge of plant anatomy and histology and their understanding of the relation between the
structure and function of transport tissues. Details of transport of water and minerals are covered, including a consideration of the factors affecting the rate of
transpiration, which gives learners the opportunity to carry out investigative practical work. Adaptations of organisms to their environment are exemplified by reference
to xerophytes. The transport of assimilates by phloem tissue is also covered. The topic of mammalian transport is introduced by considering the meaning of a closed
double circulation and then progresses to structure and function of the blood vessels, blood and heart. A comparison of blood, tissue fluid and lymph is made. The
carriage of respiratory gases is covered, which includes revisiting the structure and function of haemoglobin from Unit 1. Detail of gas exchange at the alveolus is
covered. The gross and fine structure of the human gas exchange system will allow learners to see the link between structure and function. Learners will make
comparisons in this unit, for example between xylem and phloem tissue, between an artery and vein, between blood, tissue fluid and lymph, and between the two sides
and upper and lower chambers of the heart .There are many good opportunities within this unit for learners to improve their microscope handling, observational and
diagram-drawing skills, and to develop manipulative and dissection skills if they choose to dissect a mammalian heart.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 14% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
48
Learning objectives
Learning resources
7.1.a
draw and label from prepared slides
plan diagrams of transverse sections
of stems, roots and leaves of
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants
using an eyepiece graticule to show
tissues in correct proportions
(see 1.1.c)
Revise a simple diagram of a plant: leaves and petioles, stem, (soil level), root(s)
and piliferous / root hair region. (W) (Basic)
o Explain the difference between: tissue and organ; transverse and longitudinal
sections (TS and LS).
o Explain what is meant by a herbaceous (i.e. non-woody) dicotyledon.
Discuss tissue distribution in leaves, roots and stem sections by projecting an
electronic image onto a screen. (W) (Basic)
o Learners see what they should observe later using the microscope (revise use).
o Describe how to draw the image as a plan diagram.
Learners identify tissues (especially the distribution of the vascular tissue) and make
plan diagrams (low power) from slides of TS of a leaf, stem or root (dicotyledonous
plants e.g. Ranunculus and Ligustrum), using the eyepiece graticule to gauge the
correct proportions. (I) (Challenging)
Learners draw labelled diagrams of stem and leaf sections and construct a table
comparing the two; similarities run across the columns, differences in separate
columns. (I) (Challenging)
CD-ROM
Bioscope
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Note
Learners should be able to recognise: epidermis, endodermis, mesophyll, xylem,
phloem, cambium, cortex, pith.
High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications
7.1.b
draw and label from prepared slides
the cells in the different tissues in
roots, stems and leaves of herbaceous
dicotyledonous plants using transverse
and longitudinal sections
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Learners observe slides showing LS. An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer
can be used for measurement. (I) (Challenging)
Learners draw and label individual cells under high power (from TS and LS slides).
(I) (Challenging)
Extension: learners practise using the eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to
estimate actual dimensions of the cells. (I) (Challenging)
Background: discuss briefly differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
(W) (Basic)
An extension discussion: outlining the anatomical transition in the area where the
root becomes the stem.
Note
High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue
v2.1 5Y02
Online
University biology department and
microscope manufacturer websites,
e.g.:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
http://images.botany.org
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q3
Paper 35, June 2011, Q2
Paper 31, June 2011, Q2
Paper 34, June 2011, Q2
Paper 33, June 2013, Q2
CD-ROM
Bioscope Superb slides and learning
tasks, including chloroplasts in
Elodea, a variety of leaf sections,
including sun and shade leaves.
Online
University biology department and
microscope manufacturer websites,
e.g.
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
llessons/leaf/
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
49
Learning objectives
Learning resources
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
http://images.botany.org/
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
7.1.c
draw and label from prepared slides
the structure of xylem vessel elements,
phloem sieve tube elements and
companion cells and be able to
recognise these using the light
microscope
Use photomicrographs and diagrams to illustrate and discuss, with teacher prompts,
the structure of xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements and companion
cells. (G) (I) (Challenging)
Learners add annotations to labelled diagrams of these three cell types. (F)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
CD-ROM
Bioscope useful for this section.
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissues.html
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids, vessels
and sieve tubes
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
7.2.a
explain the movement of water
between plant cells, and between them
and their environment, in terms of
water potential (see 4.2. No
calculations involving water potential
will be set)
v2.1 5Y02
Provide learners with an overview diagram of the movement of water down a water
potential gradient from soil to air. (W) (Basic)
o Learners add given numerical values of water potential to the different locations,
for comparison, and annotate the diagram. (I) (Challenging)
Learners recall osmosis and the concept of water potential.
o Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) containing examples of
adjacent cells / cells and their environment with water potential values. Learners
work out and explain which way water will flow. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
transpiration.swf
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 225: Synoptic biology:
water potential.
50
Learning objectives
Learning resources
From a diagram, learners suggest how a root hair cell is adapted for water and
mineral ion uptake (e.g. large surface area, lack of cuticle, thin cell walls, membrane
transport proteins, mitochondria). (W) (G) (Challenging)
Learners suggest how mineral ions are taken up by the root hair cell. (W) (Basic)
Learners research the most important mineral ions that are required, giving reasons.
(H)
Ensure that learners know the difference between the apoplastic pathway and
symplastic pathway (include the vacuolar pathway).
o Agree that osmosis is not involved in the apoplast pathway (no membranes).
o Use a model to explain why water has to take a symplastic pathway at the
endodermis (suberised Casparian strip).
o Learners use arrows and labels to show the different pathways on diagrams and
annotate, using the terms water potential and water potential gradient. (W) (I)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Learners stand small plants (intact root systems, soil washed off) in dye (e.g. eosin)
for 10-30 minutes, then cut thin sections to investigate the distribution of the dye and
show the position and continuous nature of xylem vessels (the dye collects in the
leaf as water is lost by transpiration). (I) (Challenging)
Learners use cut petioles of variegated leaves to make sections and observe xylem
tissue. (P) (I) (Basic)
Discuss briefly the concept of root pressure (outline only). (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.ht
ml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007353224
x/788092/Water_Uptake.swf::Water%
20Uptake
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
7.2.c
describe the pathways and explain the
mechanisms by which water and
mineral ions are transported from soil
to xylem and from roots to leaves
(include reference to the symplastic
pathway and apoplastic pathway and
Casparian strip)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
flowering plants
Bio Factsheet 108: Water movement
across the root
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
Note
Root hairs can be seen clearly on newly-germinated seedlings, such as mung
beans, if these are grown on damp filter paper or cotton wool.
Do not discuss the concept of capillarity.
Learners are better to explain water movement in terms of water potential gradients
to avoid confusion with mass flow in phloem.
7.2.b
explain how hydrogen bonding of
water molecules is involved with
movement in the xylem by cohesion-
v2.1 5Y02
Tackle cohesion-tension first: use a question and answer session to help learners
make the link between hydrogen bonding of water molecules (cohesive forces) and
the concept of transpiration pull. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the concept of adhesion. Remind learners that the attraction of water
Online
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_
Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_M
atter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properti
51
Learning objectives
Learning resources
molecules to the secondary cell wall of xylem vessel elements is mainly as a result
of hydrophilic cellulose (which is impregnated with lignin). (W) (Basic)
Learners write a paragraph explaining the difference between cohesion and
adhesion in the movement of water up the xylem. (F)
Learners research what is meant by a transpiration stream. (H) (Basic)
es/Intermolecular_Forces/Cohesive_
And_Adhesive_Forces
http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.ht
ml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html.
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007353224
x/788092/Water_Uptake.swf::Water%
20Uptake
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
flowering plants
Bio Factsheet 108: Water movement
across the root
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
7.2.d
define the term transpiration and
explain that it is an inevitable
consequence of gas exchange in
plants
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/T/Transpiration.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 64: Transpiration
Bio Factsheet 81: Gas exchange in
plants
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q3 (a)
52
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Practical booklet 6
Online
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virt
ual_labs/BL_10/BL_10.html
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/115-potometermeasuring-transpiration-rates
http://www.mikecurtis.org.uk/Potomete
r/potometer.html
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/299-measuringstomatal-densityTextbooks/Publications
King p.142-146
Siddiqui p. 140-144, 146-147
Note
Remind learners that potometers measure rates of water uptake only and that a cut
end of a stem is not the same as uptake via root hairs.
If a potometer is placed on a balance sensitive to small changes in mass, then it is
possible to measure water uptake and transpiration.
7.2.f
make annotated drawings, using
prepared slides of cross-sections, to
show how leaves of xerophytic plants
v2.1 5Y02
Explain the terms mesophyte, hydrophyte and xerophyte and discuss ways in which
plants can reduce their water loss. (W) (Basic)
Learners consider the mesophyte leaf and give comparative descriptions (e.g.
thicker waxy cuticle, fewer stomata per unit area of leaf, etc.) using diagrams of
CD-ROM
Bioscope has suitable images.
Online
53
Learning objectives
Learning resources
www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints
/biology/Xerophytes.ppt
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
7.2.g
state that assimilates, such as sucrose
and amino acids, move between
sources (e.g. leaves and storage
organs) and sinks (e.g. buds, flowers,
fruits, roots and storage organs) in
phloem sieve tubes
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
7.2.h
explain how sucrose is loaded into
phloem sieve tubes by companion
cells using proton pumping and the cotransporter mechanism in their cell
surface membranes
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 29: Plant and animal
adaptations to dry habitats
Bio Factsheet 84: Xerophytes and
hydrophytes
Online
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
Textbook/Publications
King p.146-147
Siddiqui p.135-136
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (b)(ii)
Online
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios10
0/lectf03am/sucrosepump.jpg
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (b)
ATP required
membrane impermeable to H+ so
54
Learning objectives
Learning resources
they cannot diffuse back in
down the electrochemical gradient
H+ and sucrose bind to the protein
(conformational change occurs)
via plasmodesmata
Note
Emphasise that the entry of sucrose into the phloem sieve tube is passive but the
whole process is sometimes described as active loading.
7.2.i
explain mass flow in phloem sap down
a hydrostatic pressure gradient from
source to sink
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Learners sort out cards (prepared by you) containing details such as below before
making notes. (P) (I) (Basic)
at the source, sucrose enters the phloem sieve tube
this lowers the water potential
this draws (extra) water into the sieve tube by osmosis
this increases the hydrostatic pressure
at the sink, sucrose leaves the phloem sieve tube
water follows osmotically
the hydrostatic pressure at the source is higher than at the sink
fluid / phloem sap moves from source to sink
down this pressure gradient
by mass flow
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/9834092339/student_vi
ew0/chapter38/animation__phloem_loading.html
Textbook/Publications
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem.
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Note
Learners should understand that phloem translocates soluble organic compounds.
7.1.d
relate the structure of xylem vessel
elements, phloem sieve tube elements
and companion cells to their functions
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
For xylem vessel elements, use diagrams to aid a structure to function discussion.
Recall the role of xylem in the transport of water and mineral ions and introduce the
need for lignification (see also 7.2.a) because of the tension created by the
transpiration pull.
o Learners suggest other functions of lignin and continue to provide other
examples of structure to function. (W) (Challenging)
CD-ROM
Bioscope useful for this section.
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissues.html
55
Learning objectives
Learning resources
http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
Note
It is now believed that protein strands are not present in living, functioning phloem
tissue.
8.1.a
state that the mammalian circulatory
system is a closed double circulation
consisting of a heart, blood vessels
and blood
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
Display an image giving an overview of the whole circulatory system and check that
learners can describe what is meant by pulmonary and systemic circulations. (W)
(Basic)
Use a question and answer session to determine that arteries carry blood away from
the heart and veins towards the heart. (W) (Basic)
Extension (useful for later studies): discuss names given to blood vessels serving
organs e.g. pulmonary + lungs; coronary + heart, hepatic + liver; renal + kidney. (W)
(Basic)
Learners make brief written notes explaining closed circulation and double
circulation. (I) (Basic)
Learners label diagrams of double circulation, including the heart chambers, the two
types of circulation and the names of the main blood vessels. (I) (Basic)
Learners describe the journey made by a red blood cell in one complete circuit of the
mammalian blood system. (H) (F) (Basic)
Extension: learners research and contrast the mammalian circulatory system with
organisms organised differently, e.g. insect, squid, fish and amphibians. Search
online for images of diagrams of insect, fish, amphibians and squid circulatory
systems. (I) (Challenging)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids, vessels
and sieve tubes
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (a)
Paper 22, June 2013, Q2 (a)
Online
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
size/pe/appliedanatomy/0_anatomy_
circulatorysys_rev1.shtml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html
56
Learning objectives
Learning resources
8.1.b
observe and make plan diagrams of
the structure of arteries, veins and
capillaries using prepared slides and
be able to recognise these vessels
using the light microscope
Gauge learner knowledge of the basic structure of arteries, veins and capillaries with
a brainstorming session before providing labelled diagrams. (W) (Basic)
Learners study photomicrographs of (muscular) arteries and veins (TS), and an
electron micrograph of capillaries. Learners label the layers and, with prompting,
annotate with details. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners observe prepared TS slides, and draw labelled plan diagrams. Practise
measurement using an eyepiece graticule. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Extension: learners investigate the elasticity of blood vessels by suspending weights
on sections of arteries and veins. (P) (Challenging)
Learners carry out research into other types of blood vessels, including elastic
arteries, arterioles and venules (stress this is not required learning). (H)
(Challenging)
Learners sort out statements (prepared by you) into three columns for each of the
three blood vessel types. (F)
CD-ROM
Bioscope has appropriate slides.
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Online
http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/vessels/vessels.
html
http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/circul
atory/arteries.php
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practi
cal-biology/elastic-recoil-arteries-andveins
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
VHTML/CVIDX.html
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.175-177
8.1.c
explain the relationship between the
structure and function of arteries, veins
and capillaries
Learners construct a table showing the relationship between structure to function for
each of the three blood vessel types. (I) (Challenging)
Learners label the layers on diagrams of an artery, vein and capillary in TS, and then
annotate to link structure to function. (F)
Online
http://nsb.wikidot.com/2-2-3-comparethe-structure-of-arteries-capillariesand-vein
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
57
Learning objectives
Learning resources
8.1.d
observe and draw the structure of red
blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils
and lymphocytes using prepared slides
and photomicrographs
Learners observe blood cells using the light microscope or use other images. (I)
(Basic)
o Learners draw labelled diagrams of the different cell types and make tables to
compare: red blood cells with white blood cells; monocytes with neutrophils. (I)
(Challenging)
Learners use resources to explain how the structural features of a red blood cell are
related to the function of oxygen transport. (I) (Challenging)
CD-ROM
Bioscope has appropriate images.
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Observation and experiment
Note
The terms erythrocyte and leucocyte should also be mentioned (not required
learning).
The function of the white blood cells and details of B-lymphocytes compared to Tlymphocytes are covered in Unit 5.
To help later understanding, explain that monocytes take on a different appearance
when they mature to become macrophages, and that these cells are usually in
locations other than blood tissue.
Online
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curricul
um/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6.htm
Textbooks/Publications
King p.120-122, 164-165
Siddiqui p. 179-182
Bio Factsheet 62: Animal tissues I
epithelia and blood
Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
function of blood and lymph
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (a)(b)
8.1.e
state and explain the differences
between blood, tissue fluid and lymph
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Brainstorm the composition of blood and discuss the need for exchange with cells.
(W) (Basic)
o Discuss how and why the concentrations of substances in blood, such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide and dissolved glucose, can vary. (W) (Challenging)
Explain how pressure changes from the arterial to the venous end of the capillary
network. Ask for suggestions, with reasons, as to which of the components would be
able to leave the network. (W) (Challenging)
Learners use resources to label and annotate a diagram of a capillary network,
including explanations of how tissue fluid and lymph are formed and arrows to show
direction of blood flow, formation of tissue fluid and formation of lymph. (I)
(Challenging)
o Learners add arrows of different colours or styles (use a key) to represent the
movement of substances such as dissolved glucose and amino acids, oxygen
and carbon dioxide. (I) (Basic)
Learners construct a comparative table of differences between blood, tissue fluid
and lymph. (H) (F)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
function of blood and lymph
Bio Factsheet 89: Tissue fluid
Bio Factsheet 171: Answering exam
questions: the formation and
drainage of lymph
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (b)
Note
Highlight the difference between blood and blood plasma.
v2.1 5Y02
58
Learning objectives
Learning resources
8.2.a
describe the external and internal
structure of the mammalian heart
Learners check their knowledge of the internal structure of the heart by adding as
many labels as possible to a diagram. Go through this, allowing learners to add any
missing e.g. tendinous cords and papillary muscles, sinoatrial node, atrioventricular
node and Purkyne tissue. (I) (Basic)
Show learners images of the external structure of the heart and agree labels. (W)
(Basic)
Learners match up a set of labels with a set of descriptions. (I) (Basic)
Learners practise adding labels, with descriptive features, to a range of internal and
external diagrams of the heart. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Learners study models of the heart or dissect a heart (or observe) obtained from
butchers, abattoirs or suppliers. (G) (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Heart models are useful for learners to get a 3-D understanding if dissection is
not carried out.
Online
http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
nimation.php?ani=321&cat=biology
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Dis
eases/hhw/hhw_anatomy.html
http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Context
s/See-through-Body/SciMedia/Animations-andInteractives/Label-the-heart
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
VHTML/CVIDX.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Note
Hearts obtained for dissection have often lost their blood vessels and some or all of
their atria. Obtaining heart and lungs may provide a more complete heart (useful for
the gross structure of the gas exchange system, studied later).
8.2.b
explain the differences in the thickness
of the walls of the different chambers
in terms of their functions with
reference to resistance to flow
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Learners complete a short test or sort statements into the correct order to remind
them about the pathway of blood in one complete circuit of the body. (F)
Explain that the differences in pressure between the left and right ventricles are
related to the ability to overcome resistance to flow by the blood vessels as blood
travels to the body tissues.
o Learners volunteer that there is a far lower resistance to flow in the pulmonary
circulation than in the systemic.
o Remind learners that the thicker the wall of a heart chamber, the more cardiac
muscle there is to generate force when it contracts.
Relate the thinner atrial walls (compared to the thicker ventricle walls) to the much
lower resistance that blood has to overcome to travel the short distance to the
ventricles. (W) (Basic)
Textbooks/Publications
King p.128-130
Siddiqui p.173-174
Bio Factsheet 35: Structure and
function of the mammalian heart
Online
http://www.physiologymodels.info/cardi
ovascular/arterioles.htm
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2013, Q6 (b)
Note
Pulmonary capillaries are very delicate (very small diameter) so an increase from
normal pressure of blood leaving the right ventricle increases the likelihood of damage.
v2.1 5Y02
59
Learning objectives
Learning resources
8.2.c
describe the cardiac cycle (including
blood pressure changes during systole
and diastole)
A discussion should switch the focus from a description of one complete circuit of
the body to one cardiac cycle.
o Remind learners that a decrease in volume of a heart chamber when the cardiac
muscle contracts means an increase in blood pressure within the chamber. (W)
(Basic)
o Associate the events occurring during one cardiac cycle to changes in blood
pressure , explaining that valves are pushed open and shut by differences in
pressure on either side. (W) (Challenging)
Learners produce a table describing the sequence of events (including the status
of the valves) occurring in one cardiac cycle and highlighting that both sides of the
heart contract and relax in unison: (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/eheart/h
uman.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/h
yper_heart1.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Learners annotate a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing the heart during one
cardiac cycle. (F)
Use OHP overlays / PowerPoint presentation to build up a graph showing the
pressure and volume changes on one side of the heart (left side is most commonly
shown).
o Add heart diagrams below the x-axis in the different stages of the cycle,
corresponding to the correct times on the graph.
o Learners volunteer explanations throughout. (W) (Challenging)
Learners annotate a pressure change graph describing the event in the cardiac
cycle that correlates to the change shown on the graph (including points at which
named valves open and shut). (I) (Challenging)
Learners practise extracting information and interpreting questions based on
pressure change graphs (prepared by you). (I) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
ECGs (not required learning), accompanied by explanations, may be given as stimulus
material in a question.
v2.1 5Y02
60
Learning objectives
Learning resources
8.2.d
explain how heart action is initiated
and controlled (reference should be
made to the sinoatrial node, the
atrioventricular node and the Purkyne
tissue, but not to nervous and
hormonal control)
Online
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/sanode.ht
ml
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/healthtopics/topics/hhw/
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 139: Answering exam
questions on the heart
Bio Factsheet 7: Comparing transport
in plants and animals.
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
Note
Wave of excitation or impulses are acceptable terms, not signal, wave, pulse,
message or nerve impulse.
Learners should understand that the wave of depolarisation spreads across the
network of cardiac muscle fibres to bring about systole, and that the fibres do not
fatigue (no other details of cardiac muscle required).
9.1.a
describe the gross structure of the
human gas exchange system.
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
Agree that the mammalian transport system carries the respiratory gases, oxygen
and carbon dioxide and contrast this with plant vascular tissue (not involved with gas
transport). Explain that the gas exchange system facilitates exchange with the
external environment. (W) (Basic)
Learners revise previous knowledge by labelling familiar structures on a diagram of
the human gas exchange system, using resources to complete labelling and add
annotations. (I) (Basic)
o Ensure learners know that the specialised gas exchange surface is the alveolus.
(I) (Basic)
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.183
61
Learning objectives
Learning resources
9.1.b
observe and draw plan diagrams of the
structure of the walls of the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
indicating the distribution of cartilage,
ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, smooth
muscle, squamous epithelium and
blood vessels
Online
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/Me
dEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM040.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
structure
cartilage
ciliated
epithelium
goblet cells
smooth
muscle
squamous
epithelium
Textbooks/Publications
King p.89-91
Siddiqui p.184-185
blood
vessels
trachea
bronchus
bronchiole
alveoli
Learners label diagrams of sections through the trachea, bronchus and bronchiole
and complete blank tables as above. (F)
Note
Learners should know the singular and plural: bronchus and bronchi; alveolus and
alveoli.
Explain that there are only a few goblet cells in the bronchiole (some textbooks may
state none are present) and discuss the reason for this, i.e. avoiding mucus
hindering gas exchange in the alveoli.
9.1.c
describe the functions of cartilage,
cilia, goblet cells, mucous glands,
smooth muscle and elastic fibres and
recognise these cells and tissues in
prepared slides, photomicrographs and
electron micrographs of the gas
exchange system
Discuss the reasons for the distribution of the various features within the gas
exchange system by explaining their functions. (W) (Basic)
Learners match statements: features with correct functions. (I) (Basic)
Reinforce learning by providing photomicrographs and electron micrographs for
learners to identify the features. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Learners give written explanations linking the presence / location of the features in
the different areas of the gas exchange system to their function. (F)
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/Me
dEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM040.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.89-91
Siddiqui p.184-185
62
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Discuss the roles of blood flow and ventilation in maintaining diffusion gradients for
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood.
o Incorporate a question and answer session so learners can apply knowledge of
the function of haemoglobin (Unit 1). (W) (Basic)
Learners draw and annotate diagrams with key features of the process, adding
arrows to indicate the direction of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. (I)
(Challenging)
Learners write a short account of how concentration gradients are maximised for
efficient gas exchange. (I) (Basic)
Learners produce a written description explaining gas exchange in terms of the
structure of the alveolus and capillary and diffusion across cell surface membranes.
(I) (Challenging)
o The account should make clear the difference between diffusion across alveolar
and capillary walls and diffusion across membranes.
Using a diagram of an alveolus and associated capillaries, learners give an account
of how the structure of the gas exchange surface is adapted for its function. (F)
Online
http://www.johnwiley.net.au/highered/in
teractions/media/Respiration/content/
Respiration/resp1a/frameset.htm
http://www.johnwiley.net.au/highered/in
teractions/media/Respiration/content/
Respiration/resp2a/bot.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 26: Gas exchange in
animals
Note
A common written error in examinations is to state that diffusion occurs across
epithelial cell walls or the cell walls of the capillary.
It is not sufficient to state that red blood cells take up oxygen: learners should refer
to oxygen uptake by haemoglobin in red blood cells.
8.1.f
describe the role of haemoglobin in
carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide
with reference to the role of carbonic
anhydrase, the formation of
haemoglobinic acid and
carbaminohaemoglobin (details of the
chloride shift are not required)
Use a question and answer session to revise haemoglobin structure (Unit 1) before
providing further details of oxygen binding and carriage and oxygen release. (W)
(Challenging)
With teacher prompting, learners construct a diagram summarising the carriage of
carbon dioxide by haemoglobin at the respiring tissue (ensure they understand that
the reverse happens in the lung tissue). (I) (Challenging)
o The labelled diagram to include the red blood cell, the endothelium with pores,
and the body cells.
o Discuss in stages, with learners adding information, the sequence of events
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=8
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulation/ci
rculationotes.htm#BLOOD
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
structure & function
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
63
Learning objectives
Learning resources
occurring.
Discuss the importance of carbonic anhydrase (recall enzyme knowledge), also
highlighting that haemoglobin is not the only protein found in red blood cells. (W)
(Basic)
Learners produce a written explanation of the events occurring in the: respiring
tissues, using a diagram as stimulus material; in the lungs. (H) (F) (Challenging)
Learners explain the roles of haemoglobin in the carriage of carbon dioxide in
buffering hydrogen ions and transporting carbon dioxide directly as
carbaminohaemoglobin. (I) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
Note
Learners should not describe oxygen binding to haemoglobin as bonding.
8.1.g
describe and explain the significance
of the oxygen dissociation curves of
adult oxyhaemoglobin at different
carbon dioxide concentrations (the
Bohr effect)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=8
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulation/ci
rculationotes.htm#BLOOD
http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/anim/
http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/quiz/
quiz07/7-7.html
http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/quiz/
quiz07/7-12.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
structure & function
Bio Factsheet 9: Oxygen dissociation
curves
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (d)
Paper 23, June 2011, Q4
64
Learning objectives
Learning resources
v2.1 5Y02
Learners make bullet-point notes after discussing how an increase in red blood cell
count is linked to an increase in haemoglobin, and how this compensates for the
lower saturation that occurs at high altitudes (hence ensuring that body tissues
receive sufficient oxygen). (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) to make comparisons of red blood
cell counts at different altitudes, including giving percentage changes. (H) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Extension: learners research the benefits to athletes of training at high altitude, or
investigate if communities who have always lived at high altitude are different to
others. (I) (H) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.sportsci.org/traintech/altitud
e/wgh.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 149: High altitude
biology
65
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease
Recommended prior knowledge
Some introductory knowledge of sickle cell anaemia would be useful, which may have arisen from additional information acquired when learning about sickle cell
haemoglobin in Unit 1, or about mutations in Unit 3. Also from Unit 1, an appreciation of protein structure to function will help when studying antibody structure and
function. Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure, the role of cell surface membrane receptors and the mechanism of endocytosis from Unit 2. They
should appreciate the difference between eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses. An understanding of how uncontrolled cell division may result in a tumour, studied in
Unit 3, is required. From Unit 4, learners should be familiar with the histology of the gas exchange system and have knowledge of white blood cells.
Context
Previous units have looked at living organisms on the molecular and cellular scale, before moving on to organs and systems. Disease is an outcome of the
malfunctioning of cells through altered biochemical processes. Infectious diseases show how humans interact with pathogens. These interactions are one component
of the key concept Organisms in their environment. A multicellular organism must organise, control and coordinate activities so that they have defence mechanisms
and can develop immunity from disease. A link is provided to another key concept, Natural selection, with a consideration of the development of antibiotic resistance by
bacteria. Learners are also introduced to monoclonal antibodies, one important aspect of biotechnology. Monoclonal antibodies are the result of observation and
experiment, which is a key concept.
Outline
An understanding is gained of what is meant by disease and what the differences are between infectious and non-infectious diseases. Learners are provided with
examples of non-infectious disease by learning more about sickle cell anaemia and considering how tobacco smoking affects the gas exchange and cardiovascular
systems. Five infectious diseases of global importance are studied in some detail: cause; transmission; prevention and control, including the use of antibiotics. The unit
continues with a consideration of the factors that influence the global patters of TB, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Smallpox is introduced as an infectious disease so that
learners can appreciate how vaccination programmes have helped to eradicate the disease. Penicillin is studied as an example of an antibiotic and learners then
progress to study antibiotic resistance and consider the steps taken to alleviate this problem. There are good opportunities within this unit for learners to develop their
skills in data analysis, particularly with respect to disease statistics. Natural and artificial immunity is studied, including the structure and function of antibodies. Learners
will be provided with more detail about phagocytes and the way in which they function to protect against disease. The events occurring during a specific immune
response are covered. A brief consideration is given to the outcome to the body when the immune system fails to work correctly, using myasthenia gravis as an
example. An account of the production of monoclonal antibodies and how they are used in the diagnosis of disease and treatment of disease is included. The unit
concludes with a study of vaccination and a comparison of the effectiveness of vaccination programmes in the prevention and control of the infectious diseases studied.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
66
Learning objectives
Learning resources
10.1.a
define the term disease and explain
the difference between an infectious
disease and non-infectious disease
(limited to sickle cell anaemia and lung
cancer)
Ask learners for their ideas for the definition of disease (see examples below).
o An abnormal condition affecting an organism, which reduces the effectiveness of
its function.
o An absence of one or more of physical, social and mental well-being. (W)
(Basic)
Learners name common infectious diseases and suggest the type of causative
organism, the pathogen (use both terms).
o Add examples to cover bacteria, viruses and fungi.
o Introduce protoctists as pathogens (causative pathogen of malaria) using simple
ideas (e.g. eukaryotes, many are unicellular, organisms not fitting into other
groups / kingdoms). (W) (Basic)
Learners give examples of non-infectious diseases.
o Ensure they include diseases of the gas exchange system (linked with tobacco
smoking) and sickle cell anaemia.
o Discuss the cause of sickle cell anaemia (see 6.2.c), Unit 3)). (W) (Basic)
Learners explain why lung cancer and sickle cell anaemia are not considered to be
infectious diseases.
Learners summarise discussions in a comparison table or in comparative sentences.
(I) (Basic)
Extension: learners research the term pathogen, e.g. a biological agent (e.g. a virus,
bacterium, fungus or protoctist) that causes disease and has proteins (foreign/nonself antigens) as part of its structure that are different from those of the human host.
Online
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in722
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
Natural selection
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 40: Disease and
defence
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(i)
Note
Germs as an alternative to pathogens is not acceptable.
A common error is to use the term disease rather than pathogen, e.g. the disease
enters cells or to name the disease instead of the pathogen e.g. malaria enters red
blood cells.
9.2.a
describe the effects of tar and
carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the
gas exchange system with reference to
lung cancer and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
v2.1 5Y02
In a question and answer session, learners explain why chronic bronchitis and
emphysema are also non-infectious diseases (in addition to lung cancer). (W)
(Basic)
Check learner knowledge of the terms carcinogen and carcinogenic. (W) (Basic)
Learners volunteer examples before projecting/showing the long list of carcinogens
in tobacco smoke. (W) (Basic)
o Explain that lung cancer may happen naturally, but the risk is increased by a
range of different environmental factors, identifying tar as a main causative
Online
http://www.lung.ca/diseasesmaladies/index_e.php
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/L
UNGHTML/LUNGIDX.html
http://www.ash.org.uk/information/facts
-and-stats
http://www.insidecancer.org/
http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancerca
67
Learning objectives
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
uses/geneticsandcancer/oncogenesa
ndtumorsuppressorgenes/oncogenes
-tumor-suppressor-genes-andcancer-mutations-and-cancer
http://www.who.int/en/
http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP
/Census/
http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer
stats/causes/genes/cancergenes/inde
x.htm
http://www.parliament.the-stationeryoffice.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/c
mhealth/27/9120907.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 104: Biological basis of
cancer.
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
Note
Explain the difference between a mutagen (an agent that increases the mutation rate
of DNA) and a carcinogen (an agent that can cause cancer).
To help make links to changes that occur in the gas exchange system, learners will
benefit from an outline of the signs and symptoms that the diseases share in
common and those that are characteristic for each disease.
9.2.b
describe the short-term effects of
nicotine and carbon monoxide on the
cardiovascular system
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.ash.org.uk/files/documents/
ASH_111.pdf
http://www.bhf.org.uk/
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/A
THHTML/ATHIDX.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
VHTML/CV005.html
68
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 218: Biology of risk
factors 1: Smoking
Bio Factsheet 37: Ischaemic
(coronary) heart disease (for
extension work)
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q6
Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q6 (b)
Note
The addictive effects of nicotine are not related to the cardiovascular system, so are
not required.
10.1.b
state the name and type of causative
organism (pathogen) of each of the
following diseases: cholera, malaria,
tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS, smallpox
and measles (detailed knowledge of
structure is not required. For smallpox
(Variola) and measles (Morbillivirus)
only the name of genus is needed)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
v2.1 5Y02
Explain the convention for naming the organisms: upper case (capital) letter for the
first letter of the generic name, lower case letter for the specific epithet. (W) (Basic)
You may wish to concentrate on one disease and work through 10.1.b to 10.1.e
before moving onto the next disease. Alternatively two to four learners work together
(lesson and homework), to research information about one disease and prepare a
presentation for the class, sharing notes. (G) (H) (Challenging)
o Learners then make learning notes on each of the five diseases. (I) (H) (Basic)
Learners research the required information and complete the first two columns of a
large summary headed table. (I) (H) (Basic)
Learners carry out a mix and match card exercise (prepared by you) with the name
of disease, type of causative organism/pathogen, name of causative organism /
pathogen. (F)
Online
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/tuberc
ulosis.html
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/choler
a.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM018.html
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q4 (a)
Note
69
Learning objectives
Learning resources
In their own handwriting learners should underline the species name, in print they
are in italics.
A brief discussion of the term species will help understanding (defined in Unit 6).
Learners should spell species names correctly.
For malaria, parasite will be seen in addition to pathogen.
10.1.c
explain how cholera, measles, malaria,
TB and HIV/AIDS are transmitted
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
Online
http://www.who.int/en/
http://www.who.int/research/en/
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=36
Note
Ensure learners know the difference between the causative organism of malaria, the
protoctist Plasmodium, and the mosquito vector, Anopheles.
10.1.d
discuss the biological, social and
economic factors that need to be
considered in the prevention and
control of cholera, measles, malaria,
TB and HIV/AIDS (a detailed study of
the life cycle of the malarial parasite is
not required)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.who.int/en/
http://www.who.int/research/en/
http://www.cdc.gov/
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q4
70
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Note
Learners should be aware that antibiotics can be antifungal.
10.1.e
discuss the factors that influence the
global patterns of distribution of
malaria, TB and HIV/AIDS and assess
the importance of these diseases
worldwide
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Online
http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/malaria_wo
rldwide/impact.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2
1728152
http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/ne
ws60/en/
Note
Display world maps showing the areas most affected by each disease.
10.2.a
outline how penicillin acts on bacteria
and why antibiotics do not affect
viruses
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.cellsalive.com/pen.htm
http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/g
roups/jdeacon/microbes/penicill.htm
http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/fox/antibio
tics1.htm
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/antimi
crobial.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.172-173
Siddiqui p.52
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2013, Q3 (b)
71
Learning objectives
Learning resources
antibiotics (e.g. Mast rings), or different concentrations of the same antibiotic, onto a
Petri dish with nutrient agar inoculated with non-hazardous bacteria (e.g. Bacillus
subtilis).
o Learners measure zones of inhibition created around the discs on the lawn of
bacteria and compare to determine the efficacy of each antibiotic (or antibiotic
concentration). (P) (I) (Challenging)
Learners write a paragraph explaining why antibiotics do not affect viruses (see Unit
2, viral structure), extending this to use HIV as an example. (I) (Challenging)
o Remind learners that there are anti-viral drugs effective against HIV. (W) (Basic)
10.2.b
explain in outline how bacteria become
resistant to antibiotics with reference to
mutation and selection
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
10.2.c
discuss the consequences of antibiotic
resistance and the steps that can be
taken to reduce its impact
v2.1 5Y02
Learners suggest changes in bacteria that could lead to the inactivation of penicillin.
(W) (Challenging)
o Ensure the discussion covers: mutations in genes lead to new proteins; the new
protein can be an enzyme; the enzyme can breakdown penicillin; hence
antibiotic resistance.
o Introduce beta lactamase (formerly penicillinase) as the enzyme.
o Mention that plasmids often carry genes for antibiotic resistance.
Learners suggest how new proteins could act in other ways to provide resistance,
e.g. membrane proteins pumping out antibiotics (efflux pumps) or inactivating them.
(W) (Challenging)
Learners recall why it is important to complete a course of antibiotics in the
treatment of TB.
o Discuss how the presence of antibiotic acts as a selection pressure, so resistant
bacteria (with a mutation) are selected for, and those that are killed are selected
against.
o Explain the different ways (vertical and horizontal transmission) that resistance
can be passed. (W) (Challenging)
Learners write a summary of the discussions. (F)
Online
http://www.hpa.org.uk/Topics/Infectiou
sDiseases/InfectionsAZ/Antimicrobial
Resistance/
http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/index.s
html
http://www.antibioticresistance.org.uk/
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology/evolution/reviseit/evolution-in-action
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/resant
imicrobial.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 100: Antibiotics and
antibiotic resistance
Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
bacteria.
Note
Two common errors: stating that resistance to the antibiotic develops in people, not
in bacteria; confusing resistance with immunity.
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
Learners cover this learning objective by researching a chosen bacterium that shows
multiple drug resistance and present their findings to the rest of the group.
o Points to consider in reducing impact: dosage; length of treatment; use of narrow
spectrum antibiotics; identify correctly the causative organism; hygiene and
aseptic conditions in areas such as hospitals; measures to reduce the impact of
Online
http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Pub
lications/bioscience_behind_superbu
gs.pdf
72
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
11.1.d
explain the meaning of the term
immune response, making reference to
the terms antigen, self and non-self
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
11.1.a
state that phagocytes (macrophages
and neutrophils) have their origin in
bone marrow and describe their mode
of action
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
Remind learners that all blood cells have their origin in the bone marrow (Unit 3,
5.1.c): stem cells) and that some mature elsewhere in the body.
o Learners recall that monocytes mature into macrophages, which are phagocytes
(see Note 8.1.d, Unit 4). (W) (Basic)
Learners draw annotated labelled diagrams of a neutrophil, a monocyte, and a
macrophage (arrow pointing from monocyte). Learners include a label to (Fc)
receptors that can bind to antibodies. (I) (Basic)
Explain that phagocytes can respond to isolated pathogens or to antibodies bound
to antigens of pathogens. (W) (Basic)
Learners sequence and label diagrams (provided by you) showing events occurring
during phagocytosis, recalling studies on endocytosis, the role of receptors and
function of lysosomes.
o Learners should know the term antigen presenting cell (APC). (I) (Basic)
CD-ROM
Bioscope has relevant images.
Online
http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curricul
um/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6.htm
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM001.html
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
STHTML/EM/EM002.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
73
Learning objectives
Learning resources
ew0/chapter3/animation__phagocyto
sis.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.164-165
Siddiqui p.181-182
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
11.1.b
describe the modes of action of Blymphocytes and T-lymphocytes
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss how the non-specific response of phagocytes to infection differs from the
specific response of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes, which each have different
modes of action. (W) (Basic)
Using a step-by-step teacher-prompted approach or by individual research, learners
draw an annotated flow diagram to show how specific B-lymphocytes respond
(humoral response):
o Recognition and binding of specific antigen.
o Activation/sensitisation followed by clonal expansion (mitotic division).
o Differentiation to produce (i) plasma cells that make antibodies in a primary
immune response and (ii) memory cells (see 11.1.e).
o There are important interactions with the T-lymphocytes response. (I)
(Challenging)
Discuss the similarity of the T-lymphocyte response (cell-mediated immunity) to the
humoral response, before outlining other key points.
o T-helper cells activation produces a clone of cells that release cytokines, which
stimulate and strengthen both the humoral response and macrophage response.
o T-killer (cytotoxic) cells activation produces a clone of cells that can directly kill,
for example, infected cells.
o Both types produce memory cells. (W) (Basic)
Learners choose to show the information in a flow diagram or with written notes. (I)
(Challenging)
Distinguish between receptors of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes that bind nonself antigen: for B-lymphocytes the receptor is immunoglobulin (slightly different to a
secreted antibody); the T-receptor recognises antigens displayed on the surface of
APCs (see T-helper cells) or infected or foreign cells (see T-killer cells). (W)
(Challenging)
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/B/B_and_Tcells.html
http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/i
mmune_disorders/biology_of_the_im
mune_system/acquired_immunity.ht
ml?qt=immune%20response&alt=sh
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G
G/antibodies.html
http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/H
EMEHTML/HEMEIDX.html
http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21001oo
a.htm
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q.1 (b)
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
74
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Extension: learners research the effect of active HIV in human T-lymphocytes (also
attacks phagocytes) and see the consequences of a reduction in numbers of white
blood cells (helps to explain why people with HIV/AIDS are prone to opportunistic
infections). (I) (Challenging)
Note
Refer to humoral and cell-mediated responses (not required knowledge) as learners
will see these terms in resources used.
11.1.e can be incorporated into this learning objective.
11.1.e
explain the role of memory cells in
long-term immunity
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Discuss why the presence of memory cells means that a secondary immune
response will be faster and stronger than a primary response. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest meanings for the term immunity and write out an agreed
explanation of immunity and long-term immunity.
Learners could draw and annotate a sketch graph showing antibody concentrations
against time during an immune response. (I) (Basic)
o Learners reproduce this graph at a later date, with more detailed annotations. (F)
Online
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immun
ology/tutorials/immunology/09t.html
Note
Encourage use of scientific terminology and explanations: phrases such as
remembers the disease and fights the disease are unacceptable.
11.1.c
describe and explain the significance
of the increase in white blood cell
count in humans with infectious
diseases and leukaemias
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
11.1.f
explain, with reference to myasthenia
gravis, that the immune system
sometimes fails to distinguish between
self and non-self
Online
http://www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/
managingyourcancer/newlydiagnose
d/understandingdiagnosis/labimaging
tests/bloodtests/bloodcounts/
Textbooks/Publications
Siddiqui p.182-183
Online
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/en
cy/article/000816.htm
https://www.mgacharity.org/information-mg
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
75
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Online
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
L/GG/ecb/antibody_molecule.php
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immun
ology/tutorials/antibody/structure.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/A/AntigenReceptors.
html
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2013, Q2
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q1
Note
Learners may be interested to know that antibodies are glycoproteins.
Mention the different antibody classes and refer to the term antitoxins (not required
learning) for interest.
There is potential confusion between antibodies and antibiotics apply error-free
learning.
11.2.b
outline the hybridoma method for the
production of monoclonal antibodies
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/M/Monoclonals.html
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/
molbio/MolLearners/01rakarnik/mab.
html
http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?rec
ord_id=9450&page=8
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q2
Note
v2.1 5Y02
76
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Explain that a sample of fluid taken from a person with an infectious disease could
contain both pathogen (with non-self antigens) and specific antibody. (W) (Basic)
Learners study a set of diagrams showing the steps occurring in a direct enzymelinked immunosorbent test (ELISA) and answer a set of questions that require
application of the principles of immune response and knowledge of monoclonal
antibody. (I) (Challenging)
o Extension: learners describe what is occurring in an indirect ELISA test for the
presence of circulating specific antibody. (I) (Challenging)
Learners research one example of the use of monoclonal antibody in the treatment
of disease and present their findings to the class. (H) (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
Learners do not need to know the term ELISA or the details of the test.
Online
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/mon
oclonalantibody/CA00082
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/imm
unology/vlab.html.
http://web.archive.org/web/200803290
02645/http://www.molecular-plantbiotechnology.info/hybridoma-andmonoclonal-antibodies-mabs/uses-ofmonoclonal-antibodies.htm
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/pregtest.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 112: Monoclonal
antibodies
Bio Factsheet 219: Monoclonal
antibodies: An update
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
11.2.d
distinguish between active and
passive, natural and artificial immunity
and explain how vaccination can
control disease
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss the principles behind passive immunity before learners produce an account
explaining why (i) passive immunity is immediate but short-lived and active immunity
is delayed but longer-term, and (ii) passive immunity does not produce memory
cells whereas active immunity does. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Learners draw an annotated version of the immune response curve to show how
vaccines act to give immunity. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.spmsd.co.uk/cat.asp?catid=
9
http://www.polioeradication.org/
http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/pol
io/en/
77
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Learners construct a summary chart, leaving enough room to add features and
examples to show the differences between the categories, or, the chart of immunity
is divided into active and passive, each divided into natural and artificial. (I) (Basic)
Immunity
Natural
Active
Passive
Artificial
Active
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 99: Vaccines
Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
bacteria.
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q6
Passive
Discuss briefly how vaccination can provide immunity to avoid the spread of disease.
Include the term herd immunity. (W) (Basic)
Extension (highly relevant): learners access current information on the programme
to eradicate polio.
11.2.e
discuss the reasons why vaccination
programmes have eradicated
smallpox, but not measles,
tuberculosis (TB), malaria or cholera
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
Discuss the features that contributed to the success of the smallpox vaccination
programme, which was considered the main factor in the eradication of the disease.
(W) (Basic)
o Learners contribute information about the progress of vaccination programmes
for the other diseases. (W) (Basic)
Working in groups of four, each member researches one of the four named
diseases, making comparisons with the smallpox vaccination programme.
o Provide a list of terms to be incorporated into the group study, e.g. antigenic
concealment, antigenic drift, boosters, long/short-term, etc. (G) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.who.int/features/2010/small
pox/en/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Maow_
Maalin
http://www.who.int/topics/vaccines/en/
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology/immunity/reviseit/problems-with-vaccines
http://www.who.int/immunization/en/
http://www.iavi.org/Pages/default.aspx
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(ii)(iii)
v2.1 5Y02
78
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 6: The diversity of life
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should have a good understanding of the difference between plant and animal cells and of the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes from Unit 2.
Also from Unit 2, learners should know the basic structure of viruses. They should also be familiar with ecological concepts, such as: the meaning of the terms
population and community; the flow of energy through the different trophic levels of the ecosystem; and interactions between organisms.
Context
This unit, above all the others, belongs to the learner. This is their opportunity to get to know the local environment, with opportunities for fieldwork and for research into
local conservation issues and local conservation projects, allowing a practical application of the key concepts of organisms in their environment and of observation and
experiment. Stimulating an interest in biodiversity will lead appropriately to the next unit, Unit 7, Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes.
Outline
The unit begins with a discussion of the meaning of the terms species, ecosystem and niche so that learners will have a good grounding for later ecological studies,
and then continues with a more detailed study of classification and taxonomy. Biodiversity is considered at three different levels, and species biodiversity is further
explored by fieldwork opportunities in a local area. Spearmans rank correlation and Pearsons linear correlation, together with Simpsons diversity of index are
introduced as analytical tools for the data collected from fieldwork. The unit also covers the threats to the maintenance of biodiversity and discusses both issues
concerning conservation and practical ways to conserve endangered species and restore degraded habitats. One aspect of the key concept of organisms in their
environment is how humans can interact with their environment in ways that can have a great impact on ecosystems. Here, consideration is given to the part humans
may play in the extinction of species.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 6% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
79
Learning objectives
Learning resources
18.1.a
define the terms species, ecosystem
and niche
Carry out a brainstorming exercise to indicate how much learners can recall of each
term. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the species concept (and difficulties in defining the term there are over 20
definitions) before learners make notes.
o Expand ideas of: reproductively isolated; production of fertile offspring; members
have the same (very similar) features in morphology, anatomy, physiology,
behaviour and biochemistry; occupy the same niche; defined by same (very
similar) DNA. (W) (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners explore difficulties in defining species in terms of fertile offspring
by researching examples, e.g. between plant species or between mammalian
species (polar bear and brown bear - rare; canid hybrids - common). (H)
(Challenging)
Extension: learners consider how the species concept works for asexually
reproducing organisms and for interspecific plasmid transfer between bacteria. (H)
(Challenging)
Learners write a definition of an ecosystem, incorporating the following ideas and the
same (or equivalent) terminology: (I) (Basic)
o a self-sustaining unit consisting of abiotic and biotic factors interacting together
o includes all organisms of all populations (in a given area)
o energy flows through and cycling of minerals occur.
Learners make notes on (ecological) niche, the functional role of a species, to
include: a description of its habitat; how it is adapted to its environment; interactions
with other organisms; features of its life-cycle. (I) (Basic)
Learners visit an ecosystem to place into context these terms and concepts,
describing in terms of: energy flow / trophic levels; interactions between organisms;
interactions between organisms and the physical environment. Examples of species
and of niche are described. (G) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
Explain that an ecosystem can vary in size and could be temporary or permanent.
(W) (Basic)
Online
http://purchon.com/ecology/
http://www.ecologydictionary.org/
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 131: Ecological niche
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q2
Paper 41, June 2012, Q1 (a)
Note
A niche is often described in terms of an organism or a population.
A field trip should be considered before covering 18.1.c) to 18.1.f). If a trip is not
possible, visiting any suitable area populated by plants and animals, within or near to
school, will be a rewarding experience for learners.
v2.1 5Y02
80
Learning objectives
Learning resources
18.2.a
describe the classification of species
into the taxonomic hierarchy of
domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus and species
Learners suggest a method to sort all the different organisms in the world and then
share ideas. (W) (G) (Basic)
Introduce the idea of sorting as classification and agree that a hierarchical
approach is sensible.
o State that levels in the hierarchy are termed taxonomic ranks, with each example
of a rank known as a taxon (plural: taxa).
o Explain that the members of a group share common (homologous) features
based on phylogenetic / evolutionary patterns (more details in Unit 7). (W)
(Basic)
Display a tree of life with the three domains and briefly outline the other taxonomic
ranks, asking for suggestions why the species taxon is considered to be the only
natural classification group.
o Outline the classification of humans, with learners contributing their ideas. (W)
(Basic)
Learners note down the taxonomic ranks listed and decide a good mnemonic to help
remember the hierarchical order. (P) (I) (Basic)
Extension: choose one or more organisms to classify from domain through to the
species, for example, organisms encountered during fieldwork. (H) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Extension: learners research classification systems based on analogous features. (I)
(Basic)
Online
http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://
www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/artmay98/classif.html
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Class
ification/classification.htm
Learners complete a short written test (produced by you, with mark scheme) about
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (F)
Explain that the Archaea and Bacteria are both prokaryotic but have quite different
features, reflecting their evolutionary history.
o State some features of the Archaea that contrast with Bacteria: e.g. different cell
wall structure, which can be quite varied (not murein); different types of
membrane lipids (not phospholipids); differences in tRNA and ribosomes.
o Discuss the specialised habitats of some members of the Archaea: high
temperatures, extreme saline, and anaerobic environments. (W) (Basic)
Learners use resources (textbooks, internet, etc.) to produce a list of the main
features of each domain. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Evolution/index.htm
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/th
reedomains.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
18.2.b
outline the characteristic features of
the three domains Archaea, Bacteria
and Eukarya
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
classification.
Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
Questions: Classification and Keys
Note
For this syllabus learners should use Bacteria and not Monera.
v2.1 5Y02
81
Learning objectives
Learning resources
18.2.c
outline the characteristic features of
the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia
Learners brainstorm the names of the kingdoms. Write down all ideas so any
incorrect can be put into context (i.e. see 18.2.a).
o Agree the kingdoms and discuss criteria used for classification into Fungi,
Animalia or Plantae kingdom, e.g. animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, feed as
heterotrophs. Point out that absent features also helps confirm the classification,
e.g. no cells with cell walls, dont photosynthesise.
o Discuss the Protoctista as the kingdom that contains organisms that do not quite
fit into the other kingdoms.
o Learners make notes using resources. (W) (Basic)
Learners make up an imaginary named organism and produce a sticky note or label
with enough of a description for it to be classified into a kingdom. The notes could be
stuck around the class for a class activity, learners revealing their answers at the
end of the activity. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging).
Online
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/p
lantae.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment
18.2.d
explain why viruses are not included in
the three domain classification and
outline how they are classified, limited
to type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA)
and whether these are single stranded
or double stranded
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
18.1.b
explain that biodiversity is considered
at three different levels:
variation in ecosystems or habitats
the number of species and their
relative abundance
genetic variation within each
species
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
classification
Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
Questions: Classification and Keys
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (c)
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q11 (a)
Check learner knowledge of the main features of viruses (1.2.f) with a question and
answer session.
o Add more information about the genetic material: either single or doublestranded RNA or single or double-stranded DNA, but never both RNA and DNA.
o Learners produce a generalised diagram that is annotated. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners suggest why viruses are not included in the three domain classification.
o Remind learners of the Unit 2 discussion (viruses do not fit the key concept of
cells as the basic units of life) and see if they have any other points to contribute.
(W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/51c
bef267896bb431f69cb9a/?topic=51cb
fc78f702fc2ba8129e70
http://www.johnkyrk.com/virus.html
A discussion about the term biodiversity will highlight that a simple definition may be
difficult. Introduce the idea of three different levels of biodiversity, ecosystem,
species, and genetic. (W) (Challenging)
o Point out the transition from an ecological to a molecular biological approach.
o Explain that ecosystem biodiversity is more difficult to measure, as ecosystems
may merge at their boundaries (so not easy to define) and vary greatly in size.
Explain that biodiversity can be considered at a local, national and global level. (W)
(Basic)
Give a definition of a habitat, for reference only, e.g. the particular location and type
of local environment occupied by a population or organism, characterised by its
Online
http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/494
80/
http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Exh
ibitions/pod2-factsheet.pdf
http://www.geography.learnontheintern
et.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/
biodiversity/what_is_biodiversity/
http://www.iucn.org/iyb/about/?gclid=C
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 32: Viruses made
simple.
82
Learning objectives
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment
Learning resources
J7n2a2576QCFQsGbAodI3nz1A
Note
When tackling variation in ecosystems or habitats, reference to some of the issues in
18.3.a and 18.3.h will help for later studies.
18.1.c
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 11
83
Learning objectives
explain the importance of random
sampling in determining the
biodiversity of an area
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
Online
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto
.htm
http://fua.field-studiescouncil.org/media/59629/how_to_carr
y_out_a_random_sample.pdf
Note
Learning objectives 18.1.c to 18.1.f are best understood, and could be carried out, in
the context of fieldwork. Practical booklet 11 may provide suitable protocols and
should be consulted first.
18.1.d
use suitable methods, such as frame
quadrats, line transects, belt transects
and mark-release-recapture, to assess
the distribution and abundance of
organisms in a local area
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 11
Online
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto
.htm
http://fua.field-studiescouncil.org/media/59629/how_to_carr
y_out_a_random_sample.pdf
http://fua.field-studiescouncil.org/teaching-equipment-andmethods.aspx
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
RevisionM5Ch4.pdf
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/appli
ed-science/distribution-andabundance-species
Textbooks/Publications
King Chapter 11
Siddiqui, Chapter 7
84
Learning objectives
18.1.e
use Spearmans rank correlation and
Pearsons linear correlation to analyse
the relationships between the
distribution and abundance of species
and abiotic or biotic factors
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Practical booklet 11
Online
http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corre
lation/pearsons-correlationcoefficient/
http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corre
lation/spearmans-correlationcoefficient/
http://www.heckgrammar.co.uk/index.p
hp?p=10310
85
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 144: Spearmans rank
correlation coefficient.
Note
Learners should work through examples themselves before using other resources
available to them.
Learners could use spreadsheet software to enter the relevant figures and obtain a
scattergraph and the final calculated value, and then explain what the results are
showing. You could set up spreadsheets of data for learners to access (see learning
resources).
Practical booklet 11 includes the chi-squared test for association. This is another
use in addition to the goodness of fit test (see 16.2.d).
18.1.f
use Simpsons Index of Diversity (D) to
calculate the biodiversity of a habitat,
using the formula D = 1((n/N)2) and
state the significance of different
values of D
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 11
Online
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/simps
ons.htm
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/appli
ed-science/ecology-and-simpsons-
86
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
18.3.a
discuss the threats to the biodiversity
of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
(see 18.1 b)
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
17.3.e
explain why organisms become
extinct, with reference to climate
change, competition, habitat loss and
killing by humans
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss what is meant by extinction, pointing out that it is a natural process and part
of the theory of evolution by natural selection (see Unit 7).
o Explain that there is a threshold number below which extinction is inevitable.
o Learners suggest why species become extinct (check that those referenced in
17.3.e are covered). (W) (Basic)
Learners find examples (relevant to them) of plant and animal species that have
become extinct or are near extinction for the reasons listed in 17.3.e and produce
poster displays. (G) (P) (Basic)
Learning resources
diversity-index
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 34: Species diversity
Online
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
/news/120301_chipmunks
http://www.wri.org/resources/maps
http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/fre
shwater/panafrica/threats
http://www.biodiv.be/biodiversity/threat
s
http://environment.nationalgeographic.
co.uk/environment/
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 27: Biological effect of
deforestation
Bio Factsheet 203: Climate change
and ecological decoupling
Bio Factsheet 197: Biology of coral
reef ecosystems
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
Online
http://www.bbc.co.uk/lastchancetosee/
sites/about/extinction.shtml
http://www.iucnredlist.org/
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (a)
87
Learning objectives
Learning resources
18.3.b
discuss the reasons for the need to
maintain biodiversity
Online
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xp
editions/lessons/08/g68/preserve.htm
l
http://www.davidsuzuki.org/search/?q=
biodiversity&x=0&y=0
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/
biodiversity/biodiversity/
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 224: Why we need
biodiversity
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q6 (b)(ii)
Paper 41, June 2013, Q9 (a)
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q5 (a)(iii)
Online
http://wwf.panda.org/
http://www.cites.org/
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Learners suggest what is meant by NGOs. Discuss the advantages of nongovernmental organisations, such as greater cooperation between nations,
international agreements that can be reached sooner than inter-governmental
agreements.
o Introduce WWF and CITES.
o Learners are shown or browse CITES Appendices I, II and III. (W) (Basic)
Learners check the websites or read summary print-out sheets to become familiar
with a variety of NGOs active in conservation.
o Agree a definition for the term conservation. (W) (Basic)
o Learners write a short account summarising the role of the WWF and CITES and
the benefits of NGOs in general. They could also add details of a local
conservation group. (H) (Basic)
18.3.c
discuss methods of protecting
endangered species, including the
roles of zoos, botanic gardens,
conserved areas (national parks and
marine parks), frozen zoos and seed
Introduce the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Discuss what is
meant by the term endangered (refer learners to work on biodiversity).
o Discuss (or display the IUCN web page) the criteria used to classify an organism
as endangered. (W) (Basic)
o Learners write a definition of the term endangered, researching a named
example and include the species name and the reasons for it being endangered.
Online
http://www.iucn.org/knowledge/tools/
http://www.iucnredlist.org/
https://worldwildlife.org/species/directo
ry?direction=desc&sort=extinction_st
atus
18.3.g
discuss the roles of non-governmental
organisations, such as the World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF) and the
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES), in local and global
conservation
v2.1 5Y02
88
Learning objectives
banks
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
(H) (Basic)
o Learners findings are shared in a class presentation. (W) (Basic)
Learners refer to the species identified in their fieldwork for 18.1.d and use the IUCN
Red List to determine their category. (I) (Basic)
Discuss what is meant by a frozen zoo and a seed bank. (W) (Basic)
o Learners research the variety of methods employed to help protect endangered
species in one of: zoos, botanic gardens, national parks, marine parks. Include
any advantages or disadvantages of each method. (G) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners produce a summary sheet of their research to share with the class. (W)
(G) (Challenging)
o Produce one card for each member of the group. On each card write one of the
categories listed (zoo, national park etc.). Give out the cards randomly. Learners
give a written outline of methods used to protect endangered species. (F)
Learners research local and national efforts to protect endangered named species.
(H) (Basic)
With reference to genetic improvement and the maintenance of the gene pool,
learners research examples of wild relatives of crop plants, landraces of crop plants
and rare breeds of livestock. (H) (Basic)
A visit to a national park, nature reserve, zoo or botanic garden will enable learners
to see the work that is being done locally or nationally.
Note
Point out that the IUCN list does not cover all groups of organisms.
Learning resources
http://www.endangeredspecie.com/
http://www.kew.org/index.htm
http://www.zsl.org/conservation/
http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/index.
html
http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/495
13/
http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/society/schools
/secondary/extinct.aspx
http://www.satavic.org/biodiversity.htm
http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/pu
blications/substainable.pdf
http://www.sandiegozooglobal.org/wha
t_we_do_banking_genetic_resources
/frozen_zoo/
http://animals.nationalgeographic.co.uk
/animals/conservation/
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation
Bio Factsheet 208: Captive breeding
and the role of zoos
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
Paper 42, June 2012, Q6 (a)
18.3.d
discuss methods of assisted
reproduction, including IVF, embryo
transfer and surrogacy, used in the
conservation of endangered mammals
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that humans can assist reproduction in endangered mammals and, with
learner input, discuss the techniques involved.
o Learners suggest the considerations when deciding that assisted reproduction
should be used, such as: research to decide on appropriate method (not always
easy to study reproduction in rare mammals); modify technique to be specific to
the mammal; evaluating success. (W) (Basic)
Learners make notes, using resources, outlining the main stages and the main
principles involved. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners apply the principles to examples they have been given or have
researched. (H) (Basic)
Online
http://www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/bms/P
DF/640_RM_endangsld.pdf
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduct
ion.html#ART
http://www.eplantscience.com/index/bi
otechnology/animal_biotechnology/m
anipulation_of_reproduction_and_tra
nsgenic_animals/biotech_in_vitro_fert
ilization_technology.php
89
Learning objectives
Learning resources
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/SCBI/reprodu
ctivescience/consendangeredcats/
Note
Learners may have included ideas from this in their research for 18.3.c.
Although this learning objective is about endangered mammals, not about assisted
reproduction for humans, the techniques are similar and learners may gain useful
information by researching them.
18.3.e
discuss the use of culling and
contraceptive methods to prevent
overpopulation of protected and nonprotected species
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
18.3.f
use examples to explain the reasons
for controlling alien species
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q3 (a)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q5
Ensure learners know what is meant by the two terms, and then explain that there
are frequently debates about the issue, including deciding when a population is
considered to be over-populated. (W) (Basic)
Learners research examples meaningful to them, including the different reasons
given to either culling or use of contraceptive methods, and explaining why one
method was favoured. (I) (Basic)
Provide new examples: learners write a short article weighing up the advantages
and disadvantages of culling versus contraceptive methods. (F)
Organise a mini debate. (W) (H) (Basic) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.tams.act.gov.au/parksrecreation/plants_and_animals/urban
_wildlife/local_wildlife/kangaroos/kan
garoo_population_control_methods
http://www.egzac.org/whyusecontrace
ption.aspx
http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/elephant/faqs
.php
Note
Stress that learners will need to develop the ability to apply principles to new
situations
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation.
Discuss how, in many ecosystems throughout the world, the introduction of alien
species has had harmful economic or ecological effects (termed alien-invasive
species). Balance this with a discussion of how some alien species have been of
benefit. (W) (Basic)
Learners research examples of alien species (local, national and global) that are
now considered unwelcome, and for each explain the reasons for controlling them.
(H) (Basic)
Online
http://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/progr
ammes/invasive-alien-species
http://eol.org/info/460
http://www.galapagos.org/conservation
/invasive-species/
Note
This may have been discussed with 18.3.a.
Some agencies give alien and exotic slightly different meanings, others use them
interchangeably. Also seen are non-indigenous, non-native and introduced.
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 105: Manipulation and
control of reproduction.
Some parts of this are relevant.
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
90
Learning objectives
Learning resources
18.3.h
outline how degraded habitats may be
restored with reference to local or
regional examples
Discuss the concept of restoration ecology and the need for scientific planning and
understanding when restoring degraded habitats or ecosystems. (W) (Basic)
Learners research one example and present their findings to the group. (W) (I)
(Challenging). Points to consider:
o A description of the habitat before degradation.
o Reasons for the degradation and what may happen if degradation continues.
o What could be / is being carried, with overall aims, e.g. re-establishing what was,
improving by addition of species or physical factors, modifying to create a new
habitat.
o The benefits to the community of restoration.
Online
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration
_ecology
http://www.ser.org/
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
dge/library/restoration-ecology13339059
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
91
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should have a good knowledge and understanding of the mitotic cell cycle from Unit 3. They should be able to describe the structure of DNA and the events
occurring in DNA replication, in transcription and in translation from Unit 3, including an understanding of the genetic code. Learners should have a good understanding
of what is meant by a gene, an allele and a gene mutation. An appreciation of the diversity of life, from Unit 6, will stimulate interest in how diversity has come about.
Context
This unit builds on AS Level work, especially Unit 3, DNA and the mitotic cell cycle. It leads on from Unit 6, The diversity of life, so that learners are provided with an
explanation of how the mechanisms of natural selection and isolation can lead to the formation of new species. This unit strongly incorporates the key concepts of cells
as the basic units of life, biochemical processes, DNA, the molecule of heredity and observation and experiment. Knowledge and understanding gained in this unit will
be particularly useful for Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology.
Outline
The unit begins with an introduction to ideas and terms that will be needed. The mechanism and significance of meiosis is dealt with, showing how genetic information
passes from parent to offspring. A link is made to gamete formation in animals and plants. Genetic crosses are practised and the chi-squared test is used. The nature of
genes and alleles and their role in determining the phenotype is discussed, including human conditions that result from gene mutations. Once an understanding of basic
genetics is gained, the unit leads to a consideration how the passage of information from parent to offspring is translated to population genetics. Variation, and its
importance for the mechanism of natural selection, is studied before considering the role of natural selection in evolution and speciation. Natural selection is a key
concept in biology, with mutation acting as the raw material for evolution. The unit considers how selection pressures allow successful individuals to survive to pass on
genes to the next generation and how changes in the genetic make-up of the population, coinciding with isolation, can lead to speciation. The key concept of
observation and experiment is exemplified by studying the improvement of the milk yield of dairy cattle and the improvement of crop plants by humans. Humans can
apply the principles of natural selection to artificial selection and speed up the process of biological change.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
92
Learning objectives
Learning resources
16.1.a
explain what is meant by homologous
pairs of chromosomes
Introduce the topic explaining that a fertilised egg cell will have a set of
chromosomes from the mother and a set from the father, to give pairs of
chromosomes in cells. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the features of homologous chromosomes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners list the similarities and differences between a pair of homologous
chromosomes and note the differences between the X and Y chromosomes. (I)
(Basic)
Online
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
423/n6942/fig_tab/423810a_F1.html
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity
Note
Avoid using 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs of chromosomes in explanations (also for
16.1.b): a common error is stating these when answering questions about other
organisms.
The term bivalent is the same as one pair of homologous chromosomes.
16.1.b
explain the meanings of the terms
haploid and diploid and the need for a
reduction division (meiosis) prior to
fertilisation in sexual reproduction
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
From 16.1.a, explain that cells with one set of chromosomes are termed haploid (n),
and a particular species has a specific haploid number. Extend this to explain the
term diploid (2n). (W) (Basic)
o Discuss why a diploid organism needs a reduction division (meiosis) to produce
haploid cells. Use phrases such as restore the diploid number on fertilisation,
to avoid doubling the number of chromosomes. (W) (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners outline the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
and between asexual reproduction in eukaryotes and asexual reproduction in
prokaryotes (background information - refer to binary fission). (H) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
L/GG/ecb/haploiddiploid_sexual_reproduction.php
Note
Do not go into details of meiosis for this learning objective.
Mention that some organisms only have one set of chromosomes, while others have
one set for some part of their life cycle
16.2.a (i)
explain the terms gene, locus, allele,
dominant, recessive, codominant,
linkage, test cross, F1 and F2,
phenotype, genotype, homozygous
and heterozygous
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
v2.1 5Y02
Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms gene, locus,
allele, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous and heterozygous
Learners recall previous studies:
gene 6.2.a definition
allele 6.2.b concept of new alleles forming by mutation
6.2.c HbA and HbS alleles.
Use pipe cleaner or string models, with sticky labels for alleles, to help explain gene,
allele, locus, dominant, recessive, heterozygous, homozygous, genotype, then
discuss the meaning of phenotype. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocabul
ary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian_g
enetics.html
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
.cfm?id=8
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
93
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners write definitions for the terms and draw diagrams of homologous
chromosomes to annotate locus and allele and, using examples, draw homologous
chromosomes with different genotypes (homozygous alleles and heterozygous
alleles; dominant and recessive), indicating the phenotype. (I) (Challenging)
Learners match a set of cards with terms to a second set with definitions. (F)
Recessive Alleles.
Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
Note
It is useful to introduce the term early so learners can correlate the behaviour of
chromosomes in meiosis and the formation of gametes with allele behaviour (and
enhance understanding of genetic crosses).
16.1.c
outline the role of meiosis in
gametogenesis in humans and in the
formation of pollen grains and embryo
sacs in flowering plants
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
State that meiosis involves two divisions to produce four cells. Explain what is meant
by the term gamete. Highlight the role of meiosis in terms of a reduction division
and the production of genetically different cells. (W) (Basic)
Using resources, learners write out a definition and give an outline of
gametogenesis, naming the ovary and testis as the organs involved and including
the role of meiosis. (I) (Challenging)
Learners draw a fully labelled human life cycle. (I) (Basic)
Using resources and teacher input, learners produce annotated diagrams to outline
the formation of pollen grains and embryo sacs.
o Diploid pollen mother cells in pollen sacs (in the anther) divide by meiosis to
form 4 haploid microspores. These mature to become pollen grains (details of
mitosis not required.
o In the ovule the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid
megaspores: one survives to divide by mitosis to produce an eight-nucleate
embryo sac. (I) (Challenging)
Learners compare the main similarities and differences between gametogenesis in
humans with pollen grain and embryo sac formation in plants.
o Include a flow chart diagram to highlight the stages where meiosis and mitosis
occur. (H) (Challenging)
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter28/animation__unique_fe
atures_of_meiosis.html
http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_freeman_
biosci_1/0,6452,501052-,00.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
ew0/chapter28/animation__spermato
genesis__quiz_1_.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 168: Gamete Formation
in Animals
Note
Details of ovary and testis histology are not required.
Learners should be familiar with the terms oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
16.1.d
describe, with the aid of
photomicrographs and diagrams, the
v2.1 5Y02
With a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme), assess learner recall
of mitosis. (F)
Show learners diagrams or photographs of an ordered haploid chromosome set
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisio
n/CellDivision.htm
94
Learning objectives
behaviour of chromosomes in plant
and animal cells during meiosis, and
the associated behaviour of the
nuclear envelope, cell surface
membrane and the spindle (names of
the main stages are expected, but not
the sub-divisions of prophase)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
16.1.e
explain how crossing over and random
assortment of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis and
random fusion of gametes at
fertilisation lead to genetic variation
including the expression of rare,
recessive alleles
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutori
als/meiosis/page3.html
http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_di
vision/index.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/meiosis.html
http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
variation.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (a)
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisio
n/CellDivision.htm
www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutori
als/meiosis/page3.html
http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_di
vision/index.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/meiosis.html
http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
http://www.biozone.co.uk/biolinks/GEN
ETICS.html#Inheritance
http://www.contexo.info/DNA_Basics/M
eiosis.htm
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/independentas
95
Learning objectives
Learning resources
sortment.html
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (b)
Note
Explain that homologous pairs assort randomly at metaphase I and this means they
are assorting independently of other homologous pairs.
16.2.a (ii)
explain the terms gene, locus, allele,
dominant, recessive, codominant,
linkage, test cross, F1 and F2,
phenotype, genotype, homozygous
and heterozygous
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
v2.1 5Y02
Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms codominant,
linkage, test cross, F1 and F2
Using the pipe cleaner / string models, discuss the meaning of the term codominant.
(W) (Basic)
Remind learners of a simple monohybrid cross from previous studies and using the
terms already discussed show what is meant by F1 and F2. Briefly explain a test
cross for learners to define. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners match a set of cards with terms from 16.2.a to a second set with all the
definitions. (F)
Note
These definitions are best understood when tackling 16.2.b.
A full explanation of test cross should be reserved for later.
Online
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocabul
ary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian_g
enetics.html
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
.cfm?id=8
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
Recessive Alleles.
Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
96
Learning objectives
Learning resources
16.2.b
use genetic diagrams to solve
problems involving monohybrid and
dihybrid crosses, including those
involving autosomal linkage, sex
linkage, codominance, multiple alleles
and gene interactions (the term
epistasis does not need to be used;
knowledge of the expected ratio for
various types of epistasis is not
required. The focus is on problem
solving)
Using resources, learners write out what is meant by a monohybrid cross and a
dihybrid cross, and explain what is meant by true (or pure) breeding, multiple alleles,
pedigree diagrams, autosomal chromosome and sex chromosome. (I) (Basic)
Monohybrid cross: using a visual (photographs/drawings) simple example (e.g.
purple and white flowers in pea plants), demonstrate how to set out a genetic
diagram (circles should be drawn around the gametes).
o Learners explain why they can be certain of the genotype if a pea plant has
white flowers.
o Explain test crosses. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work though one problem themselves and peer-check the quality of the
genetic diagrams. (I) (Basic)
Learners construct genetic diagrams, working through monohybrid cross problems,
including pedigree diagrams. Learners also performing test crosses. (P) (I) (F)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Codominance: describe an example of codominance and the convention to
represent this (alleles as superscripts). Many examples involve a colour gene:
ensure learners know that C is for colour, not codominance.
o Go through the different ratios obtained and ask learners to explain why no test
cross is required. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work through some codominance problems (monohybrid crosses). (I)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Multiple alleles: as an example, discuss the inheritance of human blood groups
(ABO system) to illustrate multiple alleles, dominance, recessiveness and
codominance before learners work through problems. (W) (I) (Challenging) (Basic)
Sex linkage: describe the largely non-homologous X and Y chromosomes to explain
why the male genotype has only one allele for genes located on sex chromosomes.
o Using an example of a sex-linked trait, e.g. eye colour in Drosophila, explain how
to annotate the allele symbol as a superscript by the X (Y- shows that the allele
is absent in the Y chromosome). (W) (Basic)
o Learners write down the possible genotypes for this trait, then tackle a
monohybrid cross problem, covering the reciprocal cross. (I) (Basic)
o Emphasise that not all problems indicating numbers of individuals of each sex,
or stating female crossed with male will be sex-linked inheritance. (W) (Basic)
o Learners state and explain the pattern of inheritance associated with sex-linkage
and then practise questions. (I) (Challenging)
Learners model using pipe cleaners / string, or draw diagrams, to show how a
written genetic cross correlates to events occurring at meiosis and fertilisation. (P) (I)
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/i
nheritance/
http://www.dnaftb.org
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendel
ian_genetics/mendelian_genetics.htm
l
http://faculty.baruch.cuny.edu/jwahlert/
bio1003/genetics.html
http://www.utilitypoultry.co.uk/sexlinkag
e.shtml
http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mythintro.ht
ml
http://www.pc.maricopa.edu/Biology/rc
otter/BIO%20181/Lab/181Labpdf/10
MendelianGenetics.pdf
http://www.mendelmuseum.com/eng/1online/experiment
.htm
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/mendel/mendel
.html
http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
nimation.php?ani=2&cat=Biology
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 23: Genetics made
simple: I
Bio Factsheet 97: A guide to sex
linkage
Bio Factsheet 93: The ABO Blood
Group System
Bio Factsheet 183: Variations from
expected Mendelian Monohybrid
Ratios.
Bio Factsheet 115: Answering
Examination Questions: Genetics
97
Learning objectives
Learning resources
(Challenging)
Dihybrid cross: explain that these involve two genes located on non-homologous
chromosomes (unlinked / separate linkage groups). Work through a dihybrid cross,
e.g. Mendels pea plants, showing how to write out genotypes e.g. AaBb and not
ABab. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work out the possible gametes from crossing the double
heterozygotes. Guide learners how to construct a Punnett square and complete
it correctly before they work out the phenotypic ratio (explain that 9:3:3:1 still fits
the 3:1 monohybrid crosses ratio: each gene shows a 12:4 ratio). Learners work
through a test cross. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Linkage: remind learners of the concept of linkage and of crossing over (16.1.e)):
two linked genes involve only one homologous chromosome pair. Using a model or
diagrams, explain how linked genes could result in both parental and recombinant
types in the gametes and offspring, but not in the standard Mendelian ratios.
o Discuss why genes close together will produce few, if any, recombinant types
(the further apart the greater proportion of recombinant to parental types). (W)
(Challenging)
Learners tackle a range of differentiated questions involving two genes. (I) (F)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q9 (b)
Paper 41, June 2012, Q7
Note
The terms backcross and incomplete dominance are no longer used.
There are two approaches: (i) cover the theory of the learning objective, then
learners work on genetics problems or (ii) have a set of problems prepared for each
type of cross and learners practise these as they are taught.
Some human genetic traits used as examples in schools are now known to be more
complex than at first thought, Learners should be discouraged from analysing
patterns of inheritance in their family.
16.2.c
use genetic diagrams to solve
problems involving test crosses
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/i
nheritance/
http://www.dnaftb.org
http://www.mendelmuseum.com/eng/1online/experiment
.htm
98
Learning objectives
Learning resources
16.2.d
use the chi-squared test to test the
significance of differences between
observed and expected results (the
formula for the chi-squared test will be
provided) (see Mathematical
requirements)
Revise different ratios obtained with the different types of genetic cross,
emphasising that these are theoretical (based on probability) ratios.
o Learners mentally calculate expected numbers from totals e.g. with 40 offspring,
how many of each if expecting a 3:1 ratio? (W) (Basic)
Approach the concept using observed results: learners suggest and justify the type
of genetic cross when given actual genotype numbers, e.g. codominance, for a ratio
of 32 red, 26 pink, 10 white flowers (ratio approximating 1:2:1). (W) (Basic)
o Learners debate a result of: 15 red, 20 pink, 13 white. Agree that a statistical test
is needed to compare the observed ratio to the expected: near enough for
differences to be due to chance effects or so different that other factors should
be considered. (W) (Challenging)
Practical booklet 11. Work through, with guidance (if not covered in 18.1.e, in the
context of field study), examples of the use of the chi-squared test. (I) (Basic)
Learners use a calculated chi-squared value to:
o State the critical value at a stated probability level.
o State where the chi-squared value fits in the range of probabilities.
o Make a conclusion, referring to a null hypothesis and significance level. (I)
(Basic) (Challenging)
Learners use results from a genetic cross (increasing difficulty)to:
o Practise the calculations involved in the chi-squared test
o Interpret the results to write a valid conclusion about the nature of the genetic
cross. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
See also the syllabus section, Mathematical requirements.
Learners should be able to:
o Identify the situations where the use of the test is applicable
o Use the table of critical values and state the probability of obtaining their results
by chance.
Learners should consider :
o The use of stating the actual probability value (p), which they can calculate using
software
o The probabilities of 0.05 and 0.01 (often used to report results).
Online
http://www.blc.arizona.edu/courses/mc
b422/MendelStarFolder/merChiSquar
e.html
Explain that biological variation describes the variation within a population (members
of the same species).
o Learners suggest examples of variation that is: inherited / genetic; not inherited /
environmental; likely to be due to both genetic and environmental sources.
Online
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
dge/library/mutations-are-the-rawmaterials-of-evolution-17395346
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
17.1.a
describe the differences between
continuous and discontinuous variation
and explain the genetic basis of
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 79: The chi-squared test
for goodness of fit.
Past papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q1
Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q2
Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q2
99
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Explain the equation Vp = Vg +Ve, (no need to learn) and use an example (e.g.
blood groups) to show Ve = 0 when a trait is due only to genetic effects.
o Discuss the use of monozygotic twins, (Vg = 0), to study the effects of the
environment on variation. (W) (Basic)
Learners produce a list of causes of genetic variation for sexually reproducing
organisms and for asexually reproducing organisms (i.e. only mutation), as well as
causes of environmental variation (disease, edaphic factors, climate, water
availability, etc.). (I) (Challenging)
Using resources, learners define discontinuous variation (include a bar chart) and
continuous variation (include a histogram), and give examples. (I) (Basic)
o Learners consider a trait that has a genetic basis and describe what is likely to
be occurring to if the variation is (i) discontinuous (one/two genes), and (ii)
continuous (polygenic, environmental effects may also contribute). (I)
(Challenging)
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/genomics-enables-scientists-tostudy-genetic-variability-6526364
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
size/science/edexcel_pre_2011/gene
s/genesrev1.shtml
Explain the situations where the t-test would be applicable and work through an
example. (W) (Basic)
Learners work through a number of examples, stating a null hypothesis and using a
table of critical values to state the probability of obtaining the result. (W) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Learners choose from a list of outlines of investigations those for which the t-test
could be used. (F)
Practical booklet 10
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
17.1.c
use the t-test to compare the variation
of two different populations (see
Mathematical requirements)
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Note
There is information about this test in the syllabus (Mathematical requirements
section).
Practical booklet 10 gives learners the opportunity to use the t-test on data that
they have collected themselves
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
variation
Online
http://www.theseashore.org.uk/theseas
hore/Stats%20for%20twits/T%20Test
.html
http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/stati
stics/tress4a.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 3: Which stats test
should I use?
Past papers
Paper 51, June 2012, Q1
Paper 52, June 2011, Q2
17.1.b
explain, with examples, how the
environment may affect the phenotype
of plants and animals
v2.1 5Y02
Learners recall the difference between genotype and phenotype and describe the
flow of information from DNA to the phenotype. (W) (Basic)
Explain that the term environment encompasses everything that is not considered
genetic. (W) (Basic)
Learners research examples that they are given and provide explanations for the
Online
http://www.flowersbulbs.com/ql_hydran
gea_color.htm
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/environmental-influences-on-
100
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment
gene-expression-536
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/phenotypic-range-of-geneexpression-environmental-influence581
http://www.nature.com/scitable/content
/gene-environment-interactions-fromepidemiological-studies-33011
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
1520-iq-is-inherited-suggests-twinstudy.html
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/the-collective-set-of-alleles-in-a6385985
16.2.e
explain that gene mutation occurs by
substitution, deletion and insertion of
base pairs in DNA and outline how
such mutations may affect the
phenotype
Online
http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/27/conce
pt/index.html
http://www.who.int/genomics/public/ge
neticdiseases/en/index2.html
http://chroma.gs.washington.edu/outre
ach/genetics/sickle/
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/M/Mutations.html
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection
Note
Focus on gene mutation, but alert learners to the existence of chromosomal
mutations (sections of chromosomes/many genes and chromosome number).
16.2.f
outline the effects of mutant alleles on
v2.1 5Y02
Learners construct a flow chart to show how a gene mutation can lead to symptoms
of sickle cell anaemia. (I) (Challenging)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 94: Gene Mutations
Bio Factsheet 179: Answering Exam
Questions: Mutation
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q9 (a)
Online
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
101
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners research one other condition from the list then work with others (that have
covered the same condition) to produce an information sheet to present to the class
to use as notes. (W) (G) (H) (Basic) (Challenging)
level/biology/evolution/reviseit/evolution-in-action
Notes on sickle cell anaemia.
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease in
Humans.
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Organisms in their environment
16.2.g
explain the relationship between
genes, enzymes and phenotype with
respect to the gene for tyrosinase that
is involved with the production of
melanin
Online
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TYR
Discuss how named examples of animals, plants and bacteria with different
genotypes and hence phenotypes (e.g. bacteria and antibiotic resistance) may differ
in their chances of survival or in their reproductive capacity. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest why more likely to survive to reproduce is more important for the
species than more likely to survive (idea of passing on genetic information. (W)
(Basic)
Learners debate the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual
reproduction. (G) (Basic)
Online
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/v
ariation/sources/
http://darwiniana.org/evolution.htm
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Genetic_
variation
http://www.wellcometreeoflife.org/
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
17.1.d
explain why genetic variation is
important in selection
Key concepts
Natural selection
Note
Learners should have an outline of selection covered in detail later.
17.2.a
explain that natural selection occurs as
populations have the capacity to
produce many offspring that compete
for resources; in the struggle for
existence only the individuals that are
v2.1 5Y02
Introduce the idea that organisms have high reproductive potential and given ideal
conditions, exponential or explosive population growth occurs (starting with a few
individuals).
o Describe examples of ideal conditions and for each ask learners to suggest
phenotypes (and hence genotypes) that are more likely to survive (introduce the
term differential survival) if ideal conditions are not maintained.
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
Online
http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Exh
ibitions/pod1-factsheet.pdf
http://www.biologycorner.com/workshe
ets/peppermoth_paper.html
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/A
102
Learning objectives
Learning resources
EPC/WWC/1995/camouflage.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/P/Populations2.html
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Populati
on_ecology
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/libr
ary/01/2/l_012_02.html
www.biologyinmotion.com/evol/
http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/syn
th_4.htm
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q8
Note
Avoid using the phrase survival of the fittest (different phenotypes can be equally
fit).
Background: take some time to discuss the work of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace.
An understanding of abiotic and biotic limiting factors and of density-dependent and
density-independent factors will be beneficial.
17.2.b
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that in most cases the environment remains relatively stable and so the
Online
103
Learning objectives
explain, with examples, how
environmental factors can act as
stabilising, disruptive and directional
forces of natural selection
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evolutio
n?topic=49508
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridl
ey/a-z/Stabilizing_selection.asp
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
313/n5997/abs/313047a0.html
Learners should consider how natural selection can affect the level of genetic
variation for any one heritable trait.
o Use an example (e.g. melanism in Biston betularia) to discuss how a different
set of selection pressures in a different environment affects allele frequencies
and leads to different outcomes for the population. (W) (Basic)
Learners research the link between sickle cell anaemia and malaria to describe and
explain the differences in allele frequencies between areas free of malaria and areas
where malaria is endemic. (H) (Challenging)
Learners use beads to model the effect on allele frequency in a population by
differential survival of two different genotypes for one gene.
o Place a large (known) number of beads of two different colours (alleles) in a
container (the population). Decide on a percentage survival rate for the
homozygous recessive genotype, e.g. 60%.
o Pick out pairs of beads at random, discarding four out of every ten pairs of
recessive beads. When all beads have been used, only replace the ones which
'survived' (not discarded) and repeat for the next generation.
o Record numbers of each genotype in each generation and construct graphs to
show the effect of selection over time. (G) (Challenging)
Introduce Darwins finches and outline the main points of the founder effect for
learners to summarise. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Explain that genetic drift involves chance effects, known as sampling errors, where
the allele frequencies of a small founding (ancestor) group are unlikely to be
Online
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/libr
ary/06/3/l_063_03.html
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
dge/library/natural-selection-geneticdrift-and-gene-flow-15186648
http://biology4.wustl.edu/cloverproject/
Assets/White%20Clover%20Backgro
und%20for%20Teachers.pdf
http://evolutiontextbook.org/content/free/notes/ch18
_WN18Dc.html
http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/malaria_s
ickle.html
http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_freeman_
evol_3/0,8018,849374-,00.html
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
/home.php
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
17.2.c
explain how selection, the founder
effect and genetic drift may affect allele
frequencies in populations
Key concepts
Natural selection
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 44: Evolution.
Also useful for 17.3c).
Past Papers
Paper 42, June 2012, Q1 (a)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q8 (b)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 191: What have we
learned from Darwins finches?
104
Learning objectives
Learning resources
representative of the larger main population (the smaller the population the greater
the likely effect).
o Exemplify the concept using Darwins finches. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest the similarities and differences between natural selection and
genetic drift and then engage in class discussion. (W) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Similarities: both involve changes in allele frequency and can contribute to
change (evolution).
o Differences: natural selection is a directed process, genetic drift is not; only
natural selection involves adaptations; with natural selection the frequency of the
advantageous allele increases whereas with genetic drift, allele frequencies
change by chance/sampling error (the frequency of a disadvantageous allele
could increase). (W) (G) (Challenging)
17.2.d
use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to
calculate allele, genotype and
phenotype frequencies in populations
and explain situations when this
principle does not apply
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that Hardy and Weinberg considered the behaviour of genes in idealised
populations.
o Work through an example to show how allele frequencies can be used to
calculate genotype frequencies and how genotype frequencies can be used to
calculate allele frequencies. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work through simple examples using the Hardy-Weinberg equation and
make notes. (I) (Basic)
Learners use an example where the number of individuals with the recessive trait is
known to calculate the proportion, and hence number of, heterozygotes in a
population. (W) (Challenging)
Learners make notes to:
o Explain the differences between allele frequencies, genotype frequencies and
phenotype frequencies.
o Explain the conditions that need to be met for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to
apply. (I) (Challenging)
Learners suggest reasons why an unchanging allele frequency from one generation
to the next is rarely encountered in nature (non-random breeding; not all individuals
produce offspring; not a static population as there is emigration/immigration;
selection occurs; mutation occurs).
o Discuss how these frequencies would change if mutations occurred (e.g. harmful
recessive mutations; heterozygote advantage etc.), so that learners appreciate
the potential for change by evolution. (W) (Basic)
Explain to learners that the Hardy-Weinberg equations can be used to determine
frequencies for at this moment in time occurrences.
Online
http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/syn
th_2.htm
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/H/Hardy_Weinberg.
html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0767424263/student_vi
ew0/chapter4/the_hardyweinberg_equilibrium.html#
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/biolo
gy/discoverbio3/core/content/ch17/an
imations.asp
http://www.perinatology.com/calculator
s/Hardy-Weinberg.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 211: Hardy Weinberg
and population genetics.
105
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Learners use an example, e.g. the incidence of cystic fibrosis to calculate the
allele frequencies and work out the carrier frequency (the heterozygotes) in the
population. (I) (Challenging)
17.3.a
state the general theory of evolution
that organisms have changed over
time
Key concepts
Natural selection
17.3.b
discuss the molecular evidence that
reveals similarities between closely
related organisms with reference to
mitochondrial DNA and protein
sequence data
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection
17.3.c) includes the idea that species have formed from pre-existing species.
Discuss the ideas of change over time and of common descent - there is
overwhelming evidence to suggest that all life is related. (W) (Basic)
Learners research examples of evolution to outline how change over time has
occurred. (H) (Challenging)
o A class discussion will help learners appreciate that the pace of change can be
different for different examples.
Learners suggest the type of evidence used to determine whether organisms were
closely related (i.e. comparative morphology and anatomy, fossils, classification and
embryology). (W) (Basic)
o Explain how the continually improving techniques to obtain DNA base/nucleotide
sequences and protein amino acid sequences (e.g. rapid sequencing) has
provided databases to improve understanding of relationships. (W)
(Challenging)
Explain that evolutionary related proteins that belong in a group (protein family) can
be most usefully compared between organisms. (W) (Basic)
Introduce the use of a single letter code for the amino acids before learners analyse
(in terms of closely related organisms) sequence data of a number of organisms
(e.g. for cytochrome C). (I) (Challenging)
With prompting, learners suggest how mitochondrial DNA differs from nuclear DNA
(inherited only from the mother; doesnt swap genetic material with paternal
mitochondrial DNA and higher mutation rate).
o Discuss the usefulness, in terms of close relationships, of databases for
comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences of different organisms. (W) (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
/article/evo_47
Textbooks/Publications
Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
pages
253-254 (2007), or pages 374-375
(2013), includes the Darwin-Wallace
theory and a discussion about
speciation.
Online
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
/news/100501_xwoman
http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/047
1393878/instructor/activities/phylogen
etic_trees/index.html
http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lesso
ns/molb.ws.pdf
Past papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2
Note
This has close links to 19.2.a) and bioinformatics.
Learners should understand that there are freely accessible databases available to
v2.1 5Y02
106
Learning objectives
Learning resources
researchers.
17.3.c
explain how speciation may occur as a
result of geographical separation
(allopatric speciation), and ecological
and behavioural separation (sympatric
speciation)
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
17.3.d
explain the role of pre-zygotic and
v2.1 5Y02
Review learner understanding of the terms species and gene pool by a question and
answer session. (W) (Basic)
Define speciation.
o Discuss the importance in speciation of (i) reproductive isolation and (ii) natural
selection acting within a population in different ways on different groups. (W)
(Basic)
Give examples (e.g. separating land masses millions of years ago and road laying
dividing up forests) illustrating ways that sub-populations are formed by geographical
separation and brainstorm other examples. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss how the different abilities of organisms to move from one area to
another are an important factor in the formation of new species.
o Remind learners that the process of allopatric speciation requires that the
populations remain separated and interbreeding is prevented. (W) (Basic)
Learners research one or two examples and use these to explain what is meant by
allopatric speciation. (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners research how the observations made of the four species of
mockingbirds in the Galapagos Islands are believed to have had a large influence on
Darwins development of the concept of natural selection. (H) (Challenging)
Introduce the idea of sympatric speciation: occurring within the same geographic
area by reducing gene flow between groups of the same population.
o State that two of the many ways to do this is by ecological separation and by
behavioural separation and ask learners to suggest what this means or to
volunteer examples. (W) (Basic)
o Learners research one example of each to explain the principles involved and
share their findings with the group. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Learners research the evolution of cichlid fish in the great lakes of Africa, e.g. Lake
Victoria, and present arguments as to whether speciation has occurred by allopatric
speciation, sympatric speciation, or both. (I) (Challenging)
Learners continue their work on Darwins finches and the founder effect to explain
how speciation has occurred by both allopatric and sympatric speciation. (I)
(Challenging)
Learners write a paragraph comparing allopatric and sympatric speciation. (F)
Remind learners that isolating mechanisms provide a barrier to gene flow and when
successful interbreeding no longer occurs a new species is considered to have been
Online
http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/GalapagosP
ages/DarwinFinch.html
http://www98.homepage.villanova.edu/
robert.curry/Nesomimus/index.html
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/
2011/10/111003080523.htm
http://www.thescientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/
23704/title/Evidence-for-sympatricspeciation/
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/polyploidy-1552814
http://www.evolutionsbiologie.unikonstanz.de/pdf1-182/P089.pdf
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
/news/090301_cichlidspeciation
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 142: Modern Examples
of Evolution in Action
Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
Mechanisms
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (c)
Paper 41, June 2012, Q1
Online
http://www.biologyaspoetry.com/terms/
107
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Natural selection
17.2.e
describe how selective breeding
(artificial selection) has been used to
improve the milk yield of dairy cattle
Key concepts
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
postzygotic_barrier.html
http://wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/me
dia/objects/5697/5834441/ebook/htm/
0cc6e.htm?14.03
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
Mechanisms
Past papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
Online
http://www.embryoplus.com/cattle_ayr
shire.html
http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/full
docs/SmHDairy/chap5.html#Dairy%2
0cattle
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/co
ntent/360/1459/1479.full#abstract-1
http://babcock.wisc.edu/node/182
http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/articles
/selectivebreeding.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 187: Selective Breeding
of Cattle
108
Learning objectives
Learning resources
v2.1 5Y02
Continue the theme of 17.2.e with a discussion about the need to supply an
increasing global population and the improvement of crop plants.
o Learners suggest the most important crop plants grown (the three most
important are maize wheat and rice grain crops).
o Outline the difference between crop improvement by conventional means,
selective breeding, and improvement by genetic modification. (W) (Basic)
Learners may be able to name a disease to which wheat (e.g. stem rust) and rice
(e.g. sheath blight) are susceptible; discuss the need to breed crop plants resistant
to disease (e.g. disease lowers yield and some can leave harmful toxins in the crop).
o Learners recall the steps involved in selective breeding and suggest desirable
features, e.g. resistant to infection, maintaining resistance for a long time,
localising infection to one area of the plant, resistance to toxin accumulation,
seed (kernel) resistance, able to produce a high yield when infected. (W)
(Challenging)
o Learners research the steps involved in introducing disease resistance into
wheat or rice (cover one crop each and share notes). (P) (Basic)
State that the presence of gibberellins leads to stem elongation and explanations will
be covered in Unit 11 (15.2.d, 16.3.d).
o Explain that the sd-1 gene encodes an enzyme (GA20-oxidase) involved in the
later stages of gibberellin biosynthesis.
o Learners suggest an outcome if mutations in this gene occur (very low levels of
gibberellins resulting in dwarf varieties).
o Explain that some varieties of crops such as rice and barley have these semidwarf / dwarf varieties. (W) (Challenging)
Learners write definitions of inbreeding and hybridisation and explain what is meant
by inbreeding depression, outbreeding, and hybrid vigour. (I) (Basic)
o Discuss the difficulties in maize in achieving the balance between homozygosity
and heterozygosity. (W) (Basic)
o Learners list the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding
in maize. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners explain how selective breeding has produced homozygous maize
plants that can be crossed with other homozygous plants, to produce hybrids
with combinations of desirable features. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://archaeology.about.com/od/dome
stications/qt/wheat.htm
http://www.dupont.com/corporatefunctions/our-approach/globalchallenges/food.html
http://irri.org/our-work/research/betterrice-varieties/disease-and-pestresistant-rice
http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_l
ivestock/crops/rice/Diseases/
http://www.agprofessional.com/resourc
e-centers/wheat/disease/news/Dodisease-resistant-wheat-varietiespay-a-price-in-yield-229754951.html
http://www.businessinsider.com/10crops-that-feed-the-world-20119?op=1
http://5e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=
20&id=355
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q4 (a)
Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q5
109
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Extension: learners research the Green Revolution and debate the advantages and
disadvantages of this. (W) (Basic)
v2.1 5Y02
110
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology
Recommended prior knowledge
The structure of proteins and the structure of DNA from Unit 1 should be well understood. In addition, from Unit 3, learners should be familiar with semi-conservative
replication of DNA and understand the principles of transcription, the genetic code and translation in the synthesis of proteins. Knowledge from Unit 7 of gene
expression, including an understanding of how some mutations affect gene expression is also required.
Context
This unit provides learners with the opportunity to consider some of the latest developments in biology and appreciate the key concept of observation and experiment.
In this unit, learners will see how humans can make use of living systems and organisms to benefit themselves, such as in the development of genetically modified
plants and in improvements in genetic screening, in the treatment of genetic disorders and advancements in forensic science. Knowledge and understanding of
biological facts, principles and concepts from previous units will help their understanding of the techniques applied.
Outline
The lac operon is studied as an example of gene regulation and control in eukaryotes is touched upon with a discussion of the role of transcription factors. The study of
gene expression with the use of microarrays is covered. Recombinant DNA is explained and steps involved in genetic engineering are covered, including the use of
enzymes, plasmids, markers and control sequences, including promoters. Two main applications of genetic engineering, the production of proteins of medical
importance and the production of genetically modified crops and livestock are studied. Gel electrophoresis and the amplification of DNA by the polymerase chain
reaction are two techniques that are described and an application of these is considered with an outline of the technique associated with genetic fingerprinting.
Learners see that the pace of development of genetic technology can be partly attributed to bioinformatics. Other aspects of genetic technology that are covered are
the sequencing of genomes, screening for genetic conditions and gene therapy. The unit also includes a discussion on the social and ethical issues and implications of
genetic technology.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 9% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
111
Learning objectives
Learning resources
16.3.b
explain genetic control of protein
production in a prokaryote using the
lac operon
Learners complete a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme) to
remind them of previous knowledge and help understanding of this unit.
o Include relevant questions on: prokaryote structure (including plasmids and
genes for antibiotic resistance); definition of a gene; DNA structure and
replication; protein synthesis. (F)
o Go through the answers before proceeding. (W) (Basic)
Explain that in protein synthesis, gene expression describes the whole process
where DNA is transcribed to produce mRNA, which is translated to produce
polypeptides (that form proteins).
o Discuss the need to control gene expression, as all genes cannot be switched
on at any one time. (W) (Basic)
Explain the concept of an operon, then display a diagram of the arrangement in the
lac operon and describe the gene products of gene Z and gene Y.
o Discuss the roles of lactose permease and -galactosidase in lactose uptake
and metabolism, encouraging learners to contribute using AS Level knowledge.
(W) (Challenging)
Learners participate in a group demonstration using a large model set-up.
o Sheets of coloured paper stuck together represent the operon (promoter,
operator, genes Z, Y and A); the operator gene has a shape cut out,
complementary to the shape of the repressor protein; a separate sheet of paper
represents the regulatory gene (located elsewhere on the genome); use different
shapes for each of glucose, lactose, RNA polymerase and repressor protein.
o Discuss each gene and then place on top of them cards with their labels
(remove to test learners).
o Involve learners to describe the state of the operon when: no lactose is present
and glucose is present; when no glucose is present and lactose is present. (W)
(Challenging)
o Repeat, but this time allow learners to take charge and share out the
demonstration. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Learners annotate a set of diagrams and give explanations. (I) (Challenging)
Learners complete a gap-filling exercise that serves as their notes. (I) (Basic)
Learners sort out a set of statements to show the sequence of events occurring (F)
Online
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/lacoperon.html
http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/gen
eticreg.htm
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
l
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 45: Gene Expression
Note
The lac operon of Escherichia coli was the first example of genetic control
discovered and investigated.
Details of cAMP and the catabolite activator protein are not required.
v2.1 5Y02
112
Learning objectives
Learning resources
16.3.a
distinguish between structural and
regulatory genes and between
repressible and inducible enzymes
Learners make notes on the differences between: structural and regulatory genes;
repressible and inducible enzymes. (I) (Basic)
o Learners also explain that a repressor protein is the product of a regulatory
gene.
o Learners determine whether the enzyme products of the lac operon structural
genes are repressible or inducible enzymes (they are inducible). (I) (Basic)
Online
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/regula
tion.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/lacoperon.html
http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/gen
eticreg.htm
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
l
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
Explain that RNA polymerase in eukaryotic cells cannot initiate transcription alone:
binding of transcription factors (proteins) to the DNA and to each other allow RNA
polymerase to bind; others bind to the RNA polymerase (the whole complex is
termed the transcription initiation complex). (W) (Basic)
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to visualise the function of transcription
factors. (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners investigate more detail of transcription factors, e.g. how inactive
transcription factors can be activated. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://biotech.about.com/od/proteinengi
neering/f/transcriptfact.htm
http://bcs.whfre.d
eman.com/thelifewire/content/chp14/1
402002.html
Discuss how each cell of a multicellular organism contains the same genes, but
some will be inactive and there will be no gene expression (link back to 16.3.b).
o Learners suggest why detection of mRNA is carried out to measure gene
activity. (W) (Basic)
Explain, step-by-step, the principles behind the use of microarrays, with learners
making notes.
o Researchers can now access a database of nucleotide sequences (often called
gene sequences) for different genes.
o Multiple copies of the sequences are placed by robotic machines (micro-scale
process) into separate areas on a solid surface, e.g. glass slide.
o Using reverse transcriptase, cDNA is synthesised using fluorescent nucleotides
from the mRNA collected, indirectly labelling the genes that are most active.
o cDNA added to the microarray surface hybridises (complementary copy) with
their particular gene sequence.
Online
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/g
enomics/chip/chip.html
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
.cfm?id=125
http://www.webbooks.com/MoBio/Free/Chap9.htm
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
abs/microarray/
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
16.3.c
explain the function of transcription
factors in gene expression in
eukaryotes
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
19.1.i
explain, in outline, how microarrays are
used in the analysis of genomes and in
detecting mRNA in studies of gene
expression
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
113
Learning objectives
Learning resources
v2.1 5Y02
Remind learners that, in Unit 7, recombination and recombinant are terms used in
the context of crossing over and the production of genetically different gametes and
offspring. (W) (Basic)
Explain that there are many definitions of recombinant DNA: learners need the idea
that novel DNA is formed by joining together DNA/genes from different sources.
o Explain that DNA can be added to plasmids, hence the term recombinant
plasmid, and transferred from one organism to another, hence recombinant
host. (W) (Basic)
Learners write a definition, qualifying with reference to recombinant plasmids and
recombinant hosts. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/col
lege/voet/0470129301/animated_figs/
ch03/3-26.html
114
Learning objectives
Learning resources
19.1.b
explain that genetic engineering
involves the extraction of genes from
one organism, or the synthesis of
genes, in order to place them in
another organism (of the same or
another species) such that the
receiving organism expresses the
gene product
Remind learners that genes code for proteins and in genetic engineering the desired
product is a protein.
o Learners suggest why it is necessary to use another organism to produce the
protein. (W) (Basic)
Talk learners through the outline construction of a large flow diagram: brief
explanations for each step will help for 19.1.c, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g and 19.1.h,
when they can add further notes (see below). (W) (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.learner.org/interactives/dna/
engineering.html
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/molecul
ar_bio/problem_sets/Recombinant_D
NA_Technology/recombinant_dna.ht
ml
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q7
Learners suggest why mRNA is sometimes used to obtain the gene (many more
copies of the mRNA in the cell than the genes; a host bacterial cell cannot cut out
introns from the RNA transcripts of eukaryotic DNA). (W) (Challenging)
Introduce the idea that DNA libraries are now available. (W) (Basic)
Explain that a vector (carrier) is frequently used (often a plasmid) to get the desired
gene into the host. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss when gene cloning occurs: producing many initial copies of the desired
gene and as the host cell replicates. (W) (Challenging)
Learners revise 17.2.a and give an account of the similarities and differences
between genetic engineering and selective breeding. (H) (Challenging)
Learners investigate what is meant by a cDNA library. (I) (Challenging)
Note
19.1.b can be amalgamated with 19.1.h.
v2.1 5Y02
115
Learning objectives
Learning resources
19.1.h
explain the roles of restriction
endonucleases, reverse transcriptase
and ligases in genetic engineering
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
6/120078/bio37.swf::Restriction%20E
ndonucleases
http://www.geogene.com/genetic-engbasics.html
Online
http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refer
ence/plasmid_background/
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
19.1.e
describe the properties of plasmids
that allow them to be used in gene
cloning
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Past Papers
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(i)
Note
It is preferable to state that plasmids are taken up, rather than placed in bacteria.
Learners should appreciate that other organisms, such as yeasts, are useful in
genetic engineering, as they can carry plasmids.
v2.1 5Y02
116
Learning objectives
Learning resources
19.1.f
explain why promoters and other
control sequences may have to be
transferred as well as the desired gene
Learners recall (16.3.b) that a promoter is a nucleotide sequence on the DNA where
RNA polymerase attaches to initiate transcription.
o Explain that the transcription start point (the first nucleotide to be transcribed) is
within the sequence and the promoter allows the RNA polymerase to recognise
which DNA strand is the template.
o Remind learners of the involvement of transcription factors and that there are
genes coding for these, and that other control sequences exist (no detail
required). (W) (Basic)
With these discussed, learners suggest why, in genetic engineering, promoters and
other control sequences may need to be transferred with the desired gene. (W)
(Challenging)
Learners make brief annotations to their summary flow-chart from 19.1.b. (I) (Basic)
Learners write a short paragraph to explain the role of promoters and why they can
be said to control the expression of a gene. (F)
Extension: learners investigate how the early production of insulin by genetic
engineering used the machinery of the lac operon to control gene expression. (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refer
ence/promoter_background/
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Past Papers
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(ii)
Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (c)(ii)
Note
In bacteria, RNA polymerase recognises and binds to the promoter with the aid of
one main protein transcription factor but in eukaryotes binding is enabled by a
complex of transcription factors.
19.1.g
explain the use of genes for
fluorescent or easily stained
substances as markers in gene
technology
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learners recall the concepts involved in DNA uptake to produce recombinant hosts
(19.1.b).
o Explain that a cut plasmid may (with DNA ligase present) re-circularise and be
taken up by a host bacterial cell, or a bacterial cell may not be transformed (take
up the plasmid). These bacteria would not have the desired gene.
o Agree that some method to identify the recombinant bacteria is desirable
(screening for recombinants) in order to avoid wasting money if all bacterial
forms were cultured together. (W) (Basic)
Use images to explain how the gene encoding GFP, green fluorescent protein (most
commonly used gene), is placed between the promoter and the desired gene.
Transcription of both genes occurs and GFP and the desired product result.
o Discuss how UV light enables selection of host cells for large scale culturing,
while non-recombinant bacteria will not fluoresce. (W) (Challenging)
o Learners add annotations to their flow-chart from 19.1.b about screening for
successful recombinants and write a paragraph of explanation. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.dnaftb.org/34/problem.html
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/GFP/
GFPh.htm
http://www.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zimme
r/GFP-ww/GFP-1.htm
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Flu
orescent_proteins
http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/li
vecellimaging/fpintro.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/tec
hniques/fluorescence/fluorescentprot
eins/fluorescentproteinshome.html
http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/safety/human_healt
117
Learning objectives
19.2.c
explain the advantages of producing
human proteins by recombinant DNA
techniques (reference should be made
to some suitable examples, such as
insulin, factor VIII for the treatment of
haemophilia and adenosine
deaminase for treating severe
combined immunodeficiency (SCID))
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
h/126.position_efsa_antibiotic_resista
nce_markers.html
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ar
ticles/31227.php
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q3 (a)(ii)
Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (b)
Online
http://www.diabetes.co.uk/insulin/huma
n-insulin.html
http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/u
nilever/1618/proteins/Protch4pg3.html
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/adenos
ine-deaminase-deficiency
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
118
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners recall selective breeding in cattle and in crop plants (17.2.f) and
discussions about the global demand for food (and energy).
o Learners suggest ways in which crops and livestock may be genetically modified
to benefit populations.
o Discuss why Golden riceTM providing vitamin A is considered an improvement in
the quality of a crop plant.
o Explore further ideas that crops may be modified to give a higher yield: two main
ways are making crops resistant to herbicides and resistant to pests (insects).
o Learners suggest why livestock improvements (far less common) are not as
universally approved. Discuss the idea of livestock such as sheep, cattle, hens
and goats growing faster, larger and being more resistant to disease.
o Debate the farming of GM salmon (not strictly livestock), which can grow to a
marketable size much quicker than non-GM salmon. (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
Learners write an account explaining why crops genetically modified for herbicide
and pest resistance would lead to increased yields. (I) (Basic)
Learners state ways in which livestock can be modified, giving examples to help
their answer. (I) (Basic)
Learners outline the advantages and disadvantages of crop improvement by
conventional breeding techniques compared to genetic modification. (F)
Extension: learners research examples of crop improvement by genetic modification
(such as frost resistance, ability to fix nitrogen, increased time for fruit spoilage,
drought resistance, etc.) and of livestock improvement. (H) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/
serials/files/regulation/2003/4/v26n14.pdf
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
3364-gm-crops-boost-yields-more-inpoor-countries.html#.UvhpJ_s9BOo
http://www.europabio.org/do-gm-cropsreally-have-higher-yields
http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/agri_biotechnology/
breeding_aims/147.pest_resistant_cr
ops.html
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/to
pic/gmanimals.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering
Bio Factsheet 69: Genetic engineering
in agriculture
Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
weeds and crop yield.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q5 (a)
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)
19.3.b
outline the way in which the production
of crops such as maize, cotton,
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/grocery_shopping/c
119
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners research and produce summary notes about the use of Agrobacterium
tumefaciens as one of the most common vectors and other methods such as
electroporation and gene guns to deliver genetic material into host plant cells.
Learners find, analyse and evaluate data that compares the yields of GM crops with
non-GM crops. (H) (Challenging)
rops/24.genetically_modified_rice.ht
ml
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
dge/library/use-and-impact-of-btmaize-46975413
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice
http://www.goldenrice.org/
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering
Bio Factsheet 69: Genetic engineering
in agriculture
Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
weeds and crop yield.
19.3.c
discuss the ethical and social
implications of using genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) in food
production
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Learners use guidelines to research some ethical and social implications of using
GMOs, and then debate and discuss these points in class. (W) (H) (Basic)
Learners produce summary points about the topic. (I) (Challenging)
Note
Advise learners to look at the source of funding and editorial policy of websites to
gauge whether the information is objective and impartial.
Online
http://technyou.education.csiro.au/mod
ule/ethics-food-andagriculture/page/204/issues
http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GE-ethics.php
http://www.beep.ac.uk
http://www.salmonnation.com/fish/gefis
h.html
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/ourwork/aquaculture/aquaculturegenetically.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering.
Bio Factsheet 106: Ethical issues in Alevel Biology
Bio Factsheet 137: GM Farm Scale
Evaluation Trials.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q5 (b)(c)(d)
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (e)
v2.1 5Y02
120
Learning objectives
Learning resources
19.1.c
describe the principles of the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to
clone and amplify DNA (the role of Taq
polymerase should be emphasised)
Use a question and answer session to agree that: the desired gene used in the
genetic engineering process needs to be cloned (19.1.b); DNA polymerase is
required to replicate DNA (Unit 3); the DNA strands are held together strongly by
many (individually) weak hydrogen bonds. (W) (Basic)
Explain that, outside the cell, heat (approximately 90C) can be used to separate the
DNA strands.
o Learners explain why heat stable polymerase enzymes are required.
o Introduce Taq polymerase derived from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus
aquaticus, and discuss how this enzymes thermostable structure also allows it
to have a long shelf life.
o Explain what primers are before explaining their role in dictating the correct
section of DNA to be copied and enabling Taq polymerase attachment. (W)
(Challenging)
Using diagrams, provide an overview of PCR. Involve learners in explanations of the
benefits of Taq polymerase stability (heating and many cycles). (W) (Basic)
o Learners label the diagrams and produce a two-column table: main stage and
corresponding explanations. (I) (Challenging)
Learners match statements of the main stages with explanations of why they are
carried out, they then sequence them. (F)
Learners match statements of the components involved to their role in the process.
(F)
Online
http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index
.cfm?id=159
http://www.webbooks.com/MoBio/Free/Ch9E.htm
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/119-investigatingplant-evolution-amplifying-dna-usingpcr
http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/notebook/
pcr.htm
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
in biology: genetics.
Note
Explanation of a primer can be limited to the idea of a short nucleotide sequence
that binds to the DNA template strand at a specific sequence, so enabling chain
elongation.
T. aquaticus was discovered in 1969 in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming,
USA, noted for its hot springs and geysers.
19.1.d
describe and explain how gel
electrophoresis is used to analyse
proteins and nucleic acids, and to
distinguish between the alleles of a
gene (limited to the separation of
polypeptides and the separation of
DNA fragments cut with restriction
endonucleases)
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 12
Online
http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/?id=
56
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/molbio/geldige
st/electro.html#run
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
MATERIALS/menu.html
121
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Learners explain why samples of DNA/RNA will move towards the anode
(phosphate groups give a negative charge), and how restriction enzymes (see
19.1.h) will give specific different-sized fragments.
o Explain that the solution containing the DNA fragments can be treated so the
charge is the same for all; hence they are separated by size/length (all
fragments same shape).
o Discuss how RNA molecules will be of different lengths and hence separation by
size will work. (W) (Basic)
Learners use kits (or simulations) to carry out gel electrophoresis of DNA. (I)
(Challenging)
Using resources, learners draw an annotated diagram that helps to outline the
principles behind the process, using nucleic acids as an example. (I) (Basic)
Learners recall protein molecular structure to realise that a mixture can be different
lengths, charges and shapes, hence requiring a different electrophoresis set-up to
DNA. (W) (Basic)
o Explain that a buffer can be used to provide a uniform negative charge and
unfold the proteins.
Learners research identification of a protein by protein blotting or antibody tagging.
(H) (Challenging)
Learners investigate the uses of gel electrophoresis in the analysis of proteins and
nucleic acids and a class list made of each to display. (W) (H) (Basic)
Extension: learners research the advantages and disadvantages of the two main
gels, agarose and polyacrylamide. (I) (Challenging)
Learners discuss the differences that may exist between alleles of a gene.
o Discuss how alleles of only slightly different length can be detected with the
correct gel composition.
o Explain that if alleles are the same or similar, undetectable length, restriction
enzymes could be used to obtain fragments: different fragments with different
sequences can be detected. An alternative is using a DNA probe.
o Mention that there are DNA sequence libraries to obtain known sequences to
act as markers.
o Use sickle cell anaemia to exemplify how differences between alleles can
sometimes be detected by sampling the protein products, e.g. the two types of
haemoglobin (confirms carrier status). (W) (Challenging
Practical booklet 12 is a protocol for separating dyes by gel electrophoresis that
demonstrates the principles involved in separating DNA.
http://www.bio-rad.com/
http://www.edvotek.com/
http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vl
ab/Other_exps/endo/electrophoresis.
htm
http://www.bio-rad.com/enca/applications-technologies/proteinelectrophoresis
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/lehninger5e/
content/cat_020/0301_gel_electropho
resis.html?v=chapter&i=03020.01&s=
03000&n=00020&o=7
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
abs/gel/
http://www.neosci.com/demos/101091_DNA/Labs_RestrictionEnzyme.
swf
http://www.biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/
dna_lab/gel_electrophoresis
www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/protocol
s/PDF/DiceSG.pdf
http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/c
gi-bin/wordpress/2011/03/genetictesting/
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
in Biology: Genetics.
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q3 (b)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q2 (b)
122
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Note
Generally, small agarose gels are used to separate DNA (lower voltage for
approximately 1-2 hours) whereas large polyacrylamide gels are required for
proteins (higher voltages for about 4 hours). Different electrophoresis tanks and
power packs are required.
Links to 19.2.d: genetic screening can involve gel electrophoresis, e.g. identifying
carriers. In some cases restriction enzymes are used, or probes to locate specific
base sequences.
o Cystic fibrosis: some mutant alleles have large deletions.
o Huntingtons disease: the mutant allele of the Huntington gene has tri-nucleotide
repeat sequences.
o Some cases of haemophilia: a mutant allele in the factor VIII gene has an
insertion that inactivates the gene.
19.2.g
outline the use of PCR and DNA
testing in forensic medicine and
criminal investigations
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that pure DNA or DNA mixed with other biological materials (e.g. in a tissue
sample such as dried blood) is analysed and compared to existing profiles or known
markers.
o Explain what variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) are and detail their
importance in an analysis, including: a particular VNTR occurs at a specific
locus; for a particular VNTR different individuals can have a different number of
repeats (so different lengths of the DNA section); VNTRs that are very variable
in different individuals can be used as markers. (W) (Challenging)
Learners suggest the role of PCR (amplify the quantity of each VNTR marker in the
sample). (W) (Basic)
Ensure learners understand that the chance that two individuals (except for identical
twins) have exactly matching DNA profiles (genetic fingerprints) for these selected
markers is virtually nil. (W) (Challenging)
Learners use resources to extract the main points of the technique of genetic
fingerprinting and list as bullet points. (I) (Challenging)
Learners carry out analyses of different results of genetic fingerprints or make up
their own worksheet containing simulated results from a crime scene to swap within
the class for another learner to analyse. (P) (I) (Basic)
Learners explain the role of PCR in DNA fingerprinting and outline the principles as
applied to VNTRs:
o Very small samples of DNA can be analysed.
o Millions of DNA copies can be produced (so can run many tests on the same
original DNA sample).
Online
https://koshland-sciencemuseum.org/sites/all/exhibits/exhibitd
na/index.jsp
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
abs/pcr/
http://technyou.education.csiro.au/mod
ule/dna-profiling/page/220/dnaprofiles-forensic-use
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppar
d/analyze.html
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q3 (a)
123
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Longer VNTRs will be impeded more by the gel (move a shorter distance in the
same time than the shorter VNTRs). (I) (Challenging)
19.2.a
define the term bioinformatics
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
19.2.b
outline the role of bioinformatics
following the sequencing of genomes,
such as those of humans and
parasites, e.g. Plasmodium (details of
methods of DNA sequencing are not
required)
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
Learners work out what the term bioinformatics means: biology and data, computer
science and information technology merged into one (remind them about statistics).
(W) (G) (Basic)
Explain that there are linked databases holding freely available, continually updated,
information on: nucleotide sequences of genes (gene sequences); whole genome
sequences; mutation sequences; amino acid sequences of proteins; protein
structures; phenotypic data.
o Ideas for learners to consider: input, storage and retrieval of biological
information for analysis; data that can be searched is increasing exponentially.
o Learners define the term bioinformatics and list the principles involved. (W) (I)
(Challenging)
Demonstrate how to use BLAST (basic local alignment search tool), which compares
nucleotide or protein sequences to databases. When a match is found, the statistical
significance of the match is calculated.
o Show learners how a nucleotide sequence can be matched to an amino acid
sequence and how these may match up to known genes belonging to
organisms. (W) (Challenging)
Learners explore the world of bioinformatics for themselves if there is internet
access and report back findings. (W) (H) (Challenging)
Note
Suitable databases to explore are Ensembl (genome), GenBank (DNA sequence),
UniProt (protein sequence), PDB (protein structure) and COSMIC (somatic
mutations in cancer).
Online
http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads
/genomiclinks.pdf
http://www.bioinformatics.org/wiki/Bioin
formatics_FAQ
http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info
%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.
1002789
http://www.biotnet.org/trainingmaterials/das-game
http://www.genecards.org/#
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
.cfm?id=17
http://www.malacards.org/
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Genes-Genomes-andHealth/WTDV027167.htm
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/genomics-enables-scientists-tostudy-genetic-variability-6526364
Online
http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads
/genomiclinks.pdf
http://www.bioinformatics.org/wiki/Bioin
formatics_FAQ
http://www.genecards.org/#
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
.cfm?id=17
http://www.malacards.org/
124
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Genes-Genomes-andHealth/WTDV027167.htm
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/genomics-enables-scientists-tostudy-genetic-variability-6526364
http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/do
wnloads/protozoa/plasmodiumfalciparum.html
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
419/n6906/full/nature01097.html
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/H
uman_Genome/project/timeline.shtml
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/H
uman_Genome/project/info.shtml
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/H
uman_Genome/publicat/genegatewa
y/GeneGatewayHandout.pdf
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Genes-Genomes-andHealth/WTDV027173.htm
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Genes-Genomes-andHealth/Videos-genomes-and-genetictesting/WTDV027199.htm
v2.1 5Y02
125
Learning objectives
Learning resources
19.2.d
outline the advantages of screening for
genetic conditions (reference may be
made to tests for specific genes such
as those for breast cancer, BRCA1
and BRCA2, and genes for
haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia,
Huntingtons disease and cystic
fibrosis)
Learners suggest what is involved in genetic screening (using family history and, if
the test is available, analysing tissue samples for DNA) and name conditions for
which genetic screening is available.
o Ensure the conditions listed are included and explained. (W)
Explain what is meant by genetic counselling. (W) (Basic)
Brainstorm advantages of screening for genetic conditions and complete the list if
necessary.
o Provides information about increased risk of having genetic conditions.
o Identifies carriers.
o Early diagnosis, including identification of disorders in embryos.
o Identifies conditions in foetuses (early treatment may be possible and allows
parents to prepare.
o Enables decisions to be made about having children or having follow-up
treatment. (W) (Challenging)
Learners research and make outline notes on the genetic conditions named, then
match up advantages from the brainstorm list to each condition. (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners suggest some of the disadvantages of screening. (I)
(Challenging)
Online
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cy
sticfibrosis.html
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/B
BSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/d
isorders/screening/
http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/hdsat
est.php
http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch
256/ch256b.html
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection,
Observation and experiment
Note
This topic needs careful handling.
Background: some genetic conditions are more common in certain groups as a
result of common ancestry (sharing similar genetic make-up), e.g. cystic fibrosis is
most common in Caucasians; sickle cell anaemia is common in West and East
African, African-American and Mediterranean populations; Huntingtons disease is
more common in Europe and countries with European links.
19.2.e
outline how genetic diseases can be
treated with gene therapy and discuss
the challenges in choosing appropriate
vectors, such as viruses, liposomes
and naked DNA (reference may be
made to SCID, inherited eye diseases
and cystic fibrosis)
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that in gene therapy, the aim is for affected cells to take up the normal, nonmutated gene and produce the normal, functioning protein product.
o Prompt learners to suggest methods of delivery of the normal gene, such as
viruses and liposomes (you may need to describe liposomes). (W) (Basic)
Learners discuss in groups why viruses may be ideal vectors, and then share ideas
with the class. Features: small; can be manipulated to incorporate the gene, be
harmless and not trigger an immune response; target particular cells and enter, or
inject the gene into the cell; have mechanisms to pass through the mucus lining
cells; can integrate their nucleic acid into the target cell genome.
o Explain that the ideal virus is difficult to find as it will be almost impossible to fit
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease in
Humans.
Bio Factsheet 134: Cystic Fibrosis
Bio Factsheet 215: Genetic Testing
and Screening
Online
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cy
sticfibrosis.html
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/B
BSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/d
isorders/screening/
http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/hdsat
est.php
126
Learning objectives
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch
256/ch256b.html
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/g
enetherapy
http://www.visionresearch.eu/index.php?id=696
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
24879-gene-therapy-restores-sightin-people-with-eye-disease.html
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg
22029413.200-bubble-kid-successputs-gene-therapy-back-on-track.html
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics/
sect4.htm
http://www.genemedresearch.ox.ac.uk/
genetherapy/cfgt.html
http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/1
71873-naked-dna-gene-therapyused-to-non-invasively-cure-heartdisease
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therap
y/procedures
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q5
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q10 (a)
19.2.f
discuss the social and ethical
considerations of using gene testing
and gene therapy in medicine
(reference should be made to genetic
conditions for which treatments exist
and where none exist, also to IVF,
embryo biopsy and preselection and to
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that there are social and ethical considerations (see Note) of using gene
testing and gene therapy.
o Agree that not all genetic conditions are treatable.
o Discuss issues arising from: gene testing embryos by performing an embryo
biopsy; couples deciding on IVF treatment for embryo testing and preselection
for implantation.
o If not discussed in 19.2.d, explain briefly what is meant by therapeutic abortion.
Online
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/
505222_4
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therth
e/ethics
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
127
Learning objectives
therapeutic abortions)
(W) (Basic)
Learners write their ideas under four headings on pieces of paper Gene testing
social consideration; Gene testing ethical consideration; Gene therapy - social
consideration; Gene therapy - ethical consideration.
o Learners justify their statements to a small group and, if agreed, add it to a
poster.
o Display the posters for learners to consider and make notes. (G) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q5
Note
This needs to be treated with sensitivity.
Social = related to human society, e.g. interdependence, mutual relationships,
cooperation for all to benefit.
Ethics = set of agreed standards, determine what is acceptable, followed by a group
of individuals, regulated behaviour.
v2.1 5Y02
128
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 9: Respiration
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer and understand that energy contained within biological compounds can be released for use by the cell.
They should have a sound understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the concept of
oxidation and reduction, at least at a simple level.
Context
This unit considers the key concept of biochemical processes and focuses on how the energy contained within food molecules such as glucose is transferred into the
universal energy currency of ATP for use in the cell. All unicellular and multicellular organisms use the organic compound ATP to drive the energy-requiring processes
that occur in cells. There are many direct links to other areas of the syllabus, such as: the structure and role of glucose and lipids from Unit 1; mitochondrion structure
and function from Unit 2; the role of enzymes in metabolic reactions from Unit 2; and ATP from Units 1 and 3. The unit has close links with photosynthesis in Unit 11,
which also covers the concept of energy transfer and ATP synthesis. Throughout the syllabus there are examples of the use of ATP for biochemical processes.
Outline
This unit covers the need for energy in living organisms and the universal occurrence of ATP as energy currency. The four main stages of aerobic respiration,
glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are described. A distinction is made between the synthesis of ATP by substrate-linked
reactions and by oxidative phosphorylation; the role of coenzymes in these stages is made clear. A comparison is made between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in
mammals and in yeast. An explanation of RQ is given and different respiratory substrates are considered. Learners use respirometers to make quantitative studies of
respiration and have an opportunity to improve planning and evaluative skills. This unit lends itself to sequential descriptions and the construction of flow diagrams to
illustrate the many different stages that occur within the overall process.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 7% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
129
Learning objectives
Learning resources
12.1.a
outline the need for energy in living
organisms, as illustrated by anabolic
reactions, such as DNA replication
and protein synthesis, active transport,
movement and the maintenance of
body temperature
Online
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchem
book/592energy.html
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teacher
s/Resources/cfb/index.htm
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Note
Ensure that learners understand the meanings of the terms metabolism and
catabolism.
12.1.b
describe the features of ATP that
make it suitable as the universal
energy currency
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/A/ATP.html
http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/metabolism
/entrans.html#atpadp
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBookATP.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 129: ATP what it is,
what it does
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (a)
12.2.a
list the four stages in aerobic
respiration (glycolysis, link reaction,
Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation) and state where
each occurs in eukaryotic cells
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://leavingbio.net/RESPIRATION%28ordinary%20level%29.htm
http://leavingbio.net/respiration%28higher%20level%29.htm
130
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes,
Natural selection
12.2.b
outline glycolysis as phosphorylation
of glucose and the subsequent
splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
(6C) into two triose phosphate
molecules, which are then further
oxidised to pyruvate with a small yield
of ATP and reduced NAD
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(iii)
Note
Glycolysis: can be shown later as glucose pyruvate.
Link reaction: pyruvate entering the mitochondrial matrix and the reaction with
coenzyme A, acetyl coenzyme A, enters the cycle.
Krebs cycle: main stages of the cycle only, showing involvement of FAD and NAD,
decarboxylation and ATP production.
Oxidative phosphorylation: NADH and FADH leaving the cycle to the crista, ATP
formation.
Highlight to learners the similar biochemistry in different species of organisms (link
to the evidence for evolution in Unit 7).
Build up the idea that: (i) respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled metabolic
reactions, (ii) it takes place in all living cells, and (iii) energy contained in molecules
such as glucose is used to make ATP molecules. (W) (Basic)
Explain that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm (in virtually every organism) in both
anaerobic and aerobic respiration. (W) (Basic)
Learners copy out a skeleton flow diagram of glycolysis, with glucose, the two
intermediates, and pyruvate shown (missing intermediate stages could be signified
by the correct number of arrows in between).
o With question and answer prompts, learners build up their flow charts with detail
and explanatory annotations. Ensure they understand that: coenzyme NAD is
required to act as an electron (hydrogen) carrier for the enzyme-catalysed
reaction (see 12.1.d); NADH has different fates, depending on whether or not
oxygen is available.
o Learners show clearly the tally of ATP use and production.
o The number of carbons for each of the molecules in the process is shown in
brackets. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Explain that in glycolysis ATP can be formed when another phosphorylated organic
compound transfers a phosphate to ADP: so ATP is synthesised as a product in a
substrate-linked reaction (see 12.1.c). (W) (Basic)
Online
http://glycolysis.co.uk/
www.science.smith.edu/departments/
Biology/Bio231/glycolysis.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/cellularrespirati
on.html
http://www.johnkyrk.com/glycolysis.ht
ml
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/9834092339/student_vi
ew0/chapter7/how_glycolysis_works.
html
http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/res
pir.html
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
Note
If able learners are given a more complete picture, stress that the additional
v2.1 5Y02
131
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Explain that pyruvate travels from the cytosol through the inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes to enter the matrix where the link reaction occurs. (W)
(Basic)
Learners study and comment on the link reaction equation before making notes.
They should note that:
o Coenzyme A transfers an acetyl group to the Krebs cycle (see 12.1.d).
o Carbon dioxide is given off, hence decarboxylation* occurs.
o NAD acts as an electron (hydrogen) carrier, hence dehydrogenation* occurs.
o The reaction occurs twice for each original glucose molecule. (G) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Note
See 12.2.e also.
12.2.d
outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that
oxaloacetate (a 4C compound) acts as
an acceptor of the 2C fragment from
acetyl coenzyme A to form citrate (a
6C compound), which is reconverted
to oxaloacetate in a series of small
steps
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Build up the simple diagram showing the required steps in the Krebs cycle, including
the number of carbon atoms for the three named compounds.
o Emphasise: its cyclic nature; enzyme-controlled reactions (no names required);
more steps are involved than is shown. (W) (I) (Basic)
Explain that two carbon dioxide molecules are released for one turn of the cycle and
ask learners to decide where this is and add to the diagram.
o Tell learners where substrate-linked phosphorylation occurs (see 12.2.b and
12.1.c) so they can add ATP formation to their diagram (knowledge of GTP not
required).
o Learners volunteer the role of NAD and FAD, and then add the formation of
NADH and FADH to their cycle (see 12.2.d). (I) (Basic)
Learners state and explain how many turns of the cycle occur for each molecule of
glucose. (I) (Basic)
Allow learners a short time to look at their diagrams, and then talk through the steps
while they draw the cycle. (F)
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/learners
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/b
oyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tca.
htm
http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
ents/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
ew0/chapter25/animation__how_the
_krebs_cycle_works__quiz_1_.html
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/learners
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/b
oyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tca.
htm
http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
ents/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
Note
Learners should avoid websites that have far more detail than required.
v2.1 5Y02
132
Learning objectives
12.2.e
explain that reactions in the Krebs
cycle involve decarboxylation and
dehydrogenation and the reduction of
NAD and FAD
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
12.1.c
explain that ATP is synthesised in
substrate-linked reactions in glycolysis
and in the Krebs cycle
Learning resources
Note
Dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes could be mentioned here (not required
learning).
Learners add an explanation of ATP synthesis by substrate-linked reactions to their
summary diagram of 12.2.a. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://sandwalk.blogspot.co.uk/2007/1
2/how-cells-make-atp-substratelevel.html
Learners label a basic diagram of the membrane carriers of the electron transport
chain (ETC) and the ATP synthase (synthetase) complex in the inner mitochondrial /
crista membrane (include labels for the mitochondrial matrix and the intermembrane space).
With prompting and guidance, learners show on their diagram the transfer of
hydrogen to the membrane from NADH and FADH and the release of the
coenzymes for re-use in the Krebs cycle. (W) (Basic)
Learners contribute to build up the rest of the diagram. For the electron transport
chain include:
o Hydrogen from NAD/FAD split into protons and electrons.
o Oxidation-reduction reactions are involved (hence oxidative) as electrons are
transported down the ETC (i.e. to lower energy levels).
o Energy provided by the electron transfer is used to pump protons from the
matrix into the intermembrane space.
o Oxygen (final electron acceptor) + electrons + protons produce water as a waste
product.
For chemiosmosis, use learner knowledge of AS Level to discuss:
o The relatively impermeability of the membrane to protons (so allowing a buildup).
Online
http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
ents/Biology/Bio231/etc.html
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp07/0702001.html
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
12.2.g
explain that during oxidative
phosphorylation:
energetic electrons release energy
as they pass through the electron
transport system
the released energy is used to
transfer protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane
protons return to the mitochondrial
matrix by facilitated diffusion
through ATP synthase providing
energy for ATP synthesis (details of
ATP synthase are not required)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 12: Respiration
Past Papers
Paper 42, June 2013, Q4 (a)(i)
133
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Online
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/fl
ashanimat/metabolism/mido%20e%2
0transport.swf
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (c)
Note
Carriers do not need identifying but explain that these are membrane proteins.
Learners should be able tackle the concepts involved in 12.2.h if they have
mastered the outline of 12.2.g.
Chemiosmosis as a term is not specified in a learning objective, but learners should
be familiar with the term.
12.1.e (i)
explain that the synthesis of ATP is
associated with the electron
transport chain on the membranes
of mitochondria and chloroplasts
(see 12.2.g)
Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of ATP is
associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of mitochondria (see
12.2.g)
With a brief written test, confirm learner knowledge and understanding of this
learning objective (all details previously covered). (I) (Basic)
In preparation for Unit 11, explain that there is also an ETC located in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts. (W) (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
K21063/
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
134
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Explain that many enzymes require a non-protein (co-)factor, in their active site to
help in catalysis, and that organic cofactors that associate with the enzyme during
catalysis and then dissociate are known as coenzymes. (W) (Basic)
Ensure learners now understand that NAD and FAD are electron (hydrogen)
carriers, so become reduced and can give electrons to electron acceptors during
respiration (becoming oxidised again).
o Learners should be clear that the oxidation of NADH and FADH releases energy
that can be used to synthesise ATP. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thorntonsrv/databases/CoFactor/index.php
From electron micrographs of mitochondria, learners identify the outer and inner
membrane, cristae and matrix.
o Learners check if 70S ribosomes and small circular DNA is visible. (P) (I)
(Basic)
Learners construct an annotated diagram summarising how the structure of a
mitochondrion is adapted for its functions. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitochondrio
n.html
Use flow diagrams to explain the lactate pathway in mammals and the ethanol
pathway in yeast, with learners providing the main outline of glycolysis (glucose to
pyruvate) and naming the location (cytoplasm). (W) (Basic)
Explain that these pathways occur when oxygen is not available, with pyruvate and
ethanol acting as the final electron acceptors to produce lactate and ethanol as
waste products. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest why pyruvate needs to be processed further when no more ATP
is produced (the regeneration of NAD to allow glycolysis to continue - there is a very
limited quantity of NAD in each cell). (W) (Basic)
Learners add an outline to their summary diagram of 12.2.a after making their own
flow diagrams. (I) (Basic)
Learners begin with oxidative phosphorylation and work backwards through earlier
stages to write down a series of statements showing the consequences if oxygen is
not available. (F) (Challenging)
Learners research the concept of oxygen debt and write an explanation.
Online
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
arabee/BIOBK/BioBookGlyc.html#An
aerobic
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/oxd
ebit.htm
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
mitochondria
Textbooks/Publications
King p.84
Siddiqui p.101
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2013, Q4 (b)
135
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Annotations can be added to the lactate pathway to show how, when oxygen
becomes available, lactate can be converted back to pyruvate, which can then
be converted to glucose and glycogen for storage, or enter the Krebs cycle. (H)
(Challenging)
Extension practical: learners investigate the effect of different concentrations of
ethanol on rates of respiration in yeast. (I) (Challenging)
Note
Mention to learners that anaerobic respiration in yeast is also known as alcoholic or
ethanol fermentation and that anaerobic respiration in mammalian tissues is also
known as lactic acid or lactate fermentation.
Explain to learners that the reduction of pyruvate to lactate is common in many
bacteria. Highlight that these reactions are similar in widely different species of
organism.
12.2.l
explain how rice is adapted to grow
with its roots submerged in water in
terms of tolerance to ethanol from
respiration in anaerobic conditions and
the presence of aerenchyma
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment
12.2.j
distinguish between respiration in
aerobic and anaerobic conditions in
mammalian tissue and in yeast cells,
contrasting the relative energy
released by each (a detailed account
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au
/edition1/?q=content/18-1-2adaptive-responses-waterlogging
www.biologymad.com/resources/Crop
%20Plants.pps
Learners suggest what is meant by respiration: brainstorm ideas such as: the
release of energy from food; the production of ATP; ATP for use by the cell; the
process occurs in the cell.
o Expand the discussion to distinguish between aerobic respiration and
respiration in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic)
Emphasise that most of the ATP is synthesised as a result of oxidative
Textbooks/Publications
Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory, has
on page 205 (2007), or on page 277
(2013), a balance sheet of ATP use
and synthesis. This could be used to
give learners an idea of the
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)(b)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q10 (b)
136
Learning objectives
phosphorylation, requiring the reduced coenzymes from the link reaction and Krebs
cycle (compare with the 2ATPs produced without oxygen). (W) (Basic)
Learners make notes comparing respiration in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
(W) (Basic)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
12.2.h
carry out investigations to determine
the effect of factors such as
temperature and substrate
concentration on the rate of respiration
of yeast using a redox indicator (e.g.
DCPIP or methylene blue)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
12.1.f
explain the relative energy values of
carbohydrate, lipid and protein as
respiratory substrates and explain why
lipids are particularly energy-rich
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Note
Balance sheets are not required. There are different totals for ATP production in
aerobic respiration, varying from 32, to 36, to 38 in older text books. In more recent
texts, the estimate of 1NADH = 3ATP is now seen as approximately 1NADH =
2.5ATP (also 1FADH = 1.5ATP).
Learning resources
difference in relative energy
released.
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(ii)
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
Remind learners that yeast is not a plant but a fungus. Emphasise that yeast
respires aerobically and in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic)
Explain that redox dyes are used as indicators of hydrogen transfer and in
investigations can be used as artificial hydrogen acceptors to provide a visual check
on the rate of respiration (the reduction of NAD or FAD cannot be seen). (W)
(Basic)
o State that methylene blue is blue in the oxidised state (without hydrogens) and
turns colourless as hydrogens are accepted and it becomes reduced. (W)
(Basic)
o With this knowledge, small groups can be set the task of planning an
appropriate investigation to carry out. (G) (Challenging)
Note
These investigations are a good opportunity to develop planning skills.
Experiments with yeast and anaerobic respiration require the substrate solution
(e.g. glucose) to be boiled (to remove oxygen) and cooled.
Learners recall the overall equation for aerobic respiration and understand how it
balances. (W) (Basic)
Explain that many cells can use other respiratory substrates, such as other sugars,
lipids and proteins, and that different substrates have different energy values per
unit mass. (W) (Basic)
Reflect back to 12.1.e to remind learners about the importance of supplying
hydrogen to the ETC for electron flow and the release of energy for ATP production.
Learners consider ratios of C, H and O, to explain and note down the relative
energy values of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, noting that lipids, with
proportionately more hydrogen per g of substrate, will yield more energy. (W) (I)
Online
http://mutuslab.cs.uwindsor.ca/schurk
o/animations/bombcal/animation4.ht
m
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0073040541/learner_vi
ew0/chapter7/animation__bomb_cal
orimeter.html#
137
Learning objectives
Learning resources
(Basic)
Note
Knowledge of how the energy values are obtained is not required (see learning
resources / endorsed textbooks for background information).
12.1.g
define the term respiratory quotient
(RQ) and determine RQs from
equations for respiration
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment
12.2.m
carry out investigations, using simple
respirometers, to measure the effect
of temperature on the respiration rate
of germinating seeds or small
invertebrates
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Learners write out the definition of respiratory quotient and the formula to use when
calculating RQ values.
o Explain that volumes or moles or molecules can be used but for any one
calculation they should not be mixed.
o Learners calculate the RQ value for glucose. (W) (I) (Basic)
When provided with equations, learners calculate the RQs for named substrates.
(P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners construct a summary table for carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
(approximate values). (I) (Basic)
o Learner explain the link between high RQ values and anaerobic respiration. (I)
(Basic)
Learners try SAQ 15.8, in Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory (2007), to calculate an
RQ for a fatty acid. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
Explain how to use a simple respirometer to determine the rate of oxygen uptake
and rate of carbon dioxide production. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the benefits of using thermostatically-controlled water baths to maintain a
constant temperature.
o Learners suggest other ways of maintaining a constant temperature, with peer
evaluation of the method. (P) (I)
Practical booklet 7 involves using a simple respirometer and provides opportunity
for data analysis and planning for Paper 5. Learners plan an investigation to find the
optimum temperature for respiration. Learners swap and carry out a partners plan
exactly as written, each to provide their partner with an evaluation of the plan. (P) (I)
(Challenging)
Practical booklet 7
Note
You may wish to save time and also carry out the requirement of 12.1.h.
Simple designs, using a single syringe and capillary tubing (as in Practical booklet
7) are far more sensitive to temperature and require minimal handling.
The simple respirometers are more reliable in yielding results than the modifications
of the Barcroft respirometer, usually given in practical guides.
v2.1 5Y02
Textbooks/Publications
In Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
pages 208-209 (2007), or page 281
(2013), explains respiratory quotient
and has worked examples.
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q8 (c)
Online
http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
ogy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
ml
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
Textbooks/Publications
King p.80-83
Siddiqui p.101-103
138
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
Practical booklet 7
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
ogy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
ml
Textbooks/Publications
King p.80-83
Siddiqui p.101-103
v2.1 5Y02
139
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination
Recommended prior knowledge
Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure and the structure of a cell surface membrane. They should have an appreciation of the role of the various
components, particularly the role of glycoproteins as receptors in cell signalling and of membrane transport proteins. They should understand the concept of water
potential and have good knowledge of transport mechanisms across membranes, including facilitated diffusion and active transport from Unit 2.
Context
This unit builds on the key concept of cells as the basic units of life to consider how mammals, as multicellular organisms, control and coordinate activities and how
homeostatic mechanisms enable a balance to be maintained. The maintenance of homeostatic mechanisms for healthy functioning, such as in controlling blood
glucose concentrations, extends learner understanding of non-infectious disease. Cell structure, cell membranes, transport across membranes and the mammalian
circulatory system are topics covered at AS Level that are an important foundation for the learning objectives studied in this unit. A study of dipsticks, biosensors and
the contraceptive pill highlights the dependence of humans on biotechnology: biotechnology results from observation, enquiry and experiment, a key concept. The
examples studied here extend learner knowledge from those already covered in Unit 8.
Outline
This unit begins by highlighting the importance of responding to external and internal stimuli with effective control and coordination by the nervous system and by the
endocrine system. The structure and function of the motor and sensory neurone is covered and there is a detailed study of the transmission of nerve impulses,
including transmission across the synapse and the neuromuscular junction, followed by a consideration of the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. Learners
consider the involvement of the nervous and endocrine systems in homeostatic mechanisms and discuss the role of negative feedback. Thermoregulation,
osmoregulation and blood glucose regulation exemplify the importance of homeostasis in mammals. The production of urea and the role of the kidney in the excretion
of nitrogenous wastes are described. Detail of the control of blood glucose concentration and water content (by the kidney) illustrates the concept of homeostasis.
Biotechnological applications are included by considering the use of dipsticks and biosensors in the detection of glucose in the blood and urine, and of protein and
ketones in urine. The unit concludes with a study of the menstrual cycle and the role of hormones in the cycle, which leads to a description of the contraceptive pill.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
140
Learning objectives
Learning resources
15.1.a
compare the nervous and endocrine
systems as communication systems
that co-ordinate responses to changes
in the internal and external
environment (see 14.1.a) and 14.1.b)
Discuss the need for communication between organs in a multicellular organism and
how activities need to be controlled and coordinated. (W) (Basic)
Use a brainstorm session to gauge learner knowledge and to discuss the main
features of each. As individuals make suggestions and agree whether they are
referring to the nervous or endocrine system. (W) (Basic)
o Learners note down that the two systems are for control, coordination and
internal communication, and that they can interrelate and affect each other. (W)
(Basic)
Learners research and give definitions of the terms: stimulus, receptor, effector,
control centre and response. (I) (Basic)
Learners list the features of an endocrine gland (an organ or tissue), with teacher
guidance. (W) (I) (Basic)
o Learners sketch endocrine glands onto a cut-out / diagram of a body and name
the hormones that they secrete. Fill in any gaps in knowledge, mentioning those
particularly that are in this syllabus. (I) (Basic)
o Learners name the target cells / tissues of each hormone, consolidating
understanding of hormones acting at a distance from their origin and at particular
sites of action. (W) (Basic)
Focus on the nervous system and ask what the equivalent to the hormones would
be to enable coordination. Encourage learners to use the terms nerve impulses or
impulses. (W) (Basic)
Continue the discussion for learners to name the brain as the main control centre,
and muscles and glands, including endocrine glands, as effectors.
Divide the class into two. One half participates in a group discussion to suggest
examples of internal changes in organisms, stating for each one: the organs /
systems that are affected; receptor(s); communication method; effector(s); and
response(s). The other half suggests examples of changes in external environment.
The two groups come together to share ideas. (W) (G) (Basic).
CD-ROM
Bioscope has images of nerves (LS
and TS).
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
Online
http://www.udel.edu/Biology/Wags/hist
opage/colorpage/cp/cp.htm
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology/nervous-and-hormonalcontrol
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 38: Animal hormones
and hormone action.
King p. 151-152
Siddiqui p.164-167, 171
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q9 (a)
Note
It will be noted that both systems involve negative feedback a verbal clarification of
this mechanism is sufficient as learners will define the term later.
Understanding of all terms will be consolidated as learners cover specific examples
within the unit.
15.1.b
describe the structure of a sensory
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that nerves are composed of many specialised nerve cells, neurones, held
by connective tissue. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/facul
141
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners draw, label and annotate a sensory and a motor neurone. (I) (Basic)
o Learners compare the diagrams with electron micrographs. (I) (Challenging)
Learners explain how the structure of the neurone is related to its function (or wait
until after 15.1.d has been covered). (H) (Basic)
Learners complete unlabelled and incomplete diagrams (the diagrams could lack
nuclei, myelin sheaths and synaptic knobs). (F)
ty/farabee/biobk/BioBookNERV.html#
The%20Neuron
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/N/Neurons.html
Explain the difference between a sensory receptor cell and a sense organ, e.g.
tongue = organ of taste; taste cells are chemoreceptors (sensory receptor cells)
found in clusters called taste buds. (W) (Basic)
Explain that the different forms of energy arriving at the sensory receptor get
converted (transduced) into electrical energy of the nerve impulse.
o State that all sensory receptors are transducers. (W) (Basic)
Learners research and list the different sensory receptors in humans and name the
forms of energy received by each receptor. (P) (I) (Basic)
Describe the sensory neurone with a resting potential and explain how a stimulus
leads to membrane depolarisation and impulse transmission.
o State that depolarisation causes an action potential to be generated and explain
that details are covered later. (W) (Challenging)
Choose for example, chemoreceptors as sensory receptors and state that they
detect specific molecules or classes of molecule.
o Learners suggest internal and external stimuli that are detected by
chemoreceptors and give examples of responses (e.g. the difference between
harmful / toxic substances taken into the mouth and food). (W) (Basic)
Show learners a diagram of a sensory receptor cell / chemoreceptor and explain that
a taste cell has contact with a sensory neurone.
o Explain that the binding of molecules to receptors on the cell surface membrane
(many microvilli) of the taste cell leads to depolarisation, which is passed onto
the sensory neurone and the control centre.
o Learners state the type of transduction that has occurred. (W) (Challenging)
Learners produce a diagram of a sensory receptor cell, showing synapses with
dendrites of a sensory neurone.
o Learners annotate the sequence of events occurring from the detection of a
stimulus to an impulse being transmitted along the sensory neurone. (I)
(Challenging)
Introduce the terms receptor potential and all-or-nothing law/rule, either by teacher-
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp44/4402001.html
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/t
wopt.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/tasteand-smell
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
15.1.c
outline the roles of sensory receptor
cells in detecting stimuli and
stimulating the transmission of nerve
impulses in sensory neurones (a
suitable example is the chemoreceptor
cell found in human taste buds)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
v2.1 5Y02
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
Textbooks/Publications
King p.180-183
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
142
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Explain that a reflex arc is the neural pathway behind a reflex action.
o Introduce the relay neurone before asking learners to draw and annotate a reflex
arc. (W) (I) (Basic)
Practical: learners look at prepared slides of cross-sections of the spinal cord to
identify features. (I) (Basic)
Practical: learners carry out an experiment on a particular reflex action.
o For each, learners draw a reflex arc and annotate to show the function of the
neurones. (F)
Learners research examples of reflexes using the spinal cord and the brain,
detailing: stimulus; receptor; effector; and response. (H) (Basic)
o Learners share examples with the class. (W) (Basic)
Online
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/reflexarcs2.htm
l
http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/explr
sci/media/reflex.htm
http://www.intelligencetest.com/reflex/i
ndex.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 58: Reflex action
Note
Point out that some reflex actions (e.g. the pupil reflex) involve the brain rather than
the spinal cord.
15.1.e
describe and explain the transmission
of an action potential in a myelinated
neurone and its initiation from a resting
potential (the importance of sodium
and potassium ions in impulse
transmission should be emphasised)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp44/4402002.html
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=40
http://www.biologymad.com/NervousS
ystem/nerveimpulses.htm
http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/anima
tions/actionpotential_short.swf
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
143
Learning objectives
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
144
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners explain the difference between the following: absolute refractory period and
relative refractory period; resting potential and action potential; polarised and
depolarised; impulse and action potential. (H) (Challenging)
Note
There are no action potentials in short neurones as current flow is sufficient to
ensure the impulse travels the short distance.
15.1.f
explain the importance of the myelin
sheath (saltatory conduction) in
determining the speed of nerve
impulses and the refractory period in
determining their frequency
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
15.1.g
describe the structure of a cholinergic
synapse and explain how it functions,
including the role of calcium ions
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_electr.
htm
http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21201lo
a.htm
http://www.unimainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/works
hop/EM/EMSchwannE.html
Learners copy out a definition of a synapse. Explain they will study a cholinergic
synapse, which is a chemical synapse. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners draw and label a diagram of a synapse. (I) (Basic)
Learners compare electron micrographs and diagrams of synapses. (I) (Basic)
Remind learners of links with AS Level before outlining events in synaptic
transmission: for example, mitochondria, exocytosis, diffusion, membrane proteins,
hydrolysis catalysed by enzymes. (W) (Basic)
One learner makes the first statement in the sequence of events in synaptic
transmission and chooses another learner to describe the next event, and so on. (G)
(Basic)
A learner chooses a diagram in the sequence and a partner describes what is
occurring and what will happen next. (P) (Basic)
Learners rearrange a set of diagrams to arrive at the correct sequence of events in
synaptic transmission. (F) (Basic)
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp44/4402003.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/synaptictransmi
ssion.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/D/Drugs.html
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q6 (c)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 20: Nerves and
synapses
Bio Factsheet 155: Answering exam
questions on neurones and synapse
145
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (b)
Note
Explain that there are other types of chemical synapses, and mention electrical
synapses.
15.1.h
outline the roles of synapses in the
nervous system in allowing
transmission in one direction and in
allowing connections between one
neurone and many others (summation,
facilitation and inhibitory synapses are
not required)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
15.1.i
describe the roles of neuromuscular
junctions, transverse system tubules
and sarcoplasmic reticulum in
stimulating contraction in striated
muscle
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Learners suggest and note down which features ensure one-way transmission of
impulses across a synapse (vesicles with transmitter substance only found in the
presynaptic neurone; specific receptor proteins only located on the postsynaptic
membrane). (W) (I) (Basic)
Discuss the fact that one neurone can have many synapses relating to it, thus
allowing interconnection of numerous nerve pathways. (W) (I) (Basic)
Background: discuss the benefits of interconnection (a stimulus can lead to a range
of responses; can collect more information; excitatory and inhibitory synapses
provide more flexibility in response, hence a wider range of behaviour. (W) (Basic)
Extension: learners carry out some simple investigations into learning that involves
synapses. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.skoool.ie/skoool/examcentr
e_sc.asp?id=2879
Learners study one or more labelled diagrams and establish that: striated muscle is
voluntary; skeletal muscle, the multinucleate cells are also known as muscle fibres
and contain a bundle of myofibrils.
o Learners note that the cell surface membrane of the muscle fibre is termed
sarcolemma, and the cytoplasm is sarcoplasm.
o Explain that the sarcoplasmic reticulum is in contact with the myofibrils and is
similar to SER (Unit 1) and that transverse system tubules are infoldings of the
cell surface membrane. (W) (Basic)
Learners label a diagram of a neuromuscular junction, adding labels using resources
and knowledge of synaptic transmission.
o Learners note that the neuromuscular junction is a form of synapse that is
necessary to allow the effector to respond. (I) (Basic)
Learners sort cards containing details of the sequence of events occurring following
depolarisation at the synaptic terminal of the motor neurone (end with calcium ion
release by the sarcoplasmic reticulum see 15.1.k).
Online
http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21501oo
a.htm
https://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter10/animation__function_
of_the_neuromuscular_junction__qui
z_3_.html
http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/musc
letissue/fibers/sr/tutorial.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.202-205.
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q1 (b(i)
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 190: Neuromuscular
junctions
146
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Learners make notes, highlighting roles of the named items in the learning
objective. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Extension: learners research myasthenia gravis (Unit 11) and compare a normal and
a myasthenic neuromuscular junction. (H) (Challenging)
15.1.j
describe the ultrastructure of striated
muscle with particular reference to
sarcomere structure
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
15.1.k
explain the sliding filament model of
muscular contraction including the
roles of troponin, tropomyosin, calcium
ions and ATP
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
14.1.a
discuss the importance of homeostasis
in mammals and explain the principles
of homeostasis in terms of internal and
external stimuli, receptors, central
control, co-ordination systems,
effectors (muscles and glands)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss the idea of a sarcomere (see 15.1.i diagrams) as the basic unit of
contraction, a repeating unit of a pattern made by thick and thin protein filaments.
(W) (Basic)
Learners label and annotate diagrams of the same sarcomere (i) relaxed, (ii)
contracting, and (iii) fully contracted, to prepare for 15.1.k.
o Learners compare electron micrographs with their diagram. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21601oo
a.htm
Explain the sliding filament model while learners add labels to prepared diagrams.
o Discuss the role of the released calcium ions in binding to sites on troponin and
shifting the position of tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites. (W)
(Basic)
Learners annotate their diagrams from 15.1.j. (I) (Challenging)
As a whole group, the first member states the first event occurring, depolarisation of
the membrane of the synaptic terminal and then chooses the next member of the
group to continue the story. (W) (Challenging)
Learners produce a written account, or a flow chart diagram, summarising the
sequence of events occurring from the arrival of an action potential at the synaptic
terminal of the motor neurone to the contraction of the sarcomere. (F)
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp47/4702001.html
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educationresources/Education-andlearning/Big-Picture/Allissues/Exercise-energy-andmovement/WTDV033020.htm
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Hom
eostasis/Homeostasis.htm
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 46: Muscles.
147
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners write out the simple definition using resources and then qualify further after
discussion:
o Physiological processes or a changing external environment can cause variation
from the set point.
o A mechanism brings the internal environment back to the set point, or small
oscillations about the set point.
o Negative feedback always involves a receptor and effector and often involves a
control centre. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Using a named example, learners draw a flow chart to summarise homeostatic
control and negative feedback, showing the named receptor(s), effector(s) and
control centre (if present). (H) (Basic)
Learners are provided with a paragraph describing a named example of homeostatic
control and construct an annotated diagram as a summary. (F)
14.1.c
outline the roles of the nervous system
and endocrine system in co-ordinating
homeostatic mechanisms, including
thermoregulation, osmoregulation and
the control of blood glucose
concentration
Learners write a paragraph explaining what the two systems have in common and
then construct a table of the differences. (I) (Challenging)
Learners to research the difference between: excretion and secretion; an endocrine
gland and an exocrine gland. (H) (Basic)
Using resources, learners outline the involvement of the nervous system and
endocrine system in each of the named mechanisms, including naming, and
describing the role of, any hormones. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Note
There are close links to 15.1.a.
The research on osmoregulation and blood glucose concentration is useful for later
studies.
14.1.d
describe the deamination of amino
Learners suggest the distinction between excretion and egestion. (W) (Basic)
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://www.biologyonline.org/4/1_physiological_homeost
asis.htm
http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/humans
/homeostasis.html
http://science.jrank.org/pages/3365/Ho
meostasis.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 28: Feedback control
mechanisms
Bio Factsheet 161: Negative Feedback
Mechanisms
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp41/41020.html
http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/m
odules/homeostasis_sugar/sugar2.cf
m
Online
http://www.ilng.in/pdf/mtg_bio_final.pdf
148
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Describe how deamination removes the toxic part of an amino acid molecule,
forming highly toxic ammonia, and leaves a useful keto acid (chemical energy for
respiration or conversion for energy storage).
o Explain that in many terrestrial animals the ammonia is immediately converted to
the less toxic urea. (W) (Basic)
Learners annotate an outline diagram of deamination and the urea (ornithine) cycle
as you provide additional information, including: takes place in the liver; enzyme
controlled; ATP required; urea transported dissolved in the blood. (I) (Basic)
Extension: learners draw a molecule of urea highlighting that it is a small organic
compound (useful for later work on the kidney). (W) (Basic)
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/U/UreaCycle.html
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion.
Note
Explain that amino acids are not stored in the body.
14.1.e
describe the gross structure of the
kidney and the detailed structure of the
nephron with its associated blood
vessels using photomicrographs and
electron micrographs
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
CD-ROM
Bioscope has images of kidney
sections.
Online
http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/urinar
y/kidney.php
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/R
ENAHTML/RENALIDX.html
http://www.cie.org.uk/cambridgefor/teachers/order-publications/
Textbooks/Publications
King p.155-156
Siddiqui p.191-194
Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
and osmoregulation
Past Papers
Paper 32, June 2011, Q2
Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (a)
14.1.f
describe how the processes of
v2.1 5Y02
For an overview, learners annotate a large diagram as you outline the processes
occurring in each region. (W) (I) (Basic)
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
149
Learning objectives
Learning resources
et/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/ind
ex.html
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
kidney.swf
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/kidney.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
and osmoregulation
Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
Questions on the Kidney
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (b)
Note
For the overview diagram, explain that in the loop of Henle most water is
reabsorbed, and that the outward movement of sodium (and chloride) ions into the
interstitial fluid occurs to create a very low water potential. No details of the
mechanism or the countercurrent multiplier are required.
14.1.g
describe the roles of the
hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, ADH
and collecting ducts in osmoregulation
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Learners recall from 14.1.c and AS Level why it is important to control the water
content of the blood (refer to water potential gradients and osmosis).
o Learners discuss the consequences and the conflict between maintaining a
constant volume of blood and maintaining constant water potential, e.g. when
someone has a meal high in salt. (W) (Basic)
Learners rearrange a set of linked, sequential statements to give a description of the
roles in osmoregulation of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary; ADH and collecting
duct (CD). Include one statement to show the role of the distal convoluted tubule
(DCT).
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/ind
ex.html
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
kidney.swf
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
nt/animations/content/kidney.html
150
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Reminded learners that the surrounding (interstitial) fluid has a very low water
potential. (P) (I) (Challenging)
o Learners use the statements as the basis for their notes. (I) (Basic)
Learners are later given only a few of these statements to sequence and fill in the
missing details. (F)
Learners produce a flow chart to show the negative feedback control of water in the
blood. (H) (Basic)
As a summary, learners interpret data from tables or graphs to explain and relate
concentrations of different substances in each part of the nephron. (I)
(Challenging).
14.1.h
explain how the blood glucose
concentration is regulated by negative
feedback control mechanisms, with
reference to insulin and glucagon
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Learners suggest (i) why it is important for blood glucose concentration to be kept
relatively constant, and (ii) why, in healthy people, oscillations around the norm
concentration is inevitable. (W) (Basic)
Using resources, learners construct a table similar to the incomplete table below. (I)
(Basic)
norm/set point of 90-120mg of glucose
100cm-3 blood
increases above
decreases below
stimulus detected by
beta () cells
alpha () cells
pancreas
pancreas
hormone released
insulin
glucagon
main target tissues of liver and muscles
liver
hormone
(+adipose tissue)
main effects of
stimulates uptake of
stimulates
hormone
glucose
breakdown of
..
glycogen to glucose
.
final outcome
blood glucose
concentration
decreases
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
and osmoregulation
Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
Questions on the Kidney
Online
http://www.biologyreference.com/BlCe/Blood-Sugar-Regulation.html
http://www.mydr.com.au/gastrointestin
al-health/pancreas-and-insulin
http://www.betacell.org/content/articlevi
ew/article_id/1/
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 145: Blood sugar and its
control
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q7
blood glucose
concentration
increases
Learners describe the sequence of events occurring in the body after having a
carbohydrate-rich meal (illustrating homeostasis). (H) (Basic)
Learners construct a flow chart to show negative feedback control of blood glucose
concentration involving insulin and glucagon.
v2.1 5Y02
151
Learning objectives
Learning resources
o Learners add annotations or bullet points and include the terms homeostasis,
stimulus, receptor, effector and negative feedback. (F)
Extension: learners investigate the effect of diabetes mellitus on the control of blood
glucose concentration. Links: use of dipsticks, 14.1.k; insulin production by genetic
engineering, 19.2.c. (H) (Basic)
Note
Accurate spelling is important: both glucagon and glycogen are terms used in this
topic.
14.1.i
outline the role of cyclic AMP as a
second messenger with reference to
the stimulation of liver cells by
adrenaline and glucagon
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Use a question and answer session to remind learners of membrane proteins that
function as receptors and enzymes.
o Explain that liver cells have different receptors to bind adrenaline and glucagon.
o Learners suggest why the hormones are unable to trigger directly reactions
within the cell (hydrophilic, do not enter cell).
o Use a diagram to outline how binding causes production in the cytoplasm of
cyclic AMP, which then stimulates the enzymatic conversion of glycogen to
glucose. (W) (Basic)
Learners write a paragraph to explain the difference between first and second
messengers. (F)
Online
http://courses.washington.edu/conj/gpr
otein/cyclicamp.htm
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
6/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%2
0Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver%
20Cell
Note
Muscle cells have receptors for adrenaline but not for glucagon.
Names of the specific receptors are not required.
Notes are not necessary at this point as a summary of 14.1.j will suffice
14.1.j
describe the three main stages of cell
signalling in the control of blood
glucose by adrenaline as follows:
hormone-receptor interaction at the
cell surface (see 4.1c))
formation of cyclic AMP which binds
to kinase proteins
an enzyme cascade involving
activation of enzymes by
phosphorylation to amplify the signal
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss the role of adrenaline so learners understand the need for a higher-thannormal blood glucose concentration. (W) (Basic)
Discuss the sequential process using diagrams. (W) (Challenging)
Learners annotate copies of the diagrams, highlighting how one event triggers the
next:
o Binding of adrenaline and activation of G (membrane) protein.
o Enzyme-catalysed formation of cyclic AMP at the membrane and consequential
activation of kinase proteins.
o Phosphorylation of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, e.g.
for the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate. (I) (Challenging)
Learners re-order statements to show the sequential process (F)
Online
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
6/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%2
0Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver%
20Cell
http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/facul
ty/farabee/BIOBK/biobookendocr.htm
l
http://courses.washington.edu/conj/gpr
otein/cyclicamp.htm
152
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Remind learners how a dipstick is used to detect glucose and then explain the
principles of operation before learners make notes.
o Learners write out a worded reaction and explain why a reaction catalysed by
glucose oxidase will confirm the presence of glucose (enzyme specificity,
Unit 1).
o Explain that peroxidases are used so that the hydrogen peroxide product reacts
with a chemical (chromogen) that produces a coloured product. (W) (I) (Basic)
Practical: if available, learners compare Clinistix to Diastix. (W) (Basic)
Outline the operation of the biosensor by incorporating questions to link to AS Level
topics: partially permeable membrane, diffusion of glucose molecules (from the
blood sample), immobilised enzymes and specificity.
o Discuss how the reaction needs to be detected, e.g. use of electrodes; a
decrease in oxygen; increase in hydrogen peroxide; production of gluconic acid.
o Learners explain how the digital read-out is proportional to the concentration of
glucose in the sample. (W) (Challenging)
Discuss how dipsticks and portable devices to detect glucose and measure
concentrations are considered great improvements for people with diabetes
(compared to times before glucose biosensors and the Benedicts tests. (W) (Basic)
Learners compare the use of glucose dipsticks and glucose biosensors, explaining
advantages of each. (I) (Challenging)
Learners draw a diagram to show the main parts of a biosensor and annotate to
show the principles of operation. (F)
Online
http://www.southernbiological.com/kitsand-equipment/specialisedlaboratory-and-field-equipment/urinetesting/g10-41-diastix/
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
14.1.k
explain the principles of operation of
dip sticks containing glucose oxidase
and peroxidase enzymes, and
biosensors that can be used for
quantitative measurements of glucose
in blood and urine
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 157: Diabetes
Management or Cure?
Bio Factsheet 167: Biosensors
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Note
Link with previous work on insulin (14.1.h) and a practical for immobilised enzymes
(3.2.d).
Note that some textbooks state that the oxidation of glucose produces,
gluconolactone, which is an intermediate of gluconic acid.
Discuss ideas and developments in the commercial production of glucose
biosensors, e.g. devices that can control and regulate insulin doses.
Learners should be able to use the principles of operation to apply to a design that
they may not have come across.
v2.1 5Y02
153
Learning objectives
Learning resources
14.1.l
explain how urine analysis is used in
diagnosis with reference to glucose,
protein and ketones
Learners reflect back to14.1.f and explain why glucose and proteins would not
normally be found in urine in detectable levels.
Explain that ketones are products of carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism, but
high levels in urine may indicate ill health, such as in uncontrolled type I diabetes.
Explain that a urine analysis could indicate a condition: glycosuria and diabetes
mellitus; proteinuria / albuminuria / microalbuminuria and renal disease or damage
e.g. that may have been caused as a result of long-term type II diabetes. (W)
(Basic)
o Learners make outline notes on each of the three named urine compounds.
o Notes to include the diagnostic role of urine dipsticks (specific for each or
multiple combination strips testing for all three). (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/urinedipstick-analysis
http://www.medicinenet.com/urine_test
s_for_diabetes/article.htm
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
Note
Very low concentrations are excreted by healthy people, levels detected by urine
dipsticks are indicative of possible health problems.
Details of other tests that can be performed on urine are not required.
15.1.l
explain the roles of the hormones FSH,
LH, oestrogen and progesterone in
controlling changes in the ovary and
uterus during the human menstrual
cycle
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Learners review the endocrine system and hormones with a short written test.
Discuss the different origins of the named hormones involved in the menstrual cycle,
explaining target tissues differ.
o Emphasise for later their importance in synchronising activities of the ovary and
uterus. (W) (Basic)
Use diagrams to describe the maturation of the follicle in the ovary, ovulation and the
formation of the corpus luteum.
o Describe the events occurring in the uterus. (W) (Basic)
Learners draw a large outline graph. The x-axis being time (to 28 days explain that
cycles may be longer or shorter), y-axis being hormone concentration (arbitrary
units).
o Learners sketch diagrams of (i) the physical changes in the uterus over 28 days
(above the graph), and (ii) the changes occurring in the ovary (below the graph).
(I) (Basic)
o Using description and question and answers build up the graph to show the
changing concentrations of the hormones over the 28 days (use a method to
distinguish oestrogen and progesterone, the sex hormones, from FSH and LH,
the two pituitary hormones.
o Discuss the feedback mechanisms that occur to enable the cycle to be
controlled, learners annotate or add bullet point notes. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Horm
ones/Hormones.htm
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
ew0/chapter28/animation__positive_
and_negative_feedback__quiz_1_.ht
ml
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
ew0/chapter28/animation__maturatio
n_of_the_follicle_and_oocyte.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 57: Oestrous cycles.
Includes the menstrual cycle
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q5 (a)
Paper 42, Nov 2013, Q4
154
Learning objectives
Learning resources
v2.1 5Y02
Learners research how the combined oral contraceptive pill prevents pregnancy and
compare this with the progesterone /progestin-only pill. (H) (Basic)
Learners consider how concentrations of oestrogen and progesterone differ in
women who are taking the contraceptive pill.
o Learners explain the effects of these differences in terms of the feedback
mechanisms discussed in 15.1.l. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.patient.co.uk/search.asp?s
earchTerm=contraceptive+pill&collect
ions=Condition_Leaflets
http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheets/htm
l/hormonal_contraception.html
Note
The role of oestrogen and/or progesterone in controlling fertility is an extension of
learners knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q3 (b)
155
Scheme of work Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry
Recommended prior knowledge
As with respiration, learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer, for example from light energy to chemical energy. They should have a sound
understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the concept of oxidation and reduction, at
least at a simple level. Knowledge from AS Level of plant cell structure and of gene expression will help understanding of the role of gibberellin in cell elongation. It
would be helpful if learners had an appreciation of the importance of communication, control and coordination in multicellular organisms.
Context
This unit considers another aspect of the key concept of biological processes and studies the transfer of energy from light energy to the energy contained in organic
compounds in living organisms. It has close links to Unit 9, Respiration, and revisits the concepts involved in the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis. It builds on
material covered at AS Level: enzymes and biological molecules, especially glucose and starch, from Unit 1; plant cell structure and chloroplast structure and function
from Unit 2; and leaf structure, including stomata from Unit 4. Having considered mammalian physiology in Unit 10, the plant hormones abscisic acid and gibberellin are
used to exemplify communication, control and coordination in plants. Learners first come across gibberellin when studying selective breeding in Unit 7. This unit could
be taught before Unit 9, Respiration, if it is felt more logical to introduce learners first to the process involved with the initial input of energy into the ecosystem.
Outline
The unit begins with an overview of photosynthesis, highlighting the transfer of energy and the link between the light dependent and light independent stages. The light
absorbing pigments are introduced and linked to the concepts involved with absorption and action spectra: learners can also separate photosynthetic pigments by
chromatography. The light dependent and light independent stages of photosynthesis are described. The concept of limiting factors is introduced and learners have the
opportunity of investigating factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. A consideration of how this knowledge can be applied to crop plants is included. More detail is
provided of the ways in which the structure of a chloroplast is suited to its functions. Learners also consider how some plants have evolved to cope with life in hot
environments. Response to an external stimulus is exemplified by a study of the Venus fly trap. Stomatal closure and opening, including the role of abscisic acid, the
role of auxin in cell elongation and the effect on gene activation of gibberellin is covered. There are numerous practical opportunities within this unit to develop skills
relating to planning, data analysis and the evaluation of investigations.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 8% of the complete A Level course.
v2.1 5Y02
156
Learning objectives
Learning resources
13.1.b
state the sites of the light dependent
and the light independent stages in the
chloroplast
Online
http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/phot
o.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
13.1.c
describe the role of chloroplast
pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,
carotene and xanthophyll) in light
absorption in the grana
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
Note
A review may be necessary of the anatomy of the leaf, so that learners can visualise
mesophyll tissue and mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts.
13.3.a may be taught first to give a visual overview of where the processes of
photosynthesis occur.
Allow learners to state the role of chlorophyll before raising the level of
understanding to explain that the light energy needs to be transferred. Explain that:
o Absorption occurs in areas of the thylakoid membrane that contain
photosystems.
o Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are two types of chlorophyll molecule in a typical
photosystem, along with other photosynthetic pigments, e.g. carotenes and
xanthophylls.
o Each type of pigment absorbs certain wavelengths of light and reflects others
(mention the antenna complex).
o Absorbed energy is passed on to a special pair of chlorophyll molecules that can
pass on energetic/excited electrons to electron acceptors. (W) (Challenging)
Learners label and annotate an unlabelled diagrammatic version of a photosystem
as you talk them through the various components.
o Learners note that: the special pair act as the reaction centre and the others as
accessory pigments; in Photosystem I (PI) the pair have a characteristic
absorption wavelength of 700 nm (P700), and in PII of 680 nm (P680).
o Refer to the higher energy state of the electrons as photoactivation of
chlorophyll. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/283-photosynthesishow-does-chlorophyll-absorb-lightenergy
http://phototroph.blogspot.ca/
Textbook/Publications
Bio Factsheet 63: Pigments in plants
Note
Explain that xanthophylls and carotenes are carotenoids.
This overlaps with 13.1.f so details of the photosystems may be taught there.
v2.1 5Y02
157
Learning objectives
Learning resources
13.1.d
interpret absorption and action spectra
of chloroplast pigments
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/A/ActionSpectrum.ht
ml
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/130-the-effect-of-lightcolour-and-intensity-on-the-rate-ofphotosynthesis
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Textbooks/Publication
Siddiqui p.91
Past papers
Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
Note
Check that the absorption spectrum is well understood before moving onto the
action spectrum, ensuring that learners make the association between the two.
13.1.e
use chromatography to separate and
identify chloroplast pigments and carry
out an investigation to compare the
chloroplast pigments in different plants
(reference should be made to Rf values
in identification)
Practical: learners could carry out the separation for pigments of one plant, and
compare results with others that have used different plants.
o Learners make measurements and calculate Rf values, comparing with
published values to make identifications. (G) (I) (Basic)
Practical booklet 8 is a protocol for separating chloroplast pigments by paper
chromatography. Colours fade relatively quickly so measurements should be made
as soon as possible (or take photographs) after removing chromatograms from the
solvent.
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/181-learner-sheet-10thin-layer-chromatography-forphotosynthetic-pigments
Textbook/Publications
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 8
158
Learning objectives
Learning resources
King p.113-114
Siddiqui p.90-91
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (b)
Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (d)(ii)
13.1.f
describe the light dependent stage as
the photoactivation of chlorophyll
resulting in the photolysis of water and
the transfer of energy to ATP and
reduced NADP (cyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation should be
described in outline only)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Online
http://cnx.org/content/m48011/latest/
http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/tex
tzsch.htm
http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthesi
s.html
Textbook/Publications
Bio Factsheet 02: The essential guide
to photosynthesis.
Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (a)
159
Learning objectives
Learning resources
12.1.e (ii)
explain that the synthesis of ATP is
associated with the electron
transport chain on the membranes
of mitochondria and chloroplasts
(see 12.2.g)
Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of ATP
is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of chloroplasts (see
12.2.g)
Learners complete a short written test to remind them of previous work
o Chloroplasts are cellular structures where ATP is formed.
o ATP is an energy transfer molecule.
o The initial energy input for chloroplasts is light energy and for mitochondria,
energy-containing organic compounds.
o The ETC involves thylakoid membrane proteins capable of accepting and
donating electrons. (F)
Online
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
K21063/
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
13.1.a
explain that energy transferred as ATP
and reduced NADP from the light
dependent stage is used during the
light independent stage (Calvin cycle)
of photosynthesis to produce complex
organic molecules
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment
In groups learners construct a large, poster-sized concept map / spider diagram with
photosynthesis as a topic. (G) (Basic)
Discuss and agree as a class the main points and improve ideas to A Level
standard. Learners then make notes in diagrammatic or bullet-point form.
o An overall equation for photosynthesis (word equation changed to chemical
formulae, balanced).
o Two main stages, occurring in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells and both
involving enzymes.
o In the light dependent stage, light energy is transferred to ATP and the reduced
coenzyme, NADP.
o Oxygen (waste product) from this stage can be used for aerobic respiration (in
plant or released into the atmosphere to other organisms).
o In the light independent stage (also termed the Calvin cycle), carbon dioxide,
ATP and NADPH are used for the production of complex organic molecules,
such as glucose and starch. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Note
Learners should understand the terms autotroph, photoautotroph and producer.
Avoid using the terms light reaction and dark reaction.
13.1.g
outline the three main stages of the
Calvin cycle:
fixation of carbon dioxide by
combination with ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C
v2.1 5Y02
Discuss why the light dependent stage of photosynthesis needs to occur when no
glucose has yet been made (allows the transfer of light energy to ATP and reduced
NADP).
o Learners write out the overall equation of photosynthesis to spot that carbon
dioxide has not yet been involved (sets the scene for the Calvin cycle). (W)
(Basic)
Textbook/Publications
Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2013, Q10 (b)
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/134-photosynthesisa-survival-guide-teaching-resources
http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosy
n/study.html
http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthesi
sdark.html
http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
ml?http://www.biologymad.com/a2bio
logy.htm
http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/photosyn/ph
otoframe.html
http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/A
nimals&PlantsBook/Plants/01Photosynthesis.htm
Past papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (b)
Online
http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
ents/Biology/Bio231/calvin.html
http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/04
70003790/animations/photosynthesis
/photosynthesis.htm
160
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Learners link together a set of statements, based around the ideas in the learning
objectives and including rubisco, to describe the Calvin cycle.
o Provide curved arrows, so that they can create a cycle with their statements. (P)
(I) (Challenging)
Discuss their cycles.
o Emphasise the roles of reduced NADP and ATP (include the concept of
recycling to the light dependent stage).
o Explain that the steps are catalysed by enzymes.
o Show how 6 carbon dioxide molecules are required to produce 1 glucose
molecule, so that the overall equation for photosynthesis makes sense.
o Learners then produce their own annotated Calvin cycle. (W) (I) (Challenging)
Background: learners investigate the experiments carried out by Calvin and his
colleagues using the lollipop apparatus. (I) (Challenging)
Learners annotate fully a skeleton outline of the Calvin cycle (provide a variety so
that each contains different information could be differentiated). (F) (Basic)
(Challenging)
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/che
mistry/laureates/1961/calvinlecture.pdf
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 02: The essential guide
to photosynthesis.
Bio Factsheet 227: RuBP carboxylase
the most important enzyme on the
planet?
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2011, Q10 (b)
Paper 43, June 2011, Q10 (b)
Note
For error-free learning, use only the syllabus names and abbreviations:
o GP (glycerate 3-phosphate) or PGA (3PG / 3-phosphoglycerate /
3-phosphoglyceric acid)
o TP (triose phosphate). Avoid other common names: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(GALP); 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
o Explain that other acceptable names are used.
No names of enzymes, other than rubisco, are required.
13.1.h
describe, in outline, the conversion of
Calvin cycle intermediates to
carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
and their uses in the plant cell
Key concepts
Biochemical processes
v2.1 5Y02
Agree that GP is the raw material for producing carbohydrates, lipids and amino
acids (no details of pathways required).
o Learners add this information to their Calvin cycle. (I) (Basic)
Briefly discuss how two molecules of GP can produce a hexose sugar. (W) (Basic)
Discuss, using question and answer, the use of hexose sugars (glucose and
fructose, Unit 1), including:
o Immediate use to release energy as respiratory substrates.
o Synthesis of sucrose for transport to sinks (revise plant transport, Unit 4).
o Conversion to starch or lipid for energy storage.
o Production of structural compounds (cellulose).
o Learners suggest what else is required to synthesise amino acids for proteins
161
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Online
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/imag
e-gallery/show/PL0130/
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/fese
m/applets/chloroplast/
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/bonline/e05/r21.htm
http://faculty.uca.edu/johnc/Chloroplast
_and_microbodies.jpg
Textbook/Publications
Bio Factsheet 198: Chloroplasts
structure and function
Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
mitochondria
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (a)
13.2.a
explain the term limiting factor in
relation to photosynthesis
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment
13.2.b
explain the effects of changes in light
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration
and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis
Key concepts
v2.1 5Y02
Show learners a number of definitions of the term limiting factor. As a group produce
an explanation to note down that is in the context of photosynthesis. (W) (I) (Basic)
Learners draw a generalised graph showing the rate of photosynthesis on the y-axis
and the factor on the x-axis.
o Label the graph with the regions where the factor directly affects the rate of
photosynthesis and those where other factors become limiting. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.rsc.org/learnchemistry/content/filerepository/CMP/
00/001/068/Rate%20of%20photosynt
hesis%20limiting%20factors.pdf
Learners suggest the factors that may affect the rate of photosynthesis, and discuss
ways in which the rate could be measured. (W) (Basic)
Learners suggest the parts of the photosynthetic process that involve enzymes, and
hence affect photosynthetic rate.
o Light dependent stage: photolysis of water; synthesis of ATP (ATP synthase);
transfer of electrons to NADP for reduction.
o Light independent stage: each of the steps of the Calvin cycle (the bulk of
Online
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=43
http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/exp
er.htm
http://www.assessnet.org.uk/elearning/
162
Learning objectives
Learning resources
Biochemical processes,
Organisms in their environment,
Observation and experiment
Textbook/Publications
King p.115-117, 149
Siddiqui p.86-89, 94
Bio Factsheet 136: Practical
Investigations for Photosynthesis
Bio Factsheet 25: Tackling data
interpretation questions II:
photosynthesis (limiting factors)
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q8 (a)(b)
13.2.c
explain how an understanding of
limiting factors is used to increase crop
yields in protected environments, such
as glasshouses
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
13.2.d
carry out an investigation to determine
the effect of light intensity or light
wavelength on the rate of
photosynthesis using a redox indicator
(e.g. DCPIP) and a suspension of
chloroplasts (the Hill reaction)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Explain that knowledge of limiting factors can be used to control the growing
conditions of commercial crops, especially in protected environments. (W) (Basic)
Brainstorm ideas as to what growers can do to increase crop yields in glasshouses.
Include:
o Artificial light (photosynthesis for more hours of the day; increase light intensity
on days with little sunlight).
o Use of paraffin lamps (carbon dioxide and heat). (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes and explain how these will improve yield. (F)
Online
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
size/science/add_aqa/photosynthesis
/photosynthesisrev3.shtml
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/cr
ops/facts/00-077.htm
From 13.2.b learners will know that the production of oxygen can be used to
measure the rate of photosynthesis.
o Learners suggest why the rate of production of NADP in the light dependent
stage correlates with the rate of photosynthesis.
o Explain that a way of measuring this could be to use a different electron
acceptor, DCPIP, which can be visualised (blue dye that becomes colourless
when reduced). (W) (Basic)
o Learners suggest how DCPIP can be used to measure rate. (W) (Challenging)
Learners carry out a version of the Hill reaction practical or watch it demonstrated
and then explain a set of results. Ensure that both investigations, light intensity and
light wavelength, are covered. (P) (I) (H) (Challenging)
Discuss the findings of the original investigation performed by Robin Hill: oxygen is
evolved in the absence of carbon dioxide; the electrons transferred to the electron
acceptor originate from water. (W) (Challenging)
Practical booklet 9
Online
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practi
cal-biology/investigating-lightdependent-reaction-photosynthesis
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/157-measuring-therate-of-photosynthesis
http://www.hansatechinstruments.com/forum/uploads/david
_walker/whose.pdf
Textbook/Publications
163
Learning objectives
13.2.e
carry out investigations on the effects
of light intensity, carbon dioxide and
temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis using whole plants,
e.g. aquatic plants such as Elodea and
Cabomba
Key concepts
Observation and experiment
13.3.b
explain how the anatomy and
physiology of the leaves of C4 plants,
such as maize or sorghum, are
adapted for high rates of carbon
fixation at high temperatures in terms
of:
the spatial separation of initial
carbon fixation from the light
dependent stage (biochemical
details of the C4 pathway are
required in outline only)
the high optimum temperatures of
the enzymes involved
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment
v2.1 5Y02
Learning resources
Practical booklet 9 (Hill reaction) uses melting point tubes as reaction vessels and
does not use a centrifuge. Learners can investigate the effect of both light
wavelength and light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. Pooled data for analysis
may be collected as preparation for Paper 5. Learners can also use the technique to
devise plans that can be peer reviewed (see 12.2.h and 12.2.m).
Siddiqui p.93-93
Practical: learners investigate the effect of light intensity, light wavelength, carbon
dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
o Learners design and carry out at least one investigation of their own, once a
technique has been shown to them. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners explain how the plan can be modified to investigate the effect of limiting
factors. (I) (Challenging)
Online
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/190-using-pondweedto-experiment-with-photosynthesishttp://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/284-investigatingphotosynthesis-with-leaf-discs
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/285-learner-sheet-20starch-production-in-plants-duringphotosynthesis
Note
Carbon dioxide concentration can be varied by using an aquatic (water) plant in
varying concentrations of solutions containing sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium
bicarbonate).
Learners review C3 photosynthesis by completing worksheets with gaps or by
rearranging cards describing stages and then suggest why the term C3 plant is
used. (W) (P) (I) (F) (Basic)
Explain that rubisco can also catalyse the oxygenation of RuBP.
o Use diagrams, and remind learners of enzyme inhibition (AS Level) to prompt
them to suggest why the reaction is favoured in high oxygen concentrations.
o Learners suggest the conditions when oxygen concentrations will be high (high
light intensity and high temperatures increase rate of light dependent stage). (W)
(Basic)
o Learners write an explanation of photorespiration. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Explain that C4 plants are traditionally from hotter environments. (W) (Basic)
Describe, using diagrams, the structural and functional features of maize or sorghum
as examples of C4 plants. (W) (Challenging)
o Learners suggest how the features adapt the plants to reduce the effects of
photorespiration and allow high rates of carbon fixation.
o Learners label and annotate a diagram of a section through the leaf of a C4
plant.
o Learners produce a comparison table of C3 (see 13.3.a) and C4 leaf structure.
(W) (I) (Challenging)
Past paper
Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)(c)
Online
http://www.icrisat.org/cropsorghum.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/C/C4plants.html
http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/p
hotosynthesis.htm
www.biologymad.com/resources/Crop
%20Plants.pps
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q4
164
Learning objectives
Learning resources
v2.1 5Y02
Display photographs of the Venus fly trap plant and its modified leaves.
o Leaners brainstorm uses of nitrogen in plants.
o Discuss the need for a source of nitrogen in addition to the products of
photosynthesis.
o Explain that the plant requires supplemental nitrogen owing to low levels of
nitrogen in the bog habitats where it is found. (W) (Basic)
Explain to learners that the equivalent of an action potential occurs to cause the
snapping shut of the trap to catch insects.
o Briefly review learner understanding of stimulus, receptor and action potential
(Unit 10). (W) (Basic)
Learners sequence a set of statements as the basis to make notes. Ideas to include:
o Stimulus = insect movement (mechanical).
o Receptors = hair cells (upper leaf surface).
o Touching two times in succession, i.e. the presence of an insect, results in
depolarisation of the hair cell membrane (owing to an influx of positive ions).
o If the depolarisation is large enough, action potentials spread across from
receptor cells to reach cells on the outside surface.
o One possible mechanism of closure of the trap:
H+ is pumped out of cells on the outside surface into the cell walls
The low pH causes cell wall loosening and movement out of H+ leads to
influx of Ca2+
Water follows osmotically and the cells swell to snap the trap shut. (I)
(Challenging)
Background: learners investigate how carnivorous plants like the Venus flytrap
digest and absorb their insect catch. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://plantsinmotion.bio.indiana.edu/pl
antmotion/movements/nastic/nastic.ht
ml
http://www.botany.org/Carnivorous_Pla
nts/venus_flytrap.php
165
Learning objectives
Learning resources
14.2.a
explain that stomata have daily
rhythms of opening and closing and
also respond to changes in
environmental conditions to allow
diffusion of carbon dioxide and
regulate water loss by transpiration
Online
http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/
webmodules/circadianrhythm.html
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Organisms in their environment
14.2.b
describe the structure and function of
guard cells and explain the mechanism
by which they open and close stomata
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
14.2.c
describe the role of abscisic acid in the
closure of stomata during times of
water stress (the role of calcium ions
as a second messenger should be
emphasised)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
v2.1 5Y02
Note
Mention the term circadian rhythm (not required learning).
Very high wind speeds may also cause stomatal closure some books do not show
this on typical graphs.
Learners draw and label a diagram of guard cells, making a note of their function. (I)
(Basic)
Learners use an outline diagram of the events occurring for stomatal opening and
complete a worksheet to describe and explain the mechanism involved (uses much
knowledge from AS Level). (I) (Challenging)
Learners use knowledge of the mechanism of stomatal opening to write out and
explain the sequence of events occurring for stomatal closure. (F)
Learners use prepared slides (see 7.2.e, Unit 4) to observe guard cells and stomata.
(I) (Basic)
Learners observe stomatal opening and closure in temporary slides made of
epidermal strips in solutions of different water potential. (I) (Basic)
Online
http://www.phschool.com/science/biolo
gy_place/labbench/lab9/stomamov.ht
ml
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/104-stomata-functionguard-cells-and-transpiration
Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) as a 'stress hormone' to help plants survive
difficult environmental conditions such as drought. (W) (Basic)
Explain to learners that calcium ions are important in plant cell signalling. (W)
(Basic)
Learners make summary bullet-point notes based on the following ideas:
o Guard cells have receptors for ABA: the presence of ABA results in high
concentrations of calcium ions within the cytoplasm.
o ABA can inhibit the proton pump used to pump out protons, preventing the
inward flux of potassium ions.
Online
http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/schroeder/
clickablegc.html#figure1
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/A/ABA.html
http://www.planthormones.info/abscisicacid.htm
Textbooks/Publications
166
Learning objectives
Organisms in their environment
15.2.b
explain the role of auxin in elongation
growth by stimulating proton pumping
to acidify cell walls
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
Biochemical processes
Discuss how cell division and cell elongation will lead to plant growth and stem
elongation.
o Explain that auxin is a plant hormone involved in cell elongation. (W) (Basic)
Discuss details of cell wall structure before outlining the sequence of events that
occur (learners recall AS Level knowledge). Learners make notes to include:
o Auxin increases the activity of proton pumps (ATP required) and protons are
pumped out of the cell into the cell wall.
o The decrease in pH activates expansins (proteins) involved in loosening cell wall
structure.
o Water moves in by osmosis, increasing turgor and allowing cells to elongate. (W)
(I) (Challenging)
Learning resources
Bio Factsheet 48: Tackling exam
questions: plant growth substances
Bio Factsheet 111: Plant Growth
Substances
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (a)
Online
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
ontent/chp38/3802003.html
http://croptechnology.unl.edu/pages/inf
ormationmodule.php?idinformationm
odule=998688536&topicorder=6&ma
xto=11&minto=1
http://home.earthlink.net/~dayvdanls/pl
ant_grow.htm
http://www.personal.psu.edu/fsl/ExpCe
ntral/
Note
Auxins are a class of hormones, rather than one particular plant hormone. At this
level the use of auxin is acceptable. The same applies to gibberellins.
15.2.c
describe the role of gibberellin in the
germination of wheat or barley
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment
v2.1 5Y02
Practical booklet 10
Online
http://www.indiana.edu/~oso/animation
s/barley.html
Textbooks/Publications
King p.240-241
167
Learning objectives
15.2.d
explain the role of gibberellin in stem
elongation including the role of the
dominant allele, Le, that codes for a
functioning enzyme in the gibberellin
synthesis pathway, and the recessive
allele, le, that codes for a nonfunctional enzyme
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,
DNA, the molecule of heredity
16.3.d
explain how gibberellin activates genes
by causing the breakdown of DELLA
protein repressors, which normally
inhibit factors that promote
transcription
Key concepts
Biochemical processes,
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
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Learning resources
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (b)
Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q9
Remind learners of 15.2.b and explain that in stem elongation, gibberellin causes
both cell division and cell elongation. (I) (Basic)
Learners recall basic points: the definition of an allele (Unit 3); genes code for
polypeptides / proteins; enzymes are proteins; the definitions of dominant and
recessive (alleles). (W) (Basic)
Explain that there is a gene responsible for expressing an enzyme that is important
in the synthesis of active gibberellin.
o State that there is a dominant allele for the functioning enzyme and a recessive
allele for a non-functioning enzyme. (W) (Basic)
Learners use knowledge of genetics and of the role of gibberellin to explain how
plants that are LeLe and Lele will have tall stems, whereas plants that are lele will
have short stems. (F)
Learners carry out practical work to investigate the effect of gibberellic acid on stem
(hypocotyl) elongation and on seed germination (barley) (see 15.2.c).
Online
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biolo
gy/biology-iv/plant-growthmovements/gibberellins.php
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
http://www.plant-hormones.info/
Note
This could be amalgamated with 16.3.d.
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q10 (b)
Explain that DELLA proteins are regulators of growth: they bind to transcription
factors necessary for expression of genes coding for growth proteins.
o Learners explain how the DELLA proteins can be considered repressors. (W)
(Basic)
Explain that gibberellin can bind to intracellular receptor proteins (GID1) and that this
leads to a complex with DELLA proteins, making them susceptible to degradation by
the cell.
o Learners suggest the consequences of this breakdown. (W) (Challenging)
Learners describe the sequence of events that lead to an event such as stem
elongation in the presence of gibberellins. (I) (Challenging)
Practical booklet 10
Textbooks/Publications
King p.244
Bio Factsheet 118: Germination
Bio Factsheet 133: Comparing
Chemical Communication in Plants
and Animals
Online
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
168
Learning objectives
Observation and experiment
Learning resources
Note
Learners could be directed to use this information on the mode of action of
gibberellins in their interpretations of results from practical booklet 10 (see 15.2.c).
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