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Beijing
Aviation College
Training Manual
Jet
Aircraft
Maintenance
Fundamentals
AERODYNAMICS
JAR-66
Book No:
JAMF AERODYNAMICS
Lufthansa
Technical Training GmbH
Lufthansa Base Hamburg
Ameco
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AERODYNAMICS
Page 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
1.
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The laws of physics that affect the aircraft in flight and on the ground are described using the international SI system.The SI system is based on the metric
system and must be used by law throughout the world.
You need to use conversion tables for the English or American systems. You
can find conversion tables in the appendix of most technical documentation.
The laws of physics are described by fundamental units and basic quantities.The fundamental units can not be defined in other quantities.The basic
quantities are defined in fundamental units.
Speed, for example, is a basic quantity. It is defined by the fundamental units
distance and time.
Speed, denoted by V is distance, denoted by m over time, denoted by s.
There are seven fundamental units in physics -- mass, length, time, temperature, current, mol number and the intensity of light.
The fundamental units used in aerodynamics are mass, length, time and temperature.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
1.1.3. Time
The unit of measurement for time is seconds, denoted by s. Originally this was
based on the length of a day. However not all days are exactly the same duration so the second is now defined as the time it takes for a certain number of
energy changes to occur in the caesium atom.
1.1.4. Temperature
The unit of measurement for temperature is kelvin, denoted by K. Zero kelvin is
called absolute zero because it is the lowest temperature possible.
The kelvin scale starts at zero and only has positive numbers.
One kelvin is the same size as one degree Celsius.
1.1.1. Mass
The unit of measurement for mass is kilograms, denoted by kg. The mass of
one kilogram is defined by a piece of platinum alloy at the office of weights and
measurements in Paris.
The mass of one kilogram is also the volume of one liter of pure water at a
temperature of four degrees Celsius.
Mass is not the same as weight. The astronauts flying around in their space
labs have no weight but their bodies have a mass.
1.1.2. Length
The unit of measurement for length is meters, denoted by m.
The meter was established as a standard unit of length by a commission set up
by the French government in 1790.
A meter is more precisely defined as a certain number of wavelengths of a particular colour of light.
HAM US/F ro/ka March 1998
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
Figure 1
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AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
1.2.2. Acceleration
Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time during which the
change takes place.
You can see that the velocity changes from 100 m/s to 150 m/s during this ten
second period.
In this example the acceleration is 50 m/s per ten seconds. This is equal to five
meters per second per one second which is 5 m/s2. Acceleration is measured
in meters per square second ( m/s2 ).
Acceleration is denoted by a.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
Figure 3
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
1.4.2. Power
Power is work over time or more specifically force multiplied by distance over
time.
Power is measured in Watts which is Newton meters per second.
You probably know the term horse power. When steam engines were first used
their power was compared to the power of horses because they were used for
work which was previously done by horses. Now the international SI system
uses watts and kilowatts instead of horsepower.
You can see that the object with a force of 600 N is moved a distance of 30 m
in 10 seconds.
The power is six hundred Newton multiplied by thirty meters divided by ten seconds which is 1800 watts or 1.8 kilowats.
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
1.5. Pressure
1.5.1. Static pressure
Pressure is the force acting on a unit of area.
It is denoted by Pascal ( Pa ) and measured in Newtons per square meter
( N/m2 ).
Static pressure acts equally in all directions. It is denoted by a small p and
measured in Newtons per square meter ( N/m2 ).
Static pressure is calculated as height multiplied by density multiplied by gravity. Pstat. = h x H x g.
bar
and has the unit
daN
cm 2
1 bar = 1 daN2
1 cm
1 bar = 100 000 Pa
The STATIC PRESSURE for technical systems e. g. for AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS is denotet by
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PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
q = x H x v2
p=hxH xg
Figure 4
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
Now you know that the speed of sound depends on the temperature. For example if the temperature on a Summer day is 15E C, which is 288 K, then we
calculate the speed of sound to be 339.4 m/s.
If the temperature decreases in Winter to - 50E C, which is 223 K, then the
speed of sound is 298.6 m/s.
The speed of sound is less at high altitudes because the temperature is lower.
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
a = 20 223 = 298.6 m
s
Figure 5
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PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
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V<1M
V =1 M
V >1 M
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
At this higher altitude the temperature is lower and the speed of sound decreases to 300 m/s.
Now the aircraft is flying at the speed of sound and you can see that shock
waves are produced.
A special indication known as the Mach number, M is used to keep the pilot
informed of the relationship between the speed of the aircraft and the speed of
sound.
The Mach number is the speed of the aircraft divided by the speed of sound.
In our example the aircraft flying at an altitude of 10 km has a Mach number of
one ( M = 1 ). A Mach number of one indicates that the aircraft is flying at the
speed of sound.
300 M
S
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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V < Mcrit
Subsonic
AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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Transonic
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
V > 1.3 M
Supersonic
Figure 6
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AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
1.7. Atmosphere
To understand aerodynamics we need to know something about the atmosphere where flying happens.
The atmosphere is the whole mass of air extending upwards from the surface
of the earth.
Air is a mixture of several gases. Pure, dry air has approximately 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen and one percent other gases such as argon and carbon dioxide.
For practical purposes it is sufficient to say that air is a mixture of four fifths
nitrogen and one fifth oxygen.
The atmosphere has many layers.
The troposphere is the lowest of these layers. In the troposphere we have
clouds and rain and many different weather conditions.
There are no rain clouds in the stratosphere and the temperature does not
change as the altitude increases.
The tropopause is the name given to the boundary between the troposphere
and the stratosphere. The tropopause has different heights around the earth. It
is approximately eight kilometers over the north and south poles and sixteen
kilometers over the equator.
TROPOSPHERE
21% Oxygen
78% Nitrogen
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AERODYNAMICS
PHYSICS FOR AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 1
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
2.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
Basic Aerodynamics
Beijing
The area of the cross--section at point A2 is five square centimeters and the
velocity of the airflow at this point is 40 m/s.
The continuity equation states that the velocity of the airflow is inversely
proportional to the area of the cross section of the tube as long as density remains constant !
For example if the area of the cross section is halved then the velocity of the
airflow is doubled or if the area is four times smaller then the velocity is four
times greater.
We use the term defuser outlet when the diameter increases and the velocity
decreases and the term jet outlet when the diameter decreases and the velocity increases.
You can see that as the diameter gets smaller the streamlines move closer to
each other.
At the lower picture we isolate the stream tube and identify two cross--sections,
A1 and A2. Assume that the area of the cross--section at point A1 is twenty
square centimeters and the velocity of the airflow at this point is 10 m/s.
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
DENSITY IS CONSTANT !
H1
= H2
A2 = 5 cm2
Figure 7
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
The Bernoulli equation states that total pressure is always the sum of
static pressure and dynamic pressure or in short hand notation: P tot
equals p plus q !
The total pressure remains constant.
Ptot = p + q = const.
p = pstat; q = H V2
VALVE CLOSED
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
Figure 8
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
q = H V2
AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
Figure 9
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
Now lets replace the upper surface of the venturi tube with a straight line and
see what happens to the airflow.
As you can see this doesnt change things very much. The streamlines are still
closer to each other in the center and the static pressure decreases in this area
The velocity of the airflow increases until it reaches the narrowest point in the
tube.
You know that as the velocity increases the static pressure decreases and the
dynamic pressure increases.
The velocity decreases again after the narrowest point and returns to the inlet
level by the time the airflow reaches the outlet.
During this phase the static pressure increases again and the dynamic pressure decreases.
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If we remove the upper surface we find that the streamlines themselves provide the upper boundary.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
The next step is to change the lower surface of the venturi tube into a profile
and to add some streamlines below it.
Now we have a surface with an area of low static pressure above it and area of
unchanged static pressure below it.
This difference in static pressure acts on the surface to create the force which
we call lift.
AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
When the cylinder rotates the circulatory flow causes an increase in local velocity on the upper surface of the cylinder and a decrease in local velocity on the
lower surface.
This generates lift.
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AERODYNAMICS
BASIC AERODYNAMICS
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 2
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AERODYNAMICS
PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
3.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
In this chapter we look at the geometry of a wing and a profile. This is important for our understanding of lift and drag.
In the first segment we look at profile geometry and in the second segment we
look at wing geometry.
The cord line is a straight line connecting the leading edge and the trailing
edge.
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AERODYNAMICS
PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
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Camber of a Profile
The mean camber line is a line drawn half way between the upper and the
lower surfaces of the profile.
The shape of the mean camber line is very important in determining the aerodynamic characteristics of a profile.
The end points of the mean camber line are the same as the end points of the
cord line.
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
Thickness of a Profile
The maximum thickness of a profile is defined as a fraction or a percentage of
the cord.
The maximum thickness as a fraction is also known as the fineness ratio.
The location of the maximum thickness is also defined as a percentage of the
cord.
For example a typical low speed profile might have a maximum thickness of
18 % located 30 % aft of the leading edge.
Camber
Thickness
0%
100%
0%
100%
The camber of the profile is the displacement of the mean camber line from the
cord line.
The maximum camber and the location of the maximum camber help to define
the shape of the mean camber line.
These quantities are expressed as a fraction or a percentage of the basic cord
dimension.
A typical low speed profile might have a maximum camber of 5 % located 45 %
aft of the leading edge.
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AERODYNAMICS
PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
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Relative wind
The flight path velocity is the speed of the aircraft in a certain direction through
the air.
The relative wind is the speed and direction of the air acting on the aircraft
which is passing through it.
You can see that the relative wind is opposite in direction to the flight path velocity.
The relative wind depends on the flight path and is therefore not always horizontal.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
Angle of attack
The angle of attack is the angle between the cord line of the profile and the relative wind. It is denoted by the greec letter ( alpha ).
Angle of incidence
The angle of incidence is the angle between the cord line of the profile and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. It is denoted by the greec letter gamma.
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PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
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Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
On this more realistic tapered wing we have different wing cords. You can see
that the root cord Cr, is the cord at the wing centerline and the tip cord Ct, is the
cord at the wing tip.
Taper ratio
The taper ratio ( lambda ), is the ratio of the tip cord to the root cord.
l = Ct/Cr
The wing area is the average cord multiplied by the wing span.
The average cord C, is the geometric average of all the cords and the wing
span b, is measured from tip to tip.
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PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
Aspect ratio L
The aspect ratio is the wing span b, divided by the average cord C.
Typical aspects ratios vary from 35 for a high performance sail--plane, to 3.5 for
a jet fighter plane.
You can see, that the aspect ratio can also be expressed as the wing span
squared divided by the wing area.
= b
C
2
= b
S
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Sweep angle
The sweep angle is the angle between the quarter cord, or the 25 % line and
the pitch axis.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 3
Dihedral
The dihedral of the wing is the angle formed between the wing and the horizontal plane passing through the root of the wing.
We have a positive dihedral when the tip of the wing is above the horizontal
plane and a negative dihedral when the tip of the wing is below the horizontal
plane.
AERODYNAMICS
PROFILE AND WING GEOMETRY
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
4.
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In this Chapter we look in more detail at the factors affecting the lift -- first the
angle of attack and then the shape of the profile.
After that we will have a look at the factors affecting the drag.
At the end we will see how lift and drag are represented in the polar diagram
You know that the main function of a profile is to provide lift so that the aircraft
can overcome the force of gravity and rise into the air.
You will see that the design of the profile is very important.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
The air velocity decreases and the static pressure increases after this point.
In the dark area at the trailing edge the static pressure is higher than the ambient static pressure.
This is caused by low velocity turbulent air in this area.
4.1. Introduction
Here you see the distribution of static pressure on a profile. The dark area in
front of the leading edge, is where the static pressure is higher than the ambient static pressure.
This is because the velocity of the air approaching the leading edge, slows to
less than the flight path velocity. The static pressure is highest at the point of
stagnation where the air comes to a stop.
In the lighter areas above and below the profile, the static pressure is lower
than the ambient static pressure. This is because the air speeds up again as it
passes above and below the profile so that the local air velocity is greater than
the flight path velocity.
We have maximum air velocity and minimum static pressure at a point near the
maximum thickness of the profile.
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
The aerodynamic forces of lift and drag depend on the combined effect of
many variables -- the dynamic pressure the surface area of the profile the
shape of the profile and the angle of attack.
Aerodynamic Force
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
In this example we assume that the air density is 1,225 kg/m3 and the air velocity is 28 m/s and the surface area of the profile is 0,05 m2 and we get a
theoretical lift of 24 N.
H = 1,225 kg/m3
V = 28 m/s
A = 0,05 m2
Theoretical Lift = x 1,225 x 282 x 0,05 = 24 N
Now we look at how to calculate the lift. You might think that this is simple -- all
we need to know about is the surface and the pressure.
However its not as easy as you might think. In reality a profile has different
pressures because of different angles of attack.
First lets look at the simple calculation of theoretical lift.
The theoretical lift is the dynamic pressure multiplied by the surface area. You
know from an earlier lesson that the dynamic pressure is half the air density
multiplied by the velocity squared.
Theoretical Lift = x H x V2 x A
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
It is not possible to calculate the actual lift. We have to measure it using a wind
tunnel.
You can see that a universal joint provides the bearing for this construction.
There are two scales attached to the support arm -- a horizontal scale to measure the drag and a vertical scale to measure the lift.
Now lets see what happens when we switch on the wind tunnel.
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
You can see that the measured lift is only 8,4 N. This is much less than the
theoretical lift of 24 N.
The theoretical lift must therefore be adjusted.
A coefficient of lift CL, is introduced to the lift equation to account for the difference between the measured lift and the theoretical lift.
The coefficient of lift is the measured lift divided by the theoretical lift. In our
example it is 0,34.
The lift equation is now the coefficient of lift multiplied by the dynamic pressure
multiplied by the surface area.
For the same reasons a coefficient of drag CD, is introduced to the drag equation to account for the difference between measured drag and theoretical drag.
The coefficient of drag is the measured drag divided by the theoretical drag.
The drag equation becomes the coefficient of drag multiplied by the dynamic
pressure multiplied by the surface area.
Drag = C d 1 V 2 S
2
Dynamic Pressure q
Lift = C l 1 V 2 S
2
Dynamic Pressure q
Coefficient of Drag =
Measured Drag
Theoretical Drag
V
V
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LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
= = 8E
= = 0E
If the angle of attack increases above = max, the airflow cannot follow the upper
surface of the profile and an airflow separation, known as stall occurs.
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
= = 8E
= = 20E
= = 16E
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
An advantage of a high maximum lift coefficient is that the aircraft can fly
slowly.
The disadvantages are that the thickness and camber necessary for profiles
with a high maximum lift coefficient may produce high drag and low critical
Mach number.
In other words, a high maximum lift coefficient is just one of many features desired in a profile. Next we look at the factors affecting the coefficient of drag.
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
Drag = C d 1 V 2 S
2
Dynamic Pressure q
Measured Drag
Theoretical Drag
Coefficient of Drag =
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
= = 8E
= = 0E
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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Aerodynamics Lesson 4
= = > 20E
= = 20E
FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 10
HAM US/F ro/ka MARCH 1998
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT AND DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 4
Lift = C l q S
Drag
Cd q S
Polar Diagram
Lift = C l
Drag
Cd
q = Dynamic Pressure
S = surface area
Lift/Drag Diagram
Figure 11
HAM US/F ro/ka MARCH 1998
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5.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Categories of Drag
5.1. Introduction
Drag is caused by any aircraft surface that deflects or interferes with the
smooth airflow around the airplane.
In this Chapter we look in more detail at the 5 different types of drag:
1. Induced Drag
2. Form Drag
3. Friction Drag
4. Interference Drag
5. Compressible Drag
We will see how the different types of drag are combined to give the total drag.
The total aircraft drag is the sum of the induced drag, the parasite drag and the
compressible drag.
Drag is the aerodynamic force which acts in opposition to the direction of flight,
opposes the foreward - acting force of thrust, and limits the forward speed of
the airplane.
The induced drag is the drag on the wing which is caused by the lift.
The parasite drag is not related to the lift.
It can be form drag which is drag caused by the distribution of pressure, or friction drag which is drag caused by skin friction, or interference drag which is
drag caused by aerodynamic interference.
Compressible drag is caused by the shock waves on an aircraft approaching
the speed of sound. Sometimes the compressible drag is called Wave Drag .
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Here you can see that on a wing with an infinite span, the lift distribution is always the same and on a wing with a finite span we get a loss of lift near the
wing tips.
The induced drag is lower if the finite wing has an elliptical lift distribution such
as the one you see here.
You will learn more about the lift distribution over the wing in the next chapter.
Lift Distribution
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CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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You know from an earlier chapter, that there is a circulation around the profile.
If the wing span is infinite the circulation around the profile causes an upwash
on the leading edge and a downwash on the trailing edge.
This circulation is called the bound vortex.
Infinite Wing
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
On a finite wing span we have the bound vortex and we also have the wing tip
vortices.
The graph shows that the total of the bound vortex and the wing tip vortices
creates the upwash and the downwash on the wing.
Finite Wing
The design of the gutter above the entry doors on the Boeing 747 reflects the
upwash and the downwash caused by the vortices.
You can see that the gutters are in line with the flow pattern of the airstream
around the wing.
They are sloped upwards to reflect the upwash forward of the wing and downwards to reflect the downwash aft of the wing.
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CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Smaller Aircraft
A - 310
B - 747 - 400
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AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
On the next graphic we see a real airflow around the cylinder with friction.
You can see that we dont have a symmetrical flow pattern any more and that
the pressure in front of the cylinder is not the same as the pressure behind the
cylinder.
This difference in pressure causes form drag.
Form drag depends on the frontal area of a body and also on the speed of the
airflow.
Flow Separation
AIRFLOW
AIRFLOW
PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION
PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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Boundary Layer
Now lets see what causes friction drag. First we assume that the surface of
the aircraft is perfectly smooth.
You can see that the airflow immediately above the surface is the same as the
freestream velocity. This is indicated by the length of the arrows.
In reality the surface of the aircraft is quite rough and the velocity of some
trapped air particles is reduced to zero. This means that the airflow immediately above the surface is retarded. The retarded layer of air at the surface
slows down the layer immediately above it and this layer in turn slows down the
next layer and so on until the freestream velocity is restored.
The retarded air is called the boundary layer.
Freestream
Velocity
For Training Purposes Only
Beijing
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
There a two basic types of boundary layer -- the turbulent boundary layer and
the laminar boundary layer.
The laminar boundary layer is immediately downstream of the leading edge.
The air particles in the laminar boundary layer do not move from one layer to
another. This is known as laminar flow.
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AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
The laminar boundary layer is between the leading edge and the point of maximum thickness which is also the point of lowest static pressure.
An air particle moves smoothly and with acceleration in the laminar boundary
layer just like the ball as it accelerates from the top of the hill to the bottom of
the valley.
You can imagine that the ball decelerates as it rolls up the other side of the
valley and stops before it reaches its former elevation.
In the same way the air particle loses energy due to the friction it encounters as
it enters the turbulent boundary layer after the point of maximum thickness.
The air particle is unable to reach the area of high static pressure at the trailing
edge and we get a flow separation where the air particle stops moving.
Flow Separation
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Now you can give the ball some additional energy with this billiard cue.
A slot in the profile assists the air particle to reach the high pressure area at the
trailing edge in the same way that the billiard cue assists the ball to reach its
former elevation.
The slot transfers air with high energy from the lower side to the upper side of
the profile and this gives the stationery air particle the energy it needs to move
to the high pressure area at the trailing edge.
The slot prevents a flow separation.
You will see more about boundary layer control in the chapters on flaps and
slats.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Interference Drag
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
Figure 12
HAM US/F ro/ka March 1998
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Here you can see a close up view of the boundary layer in front of, and behind
the shock wave.
You can see that the boundary layer thickens as it passes through the shock
wave.
A flow separation is caused by the thickening of the boundary layer and the
existence of an adverse pressure gradient across the shock wave.
This flow separation causes additional drag which is called compressible drag.
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
Page 60
AERODYNAMICS
CATEGORIES OF DRAG
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 5
Total Drag
Induced Drag
Parasite Drag
SPEED
Page 61
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
6.
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Lift Distribution
6.1. Introduction
In this Chapter we look at the lift distribution.
We will see how different wing designs affect the lift distribution and how the
wash out helps to prevent a stall on the wing tip.
Then we look at stall conditions and boundary layer control.
Now take a look at these three lift distributions.
You allready know that an elliptical lift distribution produces the lowest drag.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
The constant downwash gives a constant local angle of attack and therefore a
constant flow separation across the span of the wing.
The entire wing stalls at the same time.
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AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
On a geometrically twisted wing the camber of the profile is constant across the
span of the wing but the angle of incidence is greater at the root than at the tip.
You can see that the cord lines are not parallel.
When the aircraft approaches the stall angle there is a flow separation on the
root before the tip.
Page 63
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
0%
100 %
Page 64
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
CG
A stall strip is a knife edge like device, which is used on smaller aircraft to prevent the wing tip from stalling first.
Here the stall strip is mounted at the leading edge of the wing root.
The disadvantage of this device is that it disturbs the lift.
Page 65
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
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Slats are used to prevent wing tip stall on some larger aircraft.
On aircrafts such as the Boeing 737 or the DC 10, the slats automatically extend if the angle of attack is too high.
The slats are located at the leading edge of the wing tips.
When the slat is extended a slot opens and the boundary layer receives more
energy. As you know this prevents a flow separation at the wing tip.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
Wing fences reduce the effects of the spanwise flow. They are placed at several locations on the wing.
They tend to keep the air particles going in a straight line direction.
Wing fences are also called boundary layer fences.
A saw tooth leading edge has the same effect as wing fences.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 6
AERODYNAMICS
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
Page 67
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
7.
Ameco
Aviation College
Theory of Flight
7.1. Introduction
In the first segment we identify the forces acting on an aircraft.
Next we see what happens during a turn.
Then we look at different designs of control surfaces, lift devices and drag
devices.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Moments are caused by forces on a lever that do not act through the point of
rotation.
The value of a moment is equal to the force multiplied by the moment arm.
The moment arm is the shortest distance between the point of rotation and the
line of action of the force.
Earlier we assumed that all forces acted through the center of gravity. In reality
however, it is a requirement for stable flight that the center of lift is aft of the
center of gravity ( See picture right below ).
The distance between the center of gravity and the center of lift creates the
rotating effect known as a moment.
Page 68
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Lift = Weight !
Thrust = Drag !
Figure 13
HAM US/F ro/ka March 1998
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
MR
ML
MR
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AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Load Factor n =
Resultant Force
______________
Weight
1
___
n = cos
1,41
1,41
Page 71
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THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Lift = CL Minimal 1
2
V S [N]
When the aircraft is in low speed flight the coefficient of lift is at, or close to the
maximum.
The pilot must increase the speed to create the additional lift required for the
turn.
The stall speed during a turn divided by the stall speed during level flight is
equal to the square root of the load factor.
Lift = CL Minimal 1
2
V2 S
[N]
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AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
The surface forward of the hinge moves into the wind during deflection and the
airload assists the deflection.
Horn Balance
Insert Hinge
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
The balance panel is a plate connected to the leading edge of the control surface.
It divides the space in front of the control surface into two chambers -- an upper
chamber and a lower chamber.
It is assisted by seals to make sure, that the two chambers are completely separated.
The static pressure from outside is allowed into the chambers via the slots.
The static pressure in the upper chamber is less than the static pressure in the
lower chamber during a downward deflection of the control surface.
This difference in pressure produces a force on the balance panel which assists the deflection.
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
The anti--balance tab is connected to the wing via a tab rod. You can see that
the connection to the wing is on the opposite side from the tab rod for the balance tab.
The anti--balance tab is controlled by the tab rod. This tab increases the effectiveness of the control surface.
Lets see what happens when the control surface is deflected.
The anti--balance tab deflects in the same direction as the control surface.
The deflection of the anti--balance tab is greater than the deflection of the control surface.
The anti--balance tab increases the efficiency of the control surface but the disadvantage is that the pilot needs more effort to deflect the control surface.
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
Page 75
AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Slotted Flap
Slotted flaps have slots near the trailing edge of the wing when extended.
The slots allow air from the lower side of the wing, to flow to the upper side. As
you know this helps to prevent an early flow separation.
You can see that the slotted flap increases the lift by approximately 70 %.
Fowler Flap
The fowler flap rolls back on a track when it is extended.
This increases the effective area of the wing and also lowers the trailing edge.
The fowler flap fits into the lower contour of the trailing edge of the wing when it
is retracted.You can see that the fowler flap increases the lift by more than the
other types of lift devices.
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AERODYNAMICS
THEORY OF FLIGHT
Ameco
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
Aerodynamics Lesson 7
Spoiler
Air Brakes
Page 77
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
8.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Stability
8.1. Introduction
In this chapter we look at aircraft stability.
We look at directional stability, lateral stability, lateral directional interactions
and longitudinal stability.
When we talk about stability we refer to, how the aircraft is able to follow a
planned straight and level course without pilot action.
There are two types of stability -- static stability and dynamic stability.
Page 78
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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We assume that there is friction between the ball and the surface. The motion
of the ball tends to damp out after the initial displacement. When we have
damped oscillation the ball is dynamically stable.
Here the graph shows an example of positive dynamic stability.
Beijing
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Here you see another example to illustrate stability. The center of gravity of this
ruler is located at hole number four.
If the pivot point and the center of gravity are in the same place ( at the hole
number four), then we have a neutral static stability. There is no tendency to
move back to the original position from the displaced position.
If the ruler is tilted to the left it stays in this position and if it is tilted to the right it
stays in this position.
Ruler, pivoted at
hole 4
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STABILITY AND CONTROL
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If the pivot point is below the center of gravity we have a negative static stability.
When we have a displacement out of the vertical position the weight and the
moment arm L1 move the ruler away from the original equilibrium position.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
The distance between the pivot point and the center of gravity influences the
stability.
The longer the distance the greater the stability.
If the pivot point is in hole 1 the large moment arm gives a high tendency for
the ruler to return to the equilibrium position after displacement.
If the pivot point is in hole three, the relatively small moment arm L2 gives a
lower tendency for the ruler to return to the equilibrium position after displacement.
You will see how this is relevant to aircraft stability in the segment on longitudinal stability.
If the pivot point is above the center of gravity we have a positive static stability.
When we have a displacement out of the vertical position the weight and the
moment arm L2 bring the ruler back to the original equilibrium position.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Some aircraft increase the surface area behind the center of gravity to improve
the directional stability.
One method of doing this is with a dorsal fin and another, used on some military aircraft and on the old Boeing 707, is a keel surface. Both of these features increase the side forces to produce positive directional stability.
The sweepback of a wing also improves directional stability.
When the aircraft is deflected from its original flight path the forward going wing
presents a larger frontal area to the airflow than the other wing.
The drag on the forward going wing is therefore greater than on the other wing
and this produces a yawing moment which returns the aircraft to its original
flight path. You will realise that the forward going wing also produces higher lift.
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
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Now lets see how the dihedral angles help to restore level flight. The lift is always at right angles to the lateral axis. In level flight the lift is vertically straight
up but as you can see here in disturbed flight the lift is inclined in the direction
of the lower wing.
In this situation the lift and the weight create a resultant force.
The resultant force causes a sideslip which means that the aircraft glides to
one side without changing flight direction.
The sideslip causes a flow of air in the opposite direction to the relative wind.
Because of the dihedral angle the relative wind strikes the down going wing at
a greater angle than the up going wing.
This increases the lift on the down going wing and decreases the lift on the up
going wing.
This difference in lift turns the aircraft back to its original flight position and the
sideslip motion is stopped.
The relative wind also strikes the vertical stabilizer and this also assists the turn
back motion.
Lateral stability affects directional stability and vice versa.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
In the previous segment you saw how the sweep back angle affects directional
stability. Next we look at how it affects lateral stability.
Here you see an aircraft flying with a sideslip.
The sideslip angle is the angle between the aircraft centerline and the sideslip
direction.
You know that the relative wind is opposite to the sideslip direction.
The wing into the sideslip direction, the right wing, produces more lift than the
other wing.
This wing has a longer effective leading edge and a thicker effective profile
than the left wing.
The difference in lift on the wings brings the aircraft back to level flight.
You will see more about the interaction between lateral and directional stability
in the next segment.
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Sharp Gust
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Lets see what happens, if a gust hits the lower front part of the aircraft.
When a gust hits the lower front part of the aircraft we get a nose up rotation.
The horizontal stabilizer changes the angle of attack and the stabilizer force is
reduced to allow the aircraft back to equilibrium.
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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Now lets see what happens if we have a gust from above the aircraft.
When a gust hits the upper front part of the aircraft, we get a nose down rotation.
The horizontal stabilizer changes the angle of attack, the stabilizer force is increased and the aircraft returns to equilibrium.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
Now lets look at how a tail--less aircraft or a flying wing can fly with a positive
longitudinal stability.
You know that the center of gravity is the resultant of all aircraft weights and
that the center or lift or aerodynamic center is the resultant of all lift forces including the downward forces of the horizontal stabilizer.
In general positive longitudinal stability is achieved by restoring moments.
To assist your understanding we remove the wings and the horizontal stabilizer
from this aircraft.
Positive longitudinal stability is achieved by changes in the lift aft of the center
of gravity.
Lets see what happens when we have a gust from below the front of the aircraft.
The nose up rotation produces additional lift.
The moment of the additional lift and the lever arm L 1 returns the aircraft to
the previous position.
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
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Now lets see what happens when we have a gust from above the front of the
aircraft.
The nose down rotation reduces the lift.
The moment of the reduced lift and the lever arm L 1 returns the aircraft to the
previous position.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 8
AERODYNAMICS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
Page 89
9.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
Transonic Flight
9.1. Introduction
In this chapter we look at transonic flight. You will learn something about the
critical Mach number and about wave drag.
Here we show the effect of the swept wing, we look at transonic profiles and at
control surfaces in the transonic range.
You were introduced to the three speed ranges in the first Aerodynamics chapter. You probably remember that in the subsonic range we have subsonic airflow on all parts of the aircraft, in the transonic range we have some subsonic
airflow and some supersonic airflow on the aircraft .
In the supersonic range we have supersonic airflow on all parts of the aircraft.
You know that at low speed or subsonic flight the air is incompressible.
We get small changes in pressure and almost no change in density. The air
pressure can change without changes in air density.
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
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We can compare the flow patterns of subsonic and supersonic airflow. If the
object is travelling at low speed
the sound waves move ahead of the object and the airflow immediately ahead
of the object is influenced by the forward moving pressure field.
This pressure field acts as a pressure warning to the leading edge
and we have a change of flow direction ahead of the leading edge.
If the object is travelling above the speed of sound
the airflow ahead of the object is not influenced by the pressure field. This is
because the sound waves cannot move ahead of the object.
As the flight speed approaches the speed of sound a compression wave, more
commonly called a shock wave, forms at the leading edge.
All changes in velocity, pressure and density take place suddenly and sharply.
The airflow ahead of the object receives no pressure warning because the air
particles are suddenly forced out of the way by the shock wave.
We also get expansion waves. You will see more about shock waves and expansion waves in the next chapter.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
M= V
a
For example if the indicator shows a Mach number of 0.6, this means that the
aircraft flies at 60% of the speed of sound. A Mach number of 1 indicates that
the aircraft flies at the speed of sound.
The local Mach number on a control surface is greater than the flight Mach
number.
This is because the acceleration of the airstream is greater on a profile than on
other parts of the aircraft.
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
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TRANSSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
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In this example the Mach indicator shows that the aircraft flies with a Mach
number of zero point six but the local Mach number on the profile is zero point
eight.
You can see that all the airflow around the profile is subsonic.
Mach = 0.6
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
Now we will accelerate the aircraft further. When the critical Mach number is
exceeded, an area of supersonic airflow is created.
You know that the sound waves are pressure waves. They build up a pressure
concentration which we call a shock wave.
Mach = 0.85
Mach = 0.85
Mach = 0.8
Local Mach Number
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TRANSSONIC
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Mach = 0.9
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
Now lets see what happens when the Mach number exceeds the speed of
sound.
A bow wave forms at the leading edge when the flight speed exceeds the
speed of sound.
The bow wave has a detached normal shock wave region with an area of subsonic flow behind the wave and oblique shock wave regions, outside the normal shock wave region, with supersonic flow behind the wave.
If the speed is increased to a higher supersonic value all the oblique portions of
the waves will incline further and the detached normal shock portion of the bow
wave will move closer to the leading edge.
You will learn more about supersonic profiles later in this chapter.
Mach > 1
On the next picture the aircraft is accelerated to Mach 0.95.
As the flight Mach number approaches one, that is the speed of sound, the
areas of supersonic flow increase and the shock waves move closer to the
trailing edge.
The boundary layer continues to have a flow separation.
Mach = 0.95
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Wave drag is the portion of total drag which is due to the shock waves.
You can see on the graph how the total drag increases at speeds above the
critical Mach number.
As you know the shock waves turn useful energy into heat energy. If we want
to increase the speed above the critical Mach number we need additional engine thrust to compensate for this lost energy.
There are two ways to reduce the wave drag.
One is to use vortex generators and the other is to apply the area rule.
First you can find out more about how vortex generators can reduce the wave
drag.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
Page 94
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
Page 95
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
Its not possible to build very thin wings because the wings must be strong
enough to carry the weight and they must also house the fuel tanks.
As you will see, aircraft designers have thought of a way of making a thick profile a thin profile.
Here you see a part of a wing with a profile drawn in.
The profile thickness for aerodynamics purposes is the actual thickness divided
by the cord length.
If the profile is 1.5 m thick and the cord length is 10 m, then the thickness is
0.15 or 15%.
For example the wing root of an Airbus A - 320 has a thickness of 18%.
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
Page 96
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TRANSSONIC
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Swept Wing
Now lets see how a swept wing affects thickness.
For aerodynamic purposes the swept wing has a longer cord length and therefore a reduced thickness.
The wings on most modern jet aircraft have a sweep angle of approximately
30E
This reduces the thickness and increases the critical Mach number.
Here you see the speed vectors on a swept wing. V represents the speed and
direction of the airflow.
V is made up of the normal vector Vn at right angles to the leading edge and
the tip vector Vt parallel to the leading edge.
The fact that V is greater than Vn also explains why the swept wing has a
higher critical Mach number.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
This wing can improve performance during low speed and high speed flight.
During low speed flight we have no sweep angle and during high speed flight
we have a high sweep angle.
You can see this design on some military aircraft and on this Boeing design for
a projected supersonic transport aircraft.
Page 97
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TRANSSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
We can compare the conventional and the transonic profile on the graph at the
top of the picture.
On the horizontal axis we have the thickness to cord ratio and on the vertical
axis we have the cruise Mach number.
First we assume that the conventional profile and the transonic profile have the
same thickness to cord ratio of point one two.
In this case the wind tunnel data shows, that the cruise Mach number for the
transonic profile is 15% higher than it is for the conventional profile.
In reality most aircraft fly with a cruise Mach number of approximately 0.8.
At this cruise Mach number you can see that the thickness to cord ratio for the
transonic profile is 42% higher than it is for the conventional profile.
This difference is shown by the wind tunnel data and by the flight data of an
experimental aircraft.
The higher thickness of the transonic profile means that the total weight of the
wing is reduced if the wing span is unchanged.
Page 98
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
There are other advantages of a wing with a transonic profile. Greater lift
means that the wing can be smaller than the conventional wing and higher
Mach numbers means that the sweepback angle can be reduced.
This reduction in the sweepback angle and the rounded leading edge improves
the low speed characteristics of the wing and allows simpler lift devices to be
used.
Here you can see that the conventional profile needs thick material to withstand
the bending moment on the root of the wing and the thicker transonic profile
needs less material to withstand the same bending moment.
The greater thickness also gives greater fuel capacity.
We can also increase the wing span of a wing with a transonic profile and keep
the weight unchanged.
This has the advantage of reducing the drag.
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
Page 100
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 9
The control surface on the horizontal stabilizer is called the elevator. It is dangerous to operate the elevator to compensate the tuck under effect.
Lets see why.
The deflection of the elevator in subsonic flight increases the downward forces
because of the higher acceleration of the airstream on the lower side of the
horizontal stabilizer.
The deflection of the elevator in transonic flight has a different effect.
The airspeed accelerates above the speed of sound and a shock wave appears.
The flow separation behind the shock wave reduces the horizontal stabilizer
forces and the aircraft reaction is the opposite of the normal reaction.
The nose down reaction increases dramatically and the aircraft goes out of
control. The nose down reaction increases dramatically and the aircraft goes
out of control !
Some aircraft are equipped with an elevator lock to prevent this dangerous situation.
This lock operates automatically at high Mach numbers.
You will learn more about this in the chapter on elevators in Primary Flight Controls.
AERODYNAMICS
TRANSSONIC
Page 101
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AERODYNAMICS
SUPERSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
10.1.
Supersonic Airflow
Supersonic Airflow
Supersonic Airflow
Supersonic Airflow
Page 102
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SUPERSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
10.1.1.
Shock Waves
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SUPERSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
Expansion Wave
An expansion wave is formed where the supersonic airstream turns away from
the preceding flow direction.
Unlike a shock wave, this flow around a corner doesnt cause sharp or sudden
changes in the airflow.
When a supersonic airstream passes through an expansion wave, the airflow
direction follows the surface as long as there is no flow separation.
The velocity of the airflow increases, the static pressure, the density and thetemperature of the air decrease and there is no change in the useful energy or
in total pressure.
10.2.
For Training Purposes Only
Ameco
Supersonic Profiles
Here you can see the pressure distribution on a thin flat plate in a supersonic
airflow. The airflow over the upper surface passes through an expansion wave
at the leading edge and this gives a uniform suction pressure on the upper
side.
The airflow under the plate passes through an oblique shock wave at the leading edge and this gives a uniform positive pressure on the lower side.
In this example the center of lift is at fifty percent of the cord because of the
constant pressure distribution.
The net lift is produced by the distribution of pressure on a surface.
You know that the profile lift is the force from the perpendicular to the free airstream.
The inclination of the net lift from the profile lift produces drag.
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SUPERSONIC
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FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
In reality a wing is not a flat plate -- it must have a profile. There are two typical
profiles, the double wedge profile and the circular arc profile.
Double Wedge Prfile
Here you can see the wave pattern on a double wedge profile at zero angle of
attack.
You can see the airflow over the surface passes though an oblique shock wave
at the leading edge, an expansion wave and then another oblique shock wave
at the trailing edge.
The wave pattern on the double wedge profile produces an increase in pressure on the forward half of the cord and a decrease in pressure on the aft half
of the cord.
This means we have no net lift.
= 0E
Beijing
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
= 3E
This is the wave pattern and the resulting pressure distribution for the double
wedge profile at a small positive angle of attack.
You can see that the pressure distribution produces an inclined net lift and that
the inclination of the net lift from the profile lift produces drag.
Page 105
AERODYNAMICS
SUPERSONIC
10.3.
Ameco
Beijing
Aviation College
The air entering the compressor section of a jet engine must be slowed to subsonic velocity.
The slowing down of the air must be accomplished with the least possible
waste of energy.
At flight speeds just above the speed of sound we only need slight modifications to the ordinary subsonic inlet design to produce satisfactory performance.
At higher supersonic speeds the required modifications are more complicated.
The inlet design must slow the air with the weakest possible series or combination of shock waves in order to minimize the energy losses caused by temperature increases.
On the next picture you see one of the least complicated engine inlet designs,
a normal shock diffuser inlet.
You can see that this type of inlet employs a single normal shock wave at the
inlet to slow the air to subsonic velocity.
This type of inlet is suitable for low supersonic speeds where the normal shock
wave is not too strong.
It is not suitable at higher supersonic speeds because the normal shock wave
is very strong and causes a great reduction in the total pressure recovered by
the inlet.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
Here you see a single oblique shock inlet. This design employs an external
oblique shock wave to slow the supersonic airflow before the normal shock occurs.
A more complicated variation of the single oblique shock inlet is the multiple
oblique shock inlet.
This design employs a series of very weak oblique shock waves to gradually
slow the supersonic airflow before the normal shock occurs. The normal shock
wave doesnt have to be very strong.
This combination of weak shock waves leads to the least waste of energy and
the highest pressure recovery.
The optimum shape of supersonic inlets varies with the inlet flow direction and
with the Mach number.
In other words to derive the highest efficiency and stability of operation the geometry of the inlet would be different at different angles of attack and at different speeds.
Page 106
AERODYNAMICS
SUPERSONIC
Ameco
Beijing
Aviation College
Here you see and example of an inlet which can be varied to suit different
conditions.
You can see that it is equipped with actuator operated panels.
At flight speeds below Mach one the engine inlet is fully open and the aircraft
flies with a high angle of attack.
At flight speeds just above Mach one the actuators change the position of the
panels slightly and the inlet employs a single normal shock wave.
This is similar to the normal shock diffuser inlet.
At high Mach numbers the actuators operate the panels so that they employ
three oblique shock waves and then a normal shock.
This is similar to the multiple oblique shock inlet.
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
Mach > 1
Page 107
10.4.
Ameco
Beijing
Aviation College
Aerodynamic Heating
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
With subsonic flight the increase in temperature is very small but with supersonic flight the increases in temperature can affect the aircraft structure.
This graph shows the effect of speed and altitude on aerodynamic heating.
You can see that the temperature increases rapidly as the Mach number increases.
The graph on the right shows the approximate effect of temperature on material strength.
The graph shows that aluminum alloy loses approximately 80% of its strength
if the temperature increases to 250E C.
Because of this, parts of Concorde and some military aircraft are made from
titanium alloy.
AERODYNAMICS
SUPERSONIC
Page 108
Ameco
Beijing
Aviation College
FUNDAMENTALS
Aerodynamics Lesson 10
AERODYNAMICS
SUPERSONIC
Page 109
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATA
1.
AERODYNAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.
Fundamental units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1.
Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2.
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3.
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4.
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.
1.3.
1.4.
1.4.1.
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.1.
Static pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.2.
Dynamic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1.
1.6.2.
1.2.
1.5.
1.6.
1.6.3.
1.7.
2.
3.
4.
Sound regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.7.1.
19
Basic Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.1.
Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.2.
Bernoulli s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.2.1.
Pressure measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.3.
Lift production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.4.
28
30
3.1.
Geometry of a profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.2.
Wing geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
36
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
12
4.1.1.
Lift Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
4.1.2.
Drag Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
40
4.2.
Page i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.3.
4.4.
5.
6.
4.2.1.
40
6.2.2.
Rectangular Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.2.2.
Shape of a Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
6.2.3.
Tapered Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
6.2.4.
Swept Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
63
6.3.1.
63
6.3.2.
63
43
4.3.1.
44
Polar Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Categories of Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.4.
Stall Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
6.5.
66
6.5.1.
66
6.5.2.
Vortex Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
5.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
5.2.
Induced Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
5.3.
Parasite Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.3.1.
Form Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.3.2.
Friction Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
5.3.3.
Interference Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
5.4.
Compressible Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
5.5.
Total Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.
7.
Theory of Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
7.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
7.2.
68
7.2.1.
70
Theory of Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
7.3.1.
72
Control Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
7.4.1.
73
7.3.
62
7.4.
6.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.4.2.
Balance Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.2.
Wing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.4.3.
Balance Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.2.1.
62
7.4.4.
75
Elliptical Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.
7.4.5.
Control Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
7.4.6.
Trim Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.5.
Lift Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.6.
Drag Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.1.1.
Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.1.2.
Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
8.1.3.
Aircraft Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
8.2.
Directional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
8.3.
Lateral Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
8.4.
85
8.4.1.
Spiral Dive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
8.4.2.
Dutch Roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
Longitudinal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
8.5.
9.
78
Transonic Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.
Wave Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
9.3.1.
94
9.3.2.
95
9.4.
96
9.5.
Transonic Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
9.6.
100
102
Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
104
106
108
90
9.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.2.
91
Page iii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
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3
5
7
11
13
17
21
23
25
45
47
59
69
Page iv