The cytoskeleton

Gives the cell its shape

Allows the cell to organize its components

Produces large-scale movements (I.e. muscle contraction, cell crawling, propulsion via cilia and
flagella)

A cytoskeleton is needed for many many cellular functions, such as;

Muscle contraction

Permitting sperm to swim

Immune system

The inside of the cell is also in constant motion, and it is the cytoskeleton which provides the
means to achieve this too.

Mitosis & meiosis

Organelle movements

Cell movement

Intermediate filaments

Have the greatest tensile strength

Enable cells to withstand the mechanical stress associated with stretching

Called intermediate because their diameter is 10nm

Toughest and most durable of the three types

Found in the cytoplasm of most animal cells surrounding the nucleus and extending out into the
cytoplasm

Found extensively at tight junctions.

Found within the nucleus too - as part of the nuclear lamina which supports and strengthens the
nuclear envelope

Intermediate filament struc

Resemble rope in that many long strands are twisted together to provide tensile strength

The strands are made of elongated fibrous proteins

Each has a N-terminal globular head

Each has a C-terminal globular tail

Each has a central elongated rod domain, which is an extended alpha-helical region.
These wrap around each other in a coiled-coil configuration.

These are further associated non-covalently with other dimers to form tetramers. The
tetramers associate together end-to-end and side-by-side also non-covalently

The head & tail units of the fibres bind to other components. The globular domains vary greatly
between different intermediate fib
The head & tail units of the fibres bind to other components. The globular domains vary greatly
between different intermediate fibres
They are very evident in the axons of nerve cells which is a necessary requirement to prevent its
rupture. Also present in muscle cells and epithelial cells. Shown below are the potential consequences of
cells lacking these structures
2) Microtubules

Microtubules have a crucial role in all eukaryotic cells

Long stiff hollow tubes of protein that disassemble and reassemble to various locations in the
cell.

In most cells they tend to grow from a central location within the cell called the centrosome

They extend out towards the cell periphery

They create a system of tracks across the cell

Vesicles, organelles, and other cell components travel like trains along these tracks

Keeping things in their places too, such as organelles

The microtubles reform as the mitotic spindle during cell division along which the chromosomes move
They also form the core of the cilia and flagella that beat rhythmically.
Microtubule structure

Microtubules are built from subunits - tubulin

Tubulin is made of two subunits - alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin bound together by ionic bonds.

These subunits stack together into long fibers microtubles

These fibers from a cylinder made of 13 parallel microtubles - each is called a protofilament

These protofilaments have a polarity

at one end there are just free alpha-tubulins - this is known as the minus end

at the other beta-tubulins - this is known as the plus end

this directionality is akin to defining one way streets along which material is
transported

Microtubules exhibit a behavior termed dynamic instability

Total mass of polymerized tubulin remains constant, but individual microtubules are dynamic

Growth: assembly of microtubule

Shrinkage: disassembly of microtubule

Catastrophe: switching from growth to shrinking

Rescue: switching from shrinking to growth

Why are microtubules dynamic?

Microtubule dynamics allow the cell to quickly reorganize the network when building a mitotic
spindle

Dynamics also allow microtubules to probe the cytoplasm for specific objects and sites on the
plasma membrane - search and capture

Centrosome

Microtubules are formed by outgrowth from the specialized organizing center which controls

The number of microtubules formed

The location of these mictotubules

The orientation of these microtubules

It is known as the centrosome

It is typical present on one side of the nucleus

It is a complex structure composed of gamma-tubulin subunits

Alpha/Beta subunits grow from it

Motor Proteins

Microtubules have a lot of associated proteins

One class are the motor proteins which bind to both actin and intermediate filaments

They use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to travel along the filaments (for both actin and
intermediate)

They attach with their globular end to the filament

They attach their other end to the cargo they carry

Dozens have been identified

THEY DIFFER IN THE CARGO THEY BIND AND THE DIRECTION THEY TRAVEL

Kinesins move towards the plus end

Dyneins move towards the minus end

Cilia and flagella contain stable microtubules moved by dynein.

Cilia are small outgrowths on the cell surface that beat to move fluid across the cell - mucus in
the lungs

Flagella are longer structures that propel the entire cell.

3) Actin Filaments
Actin Filaments

Found in all eukaryotic cells

Essential for movement - cell crawling, dividing into two.

Unstable dynamic structures

Also able to bind with a whole bunch of alternative actin-binding proteins to allow them to serve
a variety of functions

Act like the internal muscles of the cell - pulling the cell into various shapes

They are thin and flexible - about 7 nm in diameter

Each is a twisted chain of identical globular actin molecules - all pointing in the same direction so they have a plus and minus side also.

Much longer than microfilaments in total length as there are many more subunits of actin in
the cell than microfilament subunits (x 30 times)

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)

The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin

ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins

Composition of Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

Cells (mesenchymal origin)

- fibroblasts
- smooth muscle cells
- chondroblasts
- osteoblasts and epitelial cells

Organic fibrilar matrix

Organic nonfibrilar matrix

Water

Function of ECM

Provides support and anchorage for cells.

Regulates and determine cells dynamic behavior :

- polarity of cells
- cell differentiation
- adhesion
- migration

Provides mechanical support for tissues and organ architecture.

- growth
- regenerative and healing processes
- determination and maintenance of the structure

Place for active exchange of different metabolites, ions, water.

Structure of ECM

collagen

the main ECM component, forms the main fibres

elastin

proteoglycans

- heteropolysacharides

structural glycoproteins

- fibronectin, laminin

Cell Junctions

Tight junctions - form tight seals between cells such as the epithelial cells that comprise the
inner lining of the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder; they prevent the passage of
substances between cells

Desmosomes - strongly fasten cells to each other; they prevent epidermal cells from separating
under tension and cardiac muscle cells from pulling apart during contraction

Hemidesmosomes - strongly anchor cells to an underlying basement membrane

Adherens junctions - strongly fasten cells to each other; they help epithelial surfaces resist
separation

Gap junctions - formed by minute, fluid-filled tunnels that permit passage of electrical signals or
chemicals (i.e., ions and small molecules) from one cell to a neighboring cell, located in some parts of
the nervous system, in heart muscle, and in the gastrointestinal tract
The Energy of Life

The living cell is a miniature chemical factory where thousands of reactions occur

The cell extracts energy and applies energy to perform work

Some organisms even convert energy to light, as in bioluminescence

An organisms metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of thermodynamics

Metabolism is the totality of an organisms chemical reactions

Metabolism is an emergent property of life that arises from interactions between molecules
within the cell

Organization of the Chemistry of Life into Metabolic Pathways

A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product

Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler
compounds

Cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen, is an example of a pathway of
cataboli
Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
The synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of anabolism

Energy is the capacity to cause change

Energy exists in various forms, some of which can perform work

Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion

Heat (thermal energy) is kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or
molecules

Potential energy is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

Chemical energy is potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

Energy can be converted from one form to another

Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations

A isolated system, such as that approximated by liquid in a thermos, is isolated from its
surroundings

In an open system, energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its
surroundings

Organisms are open systems

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy of the universe is constant

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

The first law is also called the principle of conservation of energy

During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy is unusable, and is often lost as
heat

According to the second law of thermodynamics

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe

Living cells unavoidably convert organized forms of energy to heat

Spontaneous processes occur without energy input; they can happen quickly or slowly

For a process to occur without energy input, it must increase the entropy of the universe

Cells create ordered structures from less ordered materials

Organisms also replace ordered forms of matter and energy with less ordered forms

Energy flows into an ecosystem in the form of light and exits in the form of heat

The evolution of more complex organisms does not violate the second law of thermodynamics

Entropy (disorder) may decrease in an organism, but the universes total entropy increases

Free-Energy Change, G

A living systems free energy is energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are
uniform, as in a living cell

The change in free energy (G) during a process is related to the change in enthalpy, or change
in total energy (H), change in entropy (S), and temperature in Kelvin (T)
G = H TS

Only processes with a negative G are spontaneous

Spontaneous processes can be harnessed to perform work

Free energy is a measure of a systems instability, its tendency to change to a more stable state

During a spontaneous change, free energy decreases and the stability of a system increases

Equilibrium is a state of maximum stability

A process is spontaneous and can perform work only when it is moving toward equilibrium

An exergonic reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous

An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous

Reactions in a closed system eventually reach equilibrium and then do no work

Cells are not in equilibrium; they are open systems experiencing a constant flow of materials

A defining feature of life is that metabolism is never at equilibrium

A catabolic pathway in a cell releases free energy in a series of reactions

Closed and open hydroelectric systems can serve as analogies

ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions

A cell does three main kinds of work

Chemical

Transport

Mechanical

To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, the use of an exergonic process
to drive an endergonic one

Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cells energy shuttle

ATP is composed of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups

The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATPs tail can be broken by hydrolysis

Energy is released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken

This release of energy comes from the chemical change to a state of lower free energy, not from
the phosphate bonds themselves

How the Hydrolysis of ATP Performs Work

The three types of cellular work (mechanical, transport, and chemical) are powered by the
hydrolysis of ATP

In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an
endergonic reaction

Overall, the coupled reactions are exergonic

ATP drives endergonic reactions by phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate group to some

other molecule, such as a reactant

The recipient molecule is now called a phosphorylated intermediate

The Regeneration of ATP

ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a phosphate group to adenosine

diphosphate (ADP)

The energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from catabolic reactions in the cell

The ATP cycle is a revolving door through which energy passes during its transfer from catabolic
to anabolic pathways

Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers

A catalyst is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

An enzyme is a catalytic protein

Hydrolysis of sucrose by the enzyme sucrase is an example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

The Activation Energy Barrier

Every chemical reaction between molecules involves bond breaking and bond forming

The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called the free energy of activation, or
activation energy (EA)

Activation energy is often supplied in the form of thermal energy that the reactant molecules
absorb from their surroundings

Enzymes Lower the EA Barrier

Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the EA barrier

Enzymes do not affect the change in free energy (G); instead, they hasten reactions that would
occur eventually

Catalysis in the Enzymes Active Site

In an enzymatic reaction, the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme

The active site can lower an EA barrier by

Orienting substrates correctly

Straining substrate bonds

Providing a favorable microenvironment

Covalently bonding to the substrate

Effects of Local Conditions on Enzyme Activity

An enzymes activity can be affected by

General environmental factors, such as temperature and pH

Chemicals that specifically influence the enzyme

Effects of Temperature and pH

Each enzyme has an optimal temperature in which it can function

Each enzyme has an optimal pH in which it can function

Optimal conditions favor the most active shape for the enzyme molecule

Cofactors

Cofactors are nonprotein enzyme helpers

Cofactors may be inorganic (such as a metal in ionic form) or organic

An organic cofactor is called a coenzyme

Coenzymes include vitamins

Enzyme Inhibitors

Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate

Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change
shape and making the active site less effective

Examples of inhibitors include toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics