Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
PROTECTION: CORROSION
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing

Protection of Steelwork
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To expand upon Lecture 4A.1, giving the practical means of protecting steelwork at a
level suitable for young architects and engineers.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the assessment of the required life design for the successful use of
protective systems and surface preparation. The coatings commonly used to protect steel
are described and the use of stainless and weathering steels are briefly discussed. Finally a
general discussion of maintenance is given.
1. LIFE EXPECTANCY
Table 1 classifies the principal types of environment that have a significant influence on
the life expectancy of steel.
In dry, heated buildings, e.g. offices, hospitals, warehouses, the corrosion rates of carbon
steel are usually very low. Steel can be used without protection in such environments
when it is hidden. Elsewhere it is coated for aesthetic or hygienic reasons.
Many interiors are not dry however and steelwork requires protection in these situations,
as well as in exterior environments.
Structures and plant usually have a "design life". If after execution of the structure access
is impossible, the initial protective system needs to have the same life as the steel.
Economic pressures often increase the functional life of plant significantly beyond the

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"design life". Changes in expectation usually occur after the initial protective system is in
place. It is sensible therefore to consider this possibility at the start of every new project.
1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance

Table 2 gives in column (a) typical lives in the general environment quoted to prevent
deterioration of the steel using various coating systems. Column (b) gives the likely time
to first refurbishment where good appearance and the maintenance of a readily cleaned
surface are important. Neither set of figures can allow for the influence of local conditions,
e.g. heavy overnight condensation due to the unplanned shutting down of ventilating
systems to save money.
Protective systems require regular inspection allowing unexpected local failures to be
repaired. Ideally the base steel should never be exposed. If the first coat of the system is
zinc galvanising or metal spray then it should be considered part of the structure, the paint
coats being refurbished at intervals which ensure it remains unexposed.
1.2 Life Between Maintenances

When there is data on the performance of a protective system on similar structures or
plant, prediction of the intervals to maintain the top coat(s) is fairly easy. Since the initial
failure of a protective system may be sooner than anticipated, the estimation of the interval
for some breakdown to bare steel can be complicated.
1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement

It may be necessary to assess each part of a structure separately. For each assessment the
following points should be taken into account:
a. Required life of structure/plant.
b. Decorative and hygienic requirements. The decorative life of a coating (and its ability to
be readily cleaned) is rarely as long as the protective life of the system, see Table 2.
c. Irreversible deterioration if scheduled maintenance is delayed.
d. Difficulty of access for maintenance.
e. Technical and engineering problems in maintenance.
f. Minimum acceptable period between maintenance.
g. Total maintenance costs, including plant shut-down, closure of roads, access, etc.

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2. DESIGN
The design of structures and plant is based largely on data and functional requirements
which can be quantified, e.g. 'the steelwork supports plant manufacturing a specific
product and has a life expectancy of 25 years'. The selection of a protective system
involves many factors; these factors vary widely according to the type of structure, its
complexity, its function, the general environment, (see Table 1) the influence of
microclimates and the effects of possible environmental changes (natural and otherwise)
which may occur during the required life.
Other factors affecting selection are quantitative, e.g. time to first maintenance, planned
maintenance schedule to cover the required life of the structure or plant, thickness of
coatings, etc. They should be viewed with caution because the degree of variation may
differ between one coating system and another.
Quotations may vary considerably for the same system irrespective of whether it is hot dip
galvanising, metal spray or paint. Great care is necessary to ensure quotations for
apparently identical products or services do cover the same materials, application with the
same degree of control, and comparable quality of finish in terms of both required
durability and appearance.
Some of the critical conditions and circumstances that have to be taken into account before
selecting a protective system are listed in question form in Appendix 1. Not every question
is relevant to a particular job and the importance of the relevant questions varies. The
order of relevant questions might be modified in the light of answers to later questions.
The list should be studied as a whole before the questions are considered in detail.
2.1 Design for Protective Systems

The design of structures and plant can influence the choice of protective system. It may be
appropriate and economic to modify the design to suit the preferred protective system. The
following points should be noted:
a. Provide safe and easy access to and around the structure to facilitate maintenance.
b. Design the elements:
i. to avoid pockets and recesses in which water and dirt can collect, see Figures 1 - 5.
ii. to eliminate sharp edges and corners, see Figure 6.
iii. to provide clear access for painting e.g. to allow space to use a paint brush or spray
gun, see Figure 7.

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c. Any areas which are inaccessible after erection require a coating system designed to last
the required life of the structure. Is this feasible or should the design be modified?
d. Certain structural sections are more suited to some coating systems than others, e.g.
hollow section are more easily wrapped than structural shapes.
e. The method or size of fabrication may preclude or limit some protective systems, e.g.
friction grip bolts, galvanising.
f. If bimetallic corrosion is possible, additional protective measures are necessary, see
Figure 8.

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g. Where steel is likely to be in contact with other building materials, special precautions
may be necessary e.g. oak timbers.
h. For steel structures in water, cathodic protection may be the best solution, see Figure 9.

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2.2 Where to Apply Protection

In this case "where" means should the protective coating system be applied on or off site.
Protective system are more durable when applied in the fabrication shop or steel mill.
Where there is a likelihood of substantial damage occurring during transportation and
erection specifiers may prefer the final one or two coats of protection to be applied on site.
Paints specified for site use must be tolerant of delay and a measure of intercoat
contamination. The specification should state clearly who is responsible for quality control
at each stage of fabrication and processing.
Where the total system is applied off-site, the specification must cover the need for care at
all later stages to prevent damage to the finished steel and set out repair procedures for the
coatings once the steelwork is erected.

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2.3 Special Areas

The protective treatment of bolts, nuts and other parts of the structural connections require
careful consideration. Ideally their protective treatment should be of a standard at least
equal to that specified for the general surfaces.
Where high performance paint systems are to be used, it is worth considering hot dip spun
galvanised or stainless steel fasteners.
The mating surfaces of connections made with high strength friction grip bolts require
special treatment, see Appendix 2 in Lecture 4A.3.
3. SURFACE PREPARATION
The surface preparation of the steelwork has a major influence in determining the
protective value of the coating system.
For galvanising and metal spraying, surface preparation is an integral part of the process
and is included in national standards for these operations. With paint systems there is
usually a choice of preparatory methods. Therefore the actual method chosen for a specific
job must be specified as part of the protective coating treatment.
The choice between blast-cleaning and manual cleaning is partly determined by the nature
of the coatings to be applied. Coatings applied to a degreased blast-cleaned surface always
last longer than similar coatings applied to manually cleaned surfaces. However, some
short-life coatings do not warrant the high cost of blast-cleaning as required for long-life
coatings. Details of methods for blast cleaning surfaces are given in ISO 8504 [5].
3.1 Degreasing
Grease and dirt are best removed by proprietary emulsion cleaners followed by a thorough
rinsing with water, by steam-cleaning, or by controlled high pressure water jets.
Where it is necessary to use white spirit or similar solvents to remove oil or grease, the use
of detergent or emulsion cleaner should follow before completing the operation by
thorough rinsing with clean fresh water.
Degreasing by washing with solvent is not recommended because it can lead to the
spreading of a thin film of oil or grease over the surface.
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust

Mill-scale is made up of the surface oxides produced during the hot-rolling of steel. It is
unstable. On weathering, water penetrates fissures in the scale and rusting of the steel
surface occurs. The mill-scale loses adhesion and begins to shed. It is an unsatisfactory
base and needs to be removed before protective coatings are applied.

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In general, rusted steel surfaces are not a satisfactory base for the application of protective
coatings, although some primers have a limited tolerance to residual rust left on steel
surfaces after manual cleaning. The means of removing rust and scale are described
below.
3.3 Blast Cleaning

Abrasive particles are directed at high velocity against the metal surface. They may be
carried by compressed air or high-pressure water, or thrown by centrifugal force from an
impeller wheel. For some open blasting, high pressure water without abrasives may be
used. The various methods are listed in Table 3.
Commonly used abrasives for cleaning steelwork are listed in Table 4 with notes on their
advantages and disadvantages.
The choice of blast-cleaning method is determined by the following factors.
a. Shape and size of steelwork
Centrifugal methods are economic for plates and simple sections; they can also be used for
large prefabricated sections, e.g. bridge sections, but only in specially designed plants.
'Misses' discovered by inspection can be cleaned with open-blast techniques. For large
throughput of shaped items, e.g. pipes, both open and vacuum blasting techniques can be
used in continuous and automatic plants.
b. Effect of the stage at which cleaning is carried out
For blast-cleaning on site, open or vacuum-blasting methods have to be used as on large
fabricated sections. It is usually impractical to use centrifugal methods.
c. Throughput
Centrifugal plants are economic for a high throughput, but even with a low throughput the
method may still be preferable to large-scale open cleaning.
d. Environmental conditions
Despite its relatively high cost, vacuum blasting may be necessary to avoid contamination
of the immediate area with abrasive. It should be ensured that the blast-cleaning process
does not affect adjacent materials.
e. Types of surface deposit to be removed
Wet-blasting methods, with abrasives, are particularly suitable for removing entrapped
salts in rust and for abrading old, hard painted surfaces, e.g. two-pack epoxies, before
recoating.
On new work, blast cleaning can be carried out before or after fabrication. When it is
before fabrication a "blast" or "holding" primer is applied to prevent corrosion during

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fabrication. Areas damaged during fabrication, e.g. by welding, require re-preparing and
priming as soon as possible.
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard

ISO 8501-1 1988 is a visual standard which shows different degrees of blast cleaning on
steel of four levels of rusting [1]. The reference prints are in colour and the standard is
based on the widely used Swedish Standard SIS055900 [2]. It is used to specify and
control the standard of abrasive blast cleaning required.
3.5 Surface Roughness

Because blasting roughens the surface, some control of the profile produced is important.
If the distance between the highest peak and the deepest trough is too much then the peaks
may not be protected adequately, Figure 10. ISO8503-1 1988 is a standard for surface
comparators [3]. Visual comparison between the comparator, Figure 11, and blasted
surface allow the latter to be graded "Fine", "Medium" or "Coarse" profile. The peak to
valley distance for each grade is specified in the standard; shot and grit blasted profiles are
different and there is one comparator for grit and one for shot blasting.

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ISO8501-1 [1] is intended for use with previously unpainted steel. ISO8501-2 [1] is being
prepared and relates to the treatment of previously painted steelwork.
In both the above standards the term Surface Cleanliness is used. This is slightly
misleading because although it refers to how effectively mill scale and rust have been
removed, it sometimes is assumed to include chemical cleanliness. This is not so. Tests for
assessing the surface cleanliness are given in ISO 8502 [4]. ISO 8502-1 gives details of
site tests for soluble iron corrosion products and ISO 8502-3 provides a method for the
assessment of dust on the surface and these are the only standards of real use at present.
ISO 8502-2 gives a method of determining in a laboratory the presence of chlorides and
further part giving guidance on the estimation of condensation is in course of preparation.

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3.6 Flame Cut Edges

Flame cut edges have to be smooth and corners ground in order to make a durable paint
coating. A sharp corner creates a thin film and a starting point for corrosion.
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation

Manual cleaning, possibly using power assisted tools, is the method most frequently used
for practical or economic reasons, although it is the least effective. In due course Part 3 of
ISO 8504 [5] will cover hand and power tool cleaning but at present the only relevant
standard is ISO8501-1 [1] which contains two visual preparation grades for scraping and
wire-brushing [2].
4. SURFACE COATINGS
As indicated in Lecture 4A.1, the common methods of protecting steelwork are paints,
galvanising, zinc or aluminium metal spray or "duplex" systems where one of the last
three is over-coated with paint. The main characteristics of the three groups are given in
Lecture 4A.1. Appendix 1.
4.1 Paint Systems

Paints have three main components, a resinous components which literally glues them
together and is best referred to as the "film former", pigment to give colour, weather
resistance and in some cases corrosion inhibition and, solvents to produce the correct
consistency for application, control of the drying rate, etc.
It is the film former which influences a paint's main properties, e.g. hardness, flexibility,
water resistance. For convenience the paint types listed in Appendix 2 are divided into
three families, drying oil based paints, one pack chemical resistant paints and 2-pack
varieties. In each case the main film formers and pigments are indicated, together with
typical end uses for each broad family.
Usually there are three components, 'primer', 'undercoat' and 'finish' in a paint system.
Primers. Their functions are to promote adhesion and protect from corrosion. Since film
thickness is a very important in protection, two coats are frequently specified - sometimes
three when the last two are applied by brush.
Occasionally specifiers refer to the second and third coat of primer as 'primer undercoat'.
Frequently this misleads the contractor because the branded products freely available
never feature this latter term in the product description. The specifier is advised to label
the system 'First coat', 'Second coat', etc., following with the appropriate generic
description.
Undercoats. On steel, traditional undercoats provide the right colour base for the finish;
they adhere to the primer and little else. The high performance undercoat is more
accurately described as an 'Intermediate coat'. It is a second barrier should the steel be

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bared by damage or erosion. Often coats used for this function can stand in their own right
as finishes.
One important feature is to provide dry film thickness. A traditional undercoat gives about
25m per coat; those used on steel in other than a being environment must give a
minimum of 50m, with heavier duty types producing 100m plus.
Finishes. They supply the required colour, gloss or sheen level and resist weathering,
abrasion, and chemical attack, as appropriate. More than one coat may be required
depending on product type, exposure, environment, colour, etc. Dry film thicknesses per
coat vary from 25m for a simple oil based product to 100m or more for two pack epoxy
coatings.
4.2 Metallic Coatings

a. Hot Dip Galvanising
The process deposits about 85m on the surface of the structural steel. Thicker films can
be obtained in some circumstances. Galvanising must not be confused with Sheradising
which achieves no more than 30m zinc thickness or electroplating which deposits even
less thickness.
b. Strip Mill Galvanising
Strip mill galvanising utilises sophisticated plant to clean, pickle and plate strip with nonferrous metals under carefully controlled conditions. The exterior surface of proprietary
branded products, e.g. building cladding is likely to be finished with a 20-25m protective
layer of zinc or zinc/aluminium (the latter varying from 5 to 55%). This layer may be
overcoated on the same production line with highly durable organic finishes of varying
dry film thicknesses.
4.3 Metal Spraying

The usual methods of applying zinc and aluminium are gas combustion and electric arc.
Very high standards of blasting and surface cleanliness are essential. Metal spraying and
sealing are carried out by specialist contractors. Inspection must be undertaken by
qualified metal spraying inspectors.
All grades of steel can be metal sprayed and there is no size limit. Work can be undertaken
at works or on site. Aluminium is rarely applied at thicknesses greater than 150m. In
polluted or immersed conditions zinc is applied at 200-250m.
Sprayed aluminium should be sealed. Zinc spray must be sealed if it is to be painted or
during maintenance. Sealers are applied immediately after metal spraying and should not
increase the thickness of the metal coating. There are many sealers and it is wise to ask the
paint manufacturer for a specific recommendation for each job.

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Both zinc and aluminium spray have good heat resistance, zinc up to 100C and
aluminium to 500C.
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems

Galvanising and paint. The selection of paints is more critical than for steel. Some paints
have been developed for direct application to galvanised steel but results are variable.
Acceptable pretreatments include etch primers, proprietary pretreatments which provide a
'key' for the paint, certain water borne primers formulated specifically for the purpose. The
paint manufacturers advice should always be obtained.
Zinc or Aluminium Spray and Paint. Sealed spray can be overcoated without difficulty
using a wide range of coatings. Unsealed zinc in particular is extremely difficult to paint;
the formation of zinc corrosion salts ("white rust") can cause severe blistering.
The use of a mixed system. Non-ferrous metal plus paint systems, can produce a layer
which will outlasts either component if used alone. However, if the environment is
aggressive to zinc or aluminium, their use is questionable as opposed to seeking to protect
them by overpainting, i.e. outside pH range of 5-12 for zinc or 4-9 for aluminium.
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention

In order to assist the specifier of corrosion preventative coatings in selecting the materials
to use and the workmanship and inspection requirements needed, two further standards are
now in course of preparation.
The standard dealing with paint products has been allocated the number ISO12944 [6] and
that dealing with metallic products is as yet unnumbered [7].
These are scheduled to become available by about 1996/7.
5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT

All protective coatings require maintenance and there are a number of ways in which the
need becomes apparent.
In the extreme, the need for maintenance is shown when a mechanical or structural failure
occurs as a complete surprise because the building or plant has never been the subject of
regular inspections.
The need may also be manifest when visible coating failure or corrosion is noted by
accident, e.g. when casually passing through a building.
The preferred method of determining maintenance needs is by means of planned
inspections made at regular intervals. The comparison of the results of inspections with
reliable records of the first and subsequent inspections give the basis for defining
maintenance needs.

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The aim of maintaining coatings is to preserve a structure or building so that it performs
its required functions throughout its designed life safely, efficiently and economically. For
this purpose a maintenance schedule for the structure or building is used to manage
properly planned inspections and to keep reliable records.
Consideration of maintenance should start when a new project is being planned. The
specifier should take into account the effects not only of the design upon maintenance
painting, but also the influence of the initial coating system.
Drying Oil Based Paints The paints are readily overcoated with similar products if the
surface is cleaned and if very hard, abraded. "Upgrading" to one or two-pack chemical
resistant paints without completely removing the oil-based paint is unlikely to prove
satisfactory.
One Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They can usually be safely overcoated with similar
materials once the surface is cleaned. An exception is a moisture curing urethane system.
Such systems may well require light blasting to obtain adhesion. Two pack products can
be applied over moisture cured urethanes, but is unusual to use them over the more
common one pack chemical resistant products, e.g. vinyl and chlorinated rubber resin
based paint. Drying oil based paints are rarely applied over this particular class of paints
and never in wet environments.
Two Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They are usually hard and are difficult to maintain
unless lightly blasted. They are maintained by the application of similar products or, one
pack chemical resistant materials, but never with drying oil based paints.
Galvanised Steelwork It can only be safely over-coated when all soluble corrosion
products are removed. Once removal of these products is achieved, virtually any paints
from the families noted above can be used. Etch primers are available which assist
adhesion to the zinc surface.
Metal Sprayed Steelwork If metal sprayed steelwork has been exposed unsealed, it is
virtually unpaintable. Sealed coatings give few problems.
The choice of a maintenance paint process depends on the existing coating and its
condition, the standard of surface preparation possible, the working environment, time
available, safety requirements, access and, economic considerations.
The decision of whether maintenance is to be by patch painting or a complete recoat is
influenced as much by access as the state of the existing work. For example, if much
scaffolding is required it may be more economical to repaint overall.
If there is more than 5% rusting of the substrate painting overall will certainly be
economical. The "European scale of degree of rusting for anti-corrosive paints" presents
monochrome pictures of nine degrees of rusting from Re1 (0,05%) to Re9 (95%).
In summary, successful maintenance starts at the beginning overall new project with the
specifier projecting the consequences of his design and choice of initial paint system into
future maintenance - can it be done and, with what? It continues with a strict, regular

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inspection routine, the results of which are accurately recorded and become part of a
detailed maintenance schedule. It ends with maintenance painting specifications tailored to
the job in hand and with the provision of adequate inspection to ensure the specification is
followed.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
When choosing a protective system, the maintenance cycle is an important

consideration.
The 'design' of the steel members and the way in which they are jointed affects the
maintenance cycle.
Poorly prepared steel surfaces prevent the protective treatment subsequently
applied from achieving its design life.
Corrosion prevention treatments can be either organic (paint), metallic (zinc, etc.),
duplex (metallic and organic) or cathodic.
Alternatively, in order to limit or prevent corrosion, the steel itself can be of a
weathering or stainless grade.
Regular inspection of the structure and proper routine maintenance prevents major
remedial work being necessary to the corrosion prevention treatment.
7. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products.
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel
substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
Part 2* Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of
previous coatings.
[2] SIS 05 5900: 1988, Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and
related products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
[3] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1 Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products.
Part 2 Laboratory determination of chloride clean surfaces.
Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape
method).

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Part 4* Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint
application.
[4] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrate.
Part 1 Specifications and definitions of ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment
of abrasive blast-cleaned surface.
Part 2 Methods of the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel.
Comparator procedures.
Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - focusing microscope procedure.
Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - Styles instrument procedures.
[5] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
Part 1 General principles.
Part 2 Abrasion blast-cleaning.
Part 3 Hand and power tool cleaning.
[6] ISO 12944* Protective paint systems for steel structures
Part 1 General Introduction.
Part 2 Classification of Environments.
Part 3 Types of Surface and Surface Preparation.
Part 4 Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products.
Part 5 Performance Testing.
Part 6 Workmanship.
Part 7 Design.
Part 8 Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance.
[7] Metal coatings for the corrosion protection of iron and steel in structures.
*
In course of preparation

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8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Uhlig, H. H., "Corrosion and Corrosion Control", 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley &
Sons.
2. Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from
Atmospheric Corrosion, ECSC Report 620.197, 1983.
3. "Controlling Corrosion", series of booklets published by the Department of
Industry - Committee on Corrosion.
4. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989
(published jointly by BCSA, BS, Paint Research Association (PRA) and Zinc
Development Association (ZDA)).
5. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989
(Published jointly by BCSA and BS).
6. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989
(published jointly by BCSA, BS, PMA (Paint Makers' Association) and ZDA).
7. BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against
corrosion.
8. DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic
coatings Part 5 Coating materials and protective systems.
9. Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
10. ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings
11. ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
12. BS 729 Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles,
1971(1986).
13. BS 2569 Specification for sprayed metal coatings Part 1 and 2.
14. BS 2989: 1992 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and iron-zinc
alloy coated steel: Haz product - tolerances on dimensions and shape.
15. BS 3083: 1988 Specification for hot-dip zinc coated and hot-dip aluminium/zinc
coated corrugated steel sheets for general purposes.

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Table 1 Classification of Environments
INTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
Environment
category
Environment
Corrosion risk
Examples
Normal
Negligible
Offices
Shops
(RH below 60%)
Industrial Production/Assembly
Warehousing
Hospital Wards
Schools
Hotels
B
Occasional
Condensation
Low
Unheated Buildings
Vehicle Depots
Sports Halls
Frequent
Condensation
Significant
Food Processing Plants/Kitchens

Laundries
Breweries
Dairies
Not covered seek expert

assistant
Chemical Processing Plant

Dye Works
Swimming Pools
Paper Manufacture
Boat Yards over Seawater
Foundries/Smelter

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Table 1 (continued): Classification of Environments
EXTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
D
Normal inland
Low
Industrial plant and supporting

steelwork Bus/train terminals
Polluted inland
Significant
Tank farms, cranes, docks, power

stations
Normal coastal
High
Docks, cranes, container

installations, power stations
refineries
Polluted coastal
Very high
Tank farms, industrial plants

supporting steelwork
Not covered seek expert

assistance
Aggressive industrial environments such as steelwork adjacent to acid

plants, salt storage depots, electroplating shops, chemical works etc. Buried
or immersed steelwork Seawater splash zones.
Table 2 Typical Protective Systems

Introduction
Whilst there are numerous protective systems available, only twelve have been selected
for this lecture.
These are eight basic paint systems (P1 to P8) on which there can be variations of paint
types (see Appendix 2); one galvanizing system (G1); and two metal spray systems (AS1
and 2).
Whilst the systems remain unaltered between environments, the notes vary to cover the
changes that are necessary.

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780
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Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning (ISO 8504-1 and 2)
Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
Dry methods using compressed air or centrifugal force

Automatic plants based on
centrifugal throwing of the
abrasive
High production rates,

lowest costs, no moisture
problems. Can be coupled
to automatic application
of primer, dust problems
contained.
High capital cost, high

maintenance cost, lack of
flexibility, ie. not suitable
for recessed areas etc.
Open blasting based on

propelling the abrasive with
compressed air.
Simple to operate, very

flexible and mobile in use
both indoor cabinets or
special rooms or on site.
Low capital and
maintenance costs.
High cost of compressed

air, low efficiency, liable
to moisture entrainment
from the compressed air,
manually operated and a
variable profile can result,
operator requires
protective clothing, serious
dust problems.
Vacuum blasting based on

propelling the abrasive with
compressed air and
immediately recycling by
suction from the blastcleaned surface.
No dust problems, no
special protective clothing
for operators, fairly low
capital costs.
Can be very slow and

therefore expensive,
particularly on awkward
profiles and girder
sections. Where flat-plate
or gun-head automation is
possible it may be
considered, but liable to
moisture entrainment from
the compressed air.

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Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning - Cont'd.
Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
Wet methods (hydroblasting)

projecting water at very high flexible and mobile in
pressure.
use, suitable for
removing soluble
containments. At very
high pressure can remove
mill-scale, no dry dust
hazards.
Slow
if
firmly
held
containments are to be
removed, dangerous at very
high pressure if proper
precautions are not taken,
limitation of drying surface
before
painting
unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, requires availability of
water and drainage, operators
require protective clothing.

projecting water at high
pressure and entraining
abrasive into the water
stream.

flexible and mobile in
use, suitable for
removing all firmly held
contaminants as well as
soluble contaminants.
Dangerous at very high

pressure if proper precautions
are not taken, limitation of
drying surface before
painting unless approved
water-based or moisture
tolerant primers are based,
required availability of water
and drainage, operators
require protective clothing.

injecting low pressure water
into a compressed air stream
which is carrying an
abrasive.
As above.
High cost of compressed air,

limitation of drying surface
before painting unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, dust hazard reduced,
operators require protective
clothing.
Open blasting using steamcleaning.
As above.
Similar to the above

according to whether
abrasive is or is not entrained.

792
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Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel
Abrasive
Hardness
Chilled iron-grit 60 to 80 RC
ISO 11124-2
Normal usage
Advantages
Disadvantages
Captive blasting
and open
blasting with
recovery
systems
Relatively
cheap, cleans
very quickly,
will chip under
repeated impact
with work
surface,
presenting fresh
cutting edges
Breaks down
fairly quickly.
In centrifugal
wheel plants,
special
protection is
required to
reduce wear
on moving
parts
Chilled ironshot
60 to 80 RC
Captive blasting Relatively

only
cheap, very
hard, should
break down to
grit in use
As chilled
iron-grit.
Because of
ricochet effect
is not suitable
for open
blasting or in
open cabinets
High duty
chilled iron-grit
or iron-shot
55 to 64 RC
Captive blasting Breaks down

and open
less quickly than
blasting with
chilled iron
recovery
More
expensive
than chilled
iron, rendered
spherical in
use, poorer
and slower
rate of
cleaning than
chilled iron
Heat-treated
chilled iron-grit
or iron-shot
30 to 40 RC
As high-duty
As high-duty
Steel grit
60 to 67 RC
Captive blasting Does not bread

mainly
down so quickly
as chilled iron,
causes less wear
in centrifugal
wheel plant
47 to 53 RC
As high-duty
More
expensive
than chilled
iron, rendered
spherical in
use and is less
efficient,
supplied in
various
hardnesses but
at best is not

793
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so hard as
chilled irongrit and
therefore
cleans more
slowly
Steel shot
41 to 49 RC
Captive blasting As for steel grit

only
As for steel
grit, produces
a more
rounded
surface profile
than grit,
ricochet effect
makes it
unsuitable for
open blasting
Cut steel wire
41 to 52 RC
Captive blasting As for steel shot

only
and grit, wears
down as fairly
even sizes
High cost,
rendered
spherical in
use and slower
cleaning than
chilled iron
ISO 11124-5

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Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel - Cont'd.
Abrasive
Normal usage
Advantages
Disadvantages
Not common in
the United
Kingdom
Extremely hard
Expensive,
hardness of dust is
a danger to
machinery unless
used in sealed
captive plant
Open blasting
only
Cheap, no
silicosis hazards
Initial particles
rather coarse,
breaks down to
dust very quickly,
angular particles
tend to embed in
workplace
Iron slag ISO

11126-6
Open blasting
only
As for copper slag As for copper slag
Sand
Open blasting
Cheap
Aluminium
oxide
(corundum)
Hardness
ISO 11126-7
Copper slag
ISO 11126-3
(Olivine) ISO
11126-8
In United
Kingdom, Factory
Inspector's
approval is
required, danger of
silicosis

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__________________________________________________________________________
See Table 4
International Standards for Metallic and Non-Metallic Blast-Cleaning Abrasives
A.1 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in
ISO 11124 and ISO 11125.
ISO 11124 consists, at present, of the following parts, under the general title:
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Chilled-iron grit
- Part 3: High-carbon cast-steel shot and grit
- Part 4: Low-carbon cast-steel shot
- Part 5: Cut steel wire
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test
methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of hardness
- Part 4: Determination of apparent density
- Part 5: Determination of percentage defective particles and of microstructure
- Part 6: Determination of foreign matter
- Part 7: Determination of moisture
A.2 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in
ISO 11126 and ISO 11127.
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:

796
__________________________________________________________________________
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Silica sand
- Part 3: Copper refinery slag
- Part 4: Coal furnace slag
- Part 5: Nickel refinery slag
- Part 6: Iron furnace slag
- Part 7: Fused aluminium oxide
- Part 8: Olivine sand
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test
methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of apparent density
- Part 4: Assessment of hardness by a glass slide test
- Part 5: Determination of moisture content
- Part 6: Determination of water-soluble contaminants by conductivity measurement
- Part 7: Determination of water-soluble chlorides

797
__________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX 1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE

OF COATING SYSTEMS
QUESTIONS RELATED TO DESIGN, USE AND SITE REQUIREMENTS
Function
a. What is the main function of the structure?
b. What are the secondary functions of the structure?
Life
a. For how long is it required to fulfil this function?
b. What is the life to first maintenance? (It may not be possible to decide this until further
questions have been answered).
Environment
a. What is the general (atmospheric) environment at the site of the structure?
b. What localised effects exist or are to be expected, e.g. fumes from stacks?
c. What other factors may affect the structure, e.g. surface temperature and abrasion?
Appearance
a. What is the structure required to look like (colour and finish)?
b. Is the final coat to be applied on site?
Special Properties
a. What special properties are required of the coating, e.g. coefficient of friction?
Maintenance
a. What access is there going to be for effective maintenance?
b. What is the possibility of effective maintenance?
Health and Safety
a. Are any problems to be taken into account during initial treatment?
b. Are any problems to be taken into account during maintenance treatment?

798
__________________________________________________________________________
Tolerance
Does the coating need to be tolerant of:
a. indifferent surface preparation
b. indifferent application techniques
c. departures from specification?
QUESTIONS RELATING TO COATING SYSTEMS
Coating systems
a. What coating systems are suitable?
b. Are these systems readily available?
c. Are the system elements mutually compatible?
d. If paints, can the coats be applied by:
brush
roller
airless spray
other?
e. Can the system, or parts, be applied on site?

Coating facilities
a. Are the coating facilities readily available:
i.
ii.
for factory application

for site application?
b. Do they cover all sizes and shapes of fabrication?

c. Do they permit speedy application?
d. Do the facilities permit work to adequate standards?
Compatibility with engineering and metallurgical features
a. Is the design and jointing of the structure compatible with the preferred coating
technique?
b. Does surface preparation (blasting, pickling) or application of coating affect the
mechanical properties of the steel in any way that matters?

799
__________________________________________________________________________
c. Is the system compatible with cathodic protection?
Delays
What delays should be allowed between:
a. fabrication and first protective coating;
b. application of primer and undercoat;
c. application of undercoat and finishing coat;
d. final shop coat and erection;
e. erection and final treatment?
Transport, storage and handling
How well does the coating withstand:
a. excessive or careless handling;
b. abrasion and impact;
c. early stacking;
d. exposure to seawater during transit?
Experience
a. What is known of the consistent performance of the coating?
Export
a. What special precautions should be taken when the steelwork is exported?
Maintenance
a. Is the deterioration of the coating rapid and serious if maintenance is delayed?
b. What is the likely maintenance system? (Including surface preparation).
Costs
a. What are the approximate costs of:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
the basic system;

any additional items;
transport;
access?
b. What are the approximate costs of maintenance?

800
__________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX 2 PAINT TYPES

BLAST PRIMERS
These primers have been the cause of some confusion; they are therefore dealt separately
here.
They are used pre- or post-fabrication, normally in-shop and under controlled conditions.
a. Pre-fabrication primers are designed for use with automated blasting and painting
plant. However, increasingly fabricators apply them by hand-held airless or high
pressure conventional spray very successfully.
The most important types are:
Type I
One or two-pack polyvinyl butryal/phenolic: zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 15-20m.
Type II
Two-pack epoxy: zinc phosphate or zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 25m.
Type III
Two-pack epoxy: zinc metal DFT 10-20m. Note: Metallic zinc coatings (including zinc
spray and galvanising) can give rise to health hazards even in open shop conditions when
welded or flame cut.
b. Post-fabrication can be Types I to III; some have higher volume solids, give
extended durability but are slower drying. The specifier should state the type and
indicate whether use pre- or post-fabrication is required. The manufacturer's
application rates must be followed carefully, particularly when overcoating with
chemically resistant paints, e.g. over generous application of a Type I blast primer
can lead to intercoat failure (splitting).
One pack zinc metal and two-pack zinc ethyl silicate coatings are available for specific
uses.
Very often the anti-corrosive primer which is the first coat of a chosen system is specified
as the post-fabrication primer.
DRYING OIL BASED PAINTS
These paints dry by reaction with atmosphere oxygen. Widely used, they are based on
vegetable or fish oils suitably treated, e.g. by heat, and reinforced with synthetic or
naturally occurring resins. They do not withstand direct chemical attack nor immersion
conditions.

801
__________________________________________________________________________
PRIMERS
There are two basic types, relatively slow drying products whose use is limited to site
application and faster-drying versions which can be used in-shop and on site. In general
the latter type have lower volume solids. All are for use beneath oil-based systems; some
can be used beneath one pack chemical resistant systems.
Typical binders are:
Drying oil
Drying oil modified alkyds
Epoxy ester
Urethane oil
Oil modified phenolic resin.
Typical anti-corrosive pigments include:

Zinc phosphate or zinc chromate with red lead and calcium plumbate still used in primers
designed for site use. All but zinc phosphate impose limitations in use.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-75m depending upon volume solids, application
method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
With the exception of unreinforced drying oils, all the binders noted under 'Primers' may
be used.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide for whites and tints, organic and inorganic
chemically resistant pigments for colours. Micaceous iron oxide pigments are used to give
increased film thickness, improved edge cover and good weather resistance.
Dry films are between 25-50m thick depending upon volume solids, application method
and service use.
These products are for use beneath oil based gloss and micaceous iron oxide finishes.
Finishes
High gloss finishes in BS 4800 and RAL colours and low-sheen subdued colours in
micaceous iron oxide paints have excellent weather resistance but do not resist direct
chemical attack or complete immersion in water.
Typical binders are oil or urethane modified alkyds, epoxy esters and oil modified
phenolics.
Pigments are various grades of rutile titanium dioxide, light-fast coloured pigments and
micaceous iron oxide or aluminium.

802
__________________________________________________________________________
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-50m. In this respect, the same criteria apply as for
undercoats.
ONE-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
All but one of the products in this range dry by solvent evaporation. The exception,
moisture-curing polyurethanes, will be dealt with last. A wide range of film formers is
available, typically plasticised chlorinated rubber, solution vinyl copolymers and acrylic
resins, acrylated polymers. The differences between products based on these resins and
others are subtle with individual manufacturers having built up experience over many
years with one or two resin systems.
The main characteristics which they have in common are excellent water resistance
(including immersion), good resistance to inorganic acids and adequate alkali resistance.
In this latter respect, two-pack chemical resistant systems withstand severe attack better.
Theoretically, no paint based on the resins quoted in the previous paragraph are proof
against attack by organic acids, animal fats, etc., but in practice there are many examples
where they have proved more than adequate. Paint manufacturers will advise on specific
cases.
Because these paints dry by solvent evaporation they form films at low temperatures and
will dry satisfactorily in polluted atmospheres. Intercoat adhesion both initially and for
maintenance is good because the resins remain soluble in the solvents used in the paints.
Conversely, solvent resistance is relatively poor. Maximum heat resistance is circa 65C.
In this group must be included waterborne resin systems, e.g. vinyl acrylic copolymers.
Although relatively new (they were introduced within the last decade) they show great
promise, particularly as metal primers. Since they coalesce rather than forming a film by
simple solvent loss, their mechanical properties are better than might be expected from a
one-pack paint.
Also in the group are one-pack moisture-curing polyurethane resin-based paints. These
must not be confused with oil or alkyd containing products which are 'reinforced' by the
addition of a urethane component. Moisture-curing varieties dry like two-pack paints,
undergoing a complex chemical reaction in which moisture acts as the 'curing' agent. Once
cured, these paints possess most of the attributes associated with two-pack polyurethane
paints. A significant advantage is their ability to form films at low temperatures.
Obviously this feature must be exploited with caution; water or ice formed at the
paint/surface interface must degrade its performance.
Primers are available for shop and site application based on all these resin systems. Since
their corrosion inhibiting properties are inferior to primers irrespective of which inhibitive
pigment is chosen, some manufacturers produce an oil-modified primer specifically
formulated for use in a one-pack chemical resistant paint process (excluding moisture
curing polyurethanes). Usually these are not recommended for severe exposure or
immersed conditions. They are particularly useful for site application.
Zinc phosphate pigments are widely used as the inhibitive pigment.

803
__________________________________________________________________________
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-65m depending upon volume solids, application
method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
Any of the resins noted above may be used. These coats are both weather and chemically
resistant; indeed many proprietary products are designated 'Thick Coatings' and suitable
both as intermediate and finishing coats.
Rutile titanium dioxide pigments are widely used in whites and tints. Light fast and
chemically resistant pigments are used for colours, with micaceous iron oxide used both
for its weather resistance and ability to improve the mechanical properties of the paint
film.
Dry film thicknesses between 50-100m per coat depend upon volume solids, dimensions
and complexity of the steelwork, application method, surface and ambient temperatures.
Additionally, solvent release is relatively slow and inhibits the thickness which can be
safely applied to avoid solvent entrapment producing bubbles or pinholes.
Finishes
Finishes are based on the same resin types as used in undercoats/intermediate coats. The
same pigment types are also used. Where finishes are sold specifically for this purpose
they have better resistance to severe exposure conditions and chemical attack than dual
purpose products. High gloss finishes are available. Many BS 4800 colours can be
produced although the need for chemical resistance rules out some.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-100m per coat. Their achievement is governed by
the considerations noted under 'Undercoats'.
TWO-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
These two-part coatings form films by a complex chemical reaction. The reaction is
temperature dependent. Most products cannot be used at surface and ambient temperatures
below 10C, although a few are capable of 'curing' at 5C. It is important to differentiate
between the film drying and attaining full chemical resistance - the process referred to as
'curing'. Once this is complete, the coatings are tough, abrasion resistant and resistant to a
very wide range of acids, alkalies, oils and solvents even when fully immersed. The time
interval between coats can be critical, particularly with two-pack urethanes. The principal
difficulty being to ensure good intercoat adhesion.
Primers
A wide variety is available for both shop and site use. Most are suitable as post-fabrication
primers only. They are used beneath both one and two-pack chemical resistant paints.
The most widely used anti-corrosive pigment is zinc phosphate.

804
__________________________________________________________________________
two-pack epoxy
two-pack urethane.
Dry film thicknesses between 25-75m are achieved, depending upon volume solids,
application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate Coats)
These products are used beneath one and 2-pack high performance finishes.
2-pack epoxy
2-pack urethane or urethane acrylic
Isocyanate-cured epoxy
Epoxy: Tar
Epoxy: Pitch
Urethane tar or pitch.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide in whites and tints, with light-fast chemically
resistant pigments in colours. Micaceous iron oxide is used to improve film build,
weathering and mechanical properties. It also facilitates overcoating.
Dry film thicknesses are influenced by the same criteria as the primers. They vary between
75-200m.

Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

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STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance

1.2 Life Between Maintenances

1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

2.1 Design for Protective Systems

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

2.2 Where to Apply Protection

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

2.3 Special Areas

3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

3.3 Blast Cleaning

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard

3.5 Surface Roughness

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

3.6 Flame Cut Edges

3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation

4.1 Paint Systems

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

4.2 Metallic Coatings

4.3 Metal Spraying

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems

4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention

5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

When choosing a protective system, the maintenance cycle is an important

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

(RH below 60%)

Food Processing Plants/Kitchens

Not covered seek expert

Chemical Processing Plant

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

Industrial plant and supporting

Tank farms, cranes, docks, power

Docks, cranes, container

Tank farms, industrial plants

Not covered seek expert

Aggressive industrial environments such as steelwork adjacent to acid

Table 2 Typical Protective Systems

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: PROTECTION: CORROSION