RADAR SYSTEM ENGINEERING

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TEC’H.VOLOGY

RADIATION LABORATORY SERIES

Board of Editors

LOUISN. RIDENOUR, Editor-in-Chief

GEORGEB. COLLINS, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

BRITTON CHANCE, S. A. GOUDSMT, R. G. HEIIB, HUBERT M. JAMES, JULIAN K. KNIPP,

JAMES L. LAWSON, LEON B. LINFORD, CAROL G. MONTGOMERY, C. NEWTON, ALBERT
M. STONE, Louxs A. TUENER, GEORGE E. VALLEY, JR., HERBERT H. WHEATON

1. RADAR SYSTEM ENGINEEi+lxG-Ridenour

2. RADAR AIDS TO ~AVIGATIOX—Hall
3. RADAR BEAcoNs—Roberts
4. LoEAx—Pierce, McKewie, and Woodward
5. PULSE Generators—6?asoe and Lebacqz
6. MICROWAVE MAGNETRONS—COllinS
7. KLYSTRONS A?JD MICROWAVE TmoDEs-Hamilton, Knipp, and Kuper
8. PRINCIPLES OF MICROWAVE Cmmurrs-Montgomery, Dtcke, and Purcell
9. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION CIrwuITs—Ragan
10. WAVEGUIDE HANDBOOK—MarCUrIitZ
11. TECHNIQUE OF ?YIICROWAVEME,4sumnmsw-Montgomery
12. MICROWAVE ANTENNA THEORY AND DEs~Gix-Siker
13. PROPAGATION OF SHORT RADIO WAvEs—Kew
14. MICROWAVE ~upLExErm+-Smulzin and Montgomery
15. CRYSTAL RECTIFIERS— Torrey and Whitmer
16. MICIIOWAVE !vfIxERs-Pound
17. COMPONENTS HANDBooK—Blackburn
18. VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS—~’U@ and Wa!lman
19. wAvE~oR~s—Chance, Hughes, M ac.NTichol,.Sayre, and Williams
20. ELECTRONIC TIME Measurements—Chance, Hulsizer, .Wac.Yichol,
and Williams
21. ELECTRONIC I Ns’rRuhiENm-Greenwood, Holdam, and MacRae
22. CATIIODE RAY TUBE DIspLAYs—So12er, Starr, and Valley
23. .~lCRO WAVE REcE1vEIw— Van Voorhis
24. THRESHOLD SIGNALs—Lawson and Uhlenbeck
25. THEORY OF SERvoiuEcIIANIsivs-James, Nichols, and Phillips
26. RADAR SCANNERS AND RADOXES—CUdrJ, Karelitz, and Turner
27. COMPUTING KIECHANISMSAND LINnGm-&oboda
28. I NDEx—Henney
RADAR SYSTEM

~s,\NsT,rF

c1
*P c+
Edited by
JIJL Lu 1947
LOUIS N. RIDENOUR %?Fl@
PF(OFESSOFI OF PHYSICS

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

Fllis’r’ E1)[TION

IVEII’YORK AND LONDON

!JIcGRA W-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
1947

{/
 ,,)) ../”t

V’,
i
f

:.

RADAP. SYSTEM ENGINEERING

COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY THE

J1cC,R,iW-HILL BOOK CoMP.iNY, INC.

PRINTELI IX THE UNITED STATES OF AM ERI(..<

A u lr!qhh rf?send ‘1’h is hook., or

pert: ihrrrqf, ?na~j no! he reprod7wd
in 07(v Jm-TII wilhottl permission oj
the publishers.

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

 RADAR SYSTEM ENGINEERING

EDITORIAL STAFF
LouIs N. RIDENOUR
AVIS M. CLARKE

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

L. Y. BEERS F. J. MEHRINGER
B. Y. BOWDEN R. D. O’XEAL
W. M. C.4DY C. F. J. OVERH.WE
R. E. CLAPP E. C. POLLARD
C,. B. COLLINS E. M. PURCELL
A. G. EMSLIE L. N. RIDENOUR
W. W. HANSEN C. V. ROBINSON
L. J. HAWORTH A. J. F. SIEGERT
R. G. HERB R. L. SIIWHEIMER
M. M. HUBBARD D. C. SOPER
P. C. JACOBS G. F. TAPE
M. H. JOHNSON L. A. TURNER
W. H. JORDAN M. G. WHITE
J. V. LEBACQZ A. E. WHITFORD
F. B. LIXCOLX J. M. WOLF
R. A. MCCONNELL C. L. ZIMIERMAN
 Foreword

HE tremendous research and development effort that went into the

T development of radar and related techniques during World War II
resulted not only in hundreds of radar sets for military (and some for
possible peacetime) use but also in a great body of information and new
techniques in the electronics and high-frequency fields. Because this
basic material may be of great value to science and engineering, it seemed
most important to publish it as soon as security permitted.
The Radiation Laboratory of MIT, which operated under the super-
vision of the National Defense Research Committee, undertook the great
task of preparing these volumes. The work described herein, however, is
the collective result of work done at many laboratories, Army, Navy,
university, and industrial, both in this country and in England, Canada,
and other Dominions.
The Radiation Laboratory, once its proposals were approved and
finances provided by the Office of Scientific Research and Development,
chose Louis N. Ridenour as Editor-in-Chief to lead and direct the entire
project. An editorial staff was then selected of those best qualified for
this type of task. Finally the authors for the various volumes or chapters
or sections were chosen from among those experts who were intimately
familiar with the various fields, ,and who were able and willing to write
the summaries of them. This entire staff agreed to remain at work at
MIT for six months or more after the work of the Radiation Laboratory
was complete. These volumes stand as a monument to this group.
These volumes serve as a memorial to the unnamed hundreds and
thousands of other scientists, engineers, and others who actually carried
on the research, development, and engineering work the results of which
are herein described. There were so many involved in this work and they
worked so closely together even though often in widely separated labora-
tories that it is impossible to name or even to know those who contributed
to a particular idea or development. Only certain ones who wrote reports
or articles have even been mentioned. But to all those who contributed
in any way to this great cooperative development enterprise, both in this
country and in England, these volumes are dedicated.

L. A. DUBRIDGE.

Yii
 Preface

HEearliest plans for the Radiation Laboratory Series, made in the fall
T of 1944, envisaged only books concerned with the basic microwave
and electronic theory and techniques that had been so thoroughly devel-
oped during the wartime work on radar. These plans were laid aside for
a time when it became clear in this country that several months of fighting
remained in the European war.
When work on the Series was resumed in the early summer of 1945, the
books planned, as before, dealt with basic matters and with techniques.
Every effort was made to point out the general applicability of the work
reported and to avoid special emphasis on its application to radar, since
radar itself was thought to have only a limited importance.
The end of the Pacific war made it possible to put more effort on the
job of preparing the Series than had been available earlier. The books
on theory and techniques having been planned as comprehensively as
appeared to be worth while, the work was extended by the addition of
five books concerned with radar and allied systems.
Of those five books, this is the only one that deals with radar itself.
One book takes up the use of radar in navigation, one concerns the design
of radar scanners and radomes, one treats the design and construction of
beacons, and one describes hyperbolic navigational systems—in particular
Loran.
This book is intended to serve as a general treatise and reference book
on the design of radar systems. No apology seems to be needed for the
fact that it deals primarily-though by no means altogether-with micro-
wave pulse radar. Thousands of times as much work has gone into pulse
radar as into any other kind, and the overwhehning majority of this work
has been concerned with microwave pulse radar. The superiority of
microwaves for almost all radar purposes is now clear.
The first eight chapters of this book are intended to provide an intro-
duction to the field of radar and a general approach to the problems of
system design. Chapters 9 through 14 take up the leading design con-
siderations for the various important components that make up a radar
set. These chapters are so thorough in their treatment that Chap. 15,
which gives two fairly detailed examples of actual system design, can be
quite brief. Chapters 16 and 17 take up two new and important ancillary
ix
x PREFACE

techniques that are not dealt with fully elsewhere in the Series: moving-
target indication and the transmission of radar displays to a remote
indicator by radio means.
For fuller information than can be found in this book on any detailed
point of design, the reader is referred to one of the other books of the
Series. In a sense, this book specializes to radar the techniques repotied
more fully elsewhere in the Series.
Radar is a very simple subject, and no special mathematical, physical,
or engineering background is needed to read and understand this book.
Because the book covers the entire field of effort of the Radiation
Laboratory and the other wartime radar establishments, its contributing
authors are more numerous than those listed for most other volumes of
this series. I am especially grateful to L. J. Haworth and to E. M.
Purcell, whose contributions have been more extensive than those of
other authors, and whose advice on editorial problems has often been
extremely helpful. In addition to the authors already listed, whose
names appear in the book in connection with the material they have
written, I wish to thank the following men for their work in provid-
ing essential background material that did not eventually find its way
into the book: R. M. Alexander, A. H. Brown, J. F. Carlson, M. A.
Chaffee, L. M. Hollingsworth, E. L. Hudspeth, R. C. Spencer, and I. G.
Swope. Changing plans for the book also reduced the acknowledged
contribution of E. C. Pollard far below the very considerable quantity of
material he prepared.
I owe an apology to all the authors for the liberty I have often
taken in altering their original text to fit the final framework of the
book and my own ideas of style. Because most authors left the Labora-
tory immediately on finishing their writing, and much of the editorial
work had to be deferred until the book was substantially complete, it has
not always been possible to adjust with the authors the alterations in their
manuscripts that have seemed desirable to me.
The general acknowledgments I owe as Editor-in-Chief of the Series
are set forth in the Series Index. In connection with the preparation
of this book, however, it is a pleasure to thank Dr. B. ~. Bowden, of the
British Air Commission, not only for his assistance as an author but also
for his general comments on the book as a whole. I am grateful to
Lois Capen for her work in following the preparation of illustrations, and
to Phyllis Brown for general secretarial assistance.

LOUIS N. RIDENOUR.
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
Jum, 1946
 Contents

FOREWORD EIYL. A. DUBMDGE vii

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
CHAP.1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1
l.l What Radar Does..... 1
1.2 How Radar Works. 3
1.3 Componentsof a Radar System. .. 6
1.4 The Performance ofRadar. 8
1.5 Radar Systems .,..., . . . . . . 12
1.6 The Early History of Radar. ., 13
1.7 Wartime Radar Developmentin the U.S.. 15

CHAP.2. THE RADAR EQUATION. 18

THE RADAR EQUATION FOR FREE-SPACE PROPAGATION 18
2.1 The Meaning of Free-space Propagation 18
22 Antenna Gain and Receiving Cross Section. 19
2.3 Scattering Cross Section of the Target 21
2.4 The Radar Equation. 21
2.5 Beams of Special Shapes 22
2.6 The Beacon Equation. 27

TRE MINIMUM DETECTABLE SIGNAL. 28

2.7 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8 Receivers, Ideal and Real. 30
2.9 Receiver Bandwidth and Pulse Energy 33
2.10 The Statistical Problem 35
2.11 Effect of Storage on Radar Performance 41

MICROWAVE PROPAGATION 47
2.12 Propagation over a Reflecting Surf arc 47
2.13 The Round Earth. 53
2.14 Superrefraction 55
2.15 Attenuation of Microwaves in the Atmosphere 58

CHAP. 3. PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGETS .,. 63

SIMPLE TARGETS .,.,.... ..63
3.1 Cross Section Expressed in Terms of the Field Quantities 63
32 Rayleigh Scattering from a Small Sphere. . 63
33 Scattering of a Plane Wave by a Sphere 64
3.4 Approximations for Large ilfetal Targets 65
3.5 The Corner Reflector, 67
3.6 Target Shaping to Diminish Cross Section 68
3.7 Useof Absorbent Materials. . 69
xi
xii CONTEN 1’S

COMPLICATED TARGETS 73

3.8 Return from TWO Isotropic Targets . 73

39 Actual Gomplex Targets. 75
3.10 Compound Targets Extended through Space 81
311 Extended Surface Targets 85

GFtOWNDPAINTING BY AIRBORNE RADAR 88

3.12 Specular and Diffuse Reflection 89

3.13 Sea Return and Ground Return. 92
3.14 Mountain Relief. 96
3.15 Structures . . . . . . . . . 99
3.16 Cities . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.17 N’avigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...108

CHAP. 4. LIMITATIONS OF PULSE RADAR 116

4 1 Range, Pulse-repetition Frequency, and Speed of Scan 116

4.2 Bandwidth, Power, and Information-rate. 121
4.3 Puke Radar and C-w Radar .123
4.4 Clutter . . . . . . . . . . . 124

CHAP. 5. C-W RADAR SYSTEMS 127

5,1 General Considerations. 127

5.2 Transmitted Spectra. 129
5.3 Effect of Target. 130
5.4 Class of Systems Considered 131
55 Utility of Cw Systems. . 132

SPECIFIC SYSTEMS. . . . . . . . ..132

5.6 Simple Doppler System. 132

57 Range-measuring Doppler System. 139
5.8 F-m Range-measuring System. 143
59 Multiple Target F-m Range .Measurement 147
5.10 Alternative F-m Ranging System 149
5.11 Pulse-modulated Doppler System 150
512Summary. . . . . . . . . . . 157

CHAP. 6. THE GATHERING AND PRESENTATION OF RADAR DATA 160

6.1 Influence of Operational Requirements. 160

TYPES OF RADABIN~ICATOW. 161

6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . 161

6.3 Summary of Indicator Types 163
6.4 One-dimensional Deflection-modulated Displays. 164
65 Representation of the Horizontal Plane. 167
6,6 Plane Displays Involving Elevation 171
6.7 Three-dimensional Displays. 174
6,8 Error Indicators. 175
 . ..
CONTENTS Xlll

RXAMPLES OF THE MAJOR OPERATIONAL REOUIEEMENTS 175

69 Early Aircraft Warning Radar 175

6.10 PPI Radar for Search, Control, and Pilotage 182
6.11 Height%nding Involving Ground Reflection. 184
6.12 Height-6nding with a Free-space Beam. 187
6.13 Homing . . . . . . . . . . .196
6,14 Precision Tracking of a Single Target 203
6.15 Precision Tracking during Rapid Scan 210

CHAP. 7. THE Elf PLO~31ENT OF RADAR DAT.k 213

7.1 The Signaland Its LTse. .213

EXTERNAL A1nSTORADAE ~-SE. 214

7.2 Aids to Individual A’avigation. 214

7.3 Aids to Plotting and Control 218
7.4 The Relay of Radar Displays. 225

EXAMPLES OF RADAR ORGANIZATIONS 226

7.5 Radar in the RAF Fighter Command 226

7.6 The U.S. Tactical Air Commands 229
7.7 Close Control with SCR-584 238
7.8 Teheran . . . . . . . . . . 240

CHAP. 8. RADAR BEACOhW. 243

RADAR-BEACON SYSTEMS. 246

8,1 Types of Radar-beacon Systems. 246
8.2 Systems Planning 250
8.3 General Identification System—IFF. 251
8.4 Radar Interrogation vs. Special Interrogators 252
8,5 Independence of Interrogation and Reply. 254
8.6 Frequency Considerations 260

CODING . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

8.7 Interrogation Codes . . . . . . 263

88Reply C odes . . . . . . . 264

STATISTICAL CO NSInERATION-S. 265

89TrafficC apacity . . . . . . 265
8.10 Unsynchronized Replies 268

C..,. 9. AXTENNAS, SCA~~ERS, AND STABILIZ.\TIOX. 271

9.1 The Antenna Equation. 271
9,2 Round and Cut Paraboloid Antennas 272
93F anBeams . . . . . . . . .274
94 Nonscanning Antennas. . 277
9.5 Construction of Radar Antennas. 279

RAnARSCANNING PA~EENS ..,, 280

9.6 Simple Scans . . . . . . . 281
97ComplexS eans . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...281
xiv CONTENTS

MECHANICAL SCANNEFIS ..,... 282

9,8 The Kinematicsof MechanicalScanners 282

9.9 The Weight of MechanicalScanners. 283
910 R-fTransmiesion Lines. 283
9,11 Data Transmission. 284
9.12 Examplesof MechanicalScanners. 284

ELECTRICAL SCANNERS. 291

9.13 The AN/APQ-7 (Eagle) Scanner 291

9.14 Schwarzschifd Antenna. 295
9.15 SCI Height Finder.. .298
9.16 Other Types of Electrical Scanners. : 302

THE STABILIZATION PROBLEM. 304

9.17 Stabilization of the Beam. 305

9.18 Data Stabilization. 311
9.19 Installation of Airborne Scanners 312
9.20 Installation of Surface-based Scanners 313
9.21 Radomes . . . . . . . . . 314
9.22 Streamlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...315
9.23 Electrical Transmission. 316
9.24 Structural Design of Radomes 316
9.25 Examples of Radomes 317

GrrAF.10. THE MAGNETRON AND THE I’ULSER 320

THEMAGNETRON
. . . . . . . . . 320
10.l Construction . . . . . . .321
10.2 The Resonant System . . . . . .325
10.3 Electron Orbits and the Space Charge 330
10.4 PerformanceChartsand Rieke Diagrams 336
10.5 Magnetron CharacteristicsAffecting Over-all Systems Design 340
10.6 Magnetron CharacteristicsAffectingPulserDesign 352

TEE Puller . . . . . . . . . . .. 355

10.7 Pulser Circuits .,..... . ..” . . . . . . . . . ...356

10.8 Load Requirements,. . ..362
109 The Hard-tube Pulser 367
10.10 Line-type Pullers . . . . .,373
10.11 Miscellaneous Components 383

CHAP. 11. R-F COMPONENTS, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...391

11.1 The R-f Transmission Problem 391

11.2 Coaxial Lines . . . . . . .393
11.3 Waveguide . . . . . .398
11.4 Resonant Cavities. 405
11.5 Duplexing and TR Tubes. 407
 CONTENTS xv

MICROWAVE COMPONENTS OF THE RECEIVER 411

11.6 The Mixer Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...412

11.7 The Local Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...414
11.8 The Mixer . . . . . . . . 416
11.9 Automatic Frequency Control. 418

MOUNTING THE R-F PARTS.... . . . . . 419

11.10 Reasons for an R-f Package. 419

11.11 Design Considerations for the R-f Head 421
11.12 Illustrative Examples of R-f Heads 425

CWP, 12. THE RECEIVING SYSTEM—RADAR RECEIVERS 433

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..433

12.1 The Role of the Receiving System. 433

12.2 A Typical Receiving System 435

THE RECEIVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441

12,3 Special Problems in Radar Receivers. . 441

12,41 -f Amplifier Design... . . . . . . . . . .. 442
12.5 Second Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449
12.6 Video Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4W
12.7 Automatic Frequency Control. 453
12.8 Protection against Extraneous Radiation. 457

TYPIC.AL RECEIVERS . . . . . . . . . . .. 460

12.9 A General-purpose Receiver. 462

12.10 Lightweight Airborne Receiver 464
12.11 An Extremely Wide-band Receiver 470

CHAP. 13. THE RECEIVING SYSTEM—INDICATORS . 475

THECATirOnE-RAY
TUBE. . . . . . 475
13.1 Electrical Propertiesof Cathode-rayTubes. 475
13.2 Cathode-rayTube Screens 479
13.3 The Selectionof the Cathode-rayTube 483
COormlNAmON WITH THE SCANNER 486

13.4 Angle-data Transmitters 486

13.5 Electromechanical Repeaters .,. 490

BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS .,. 492

13.6 Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . 492

13.7 The Generation of Rectangular Waveforms. 496
13.8 The Generation of Sharp Pulses. 501
13.9 Electronic Switches . . . . . .. 503
13,10 Sawtooth Generators. 510

INDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

13.11 Angle Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .514

13.12 Range and Height Indices; Synchronization 518
xvi CONTENTS

DISPLAY SYNTHESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524

13.13 The Design of A-scopes. ,524

13.14 B-Scope Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..528
13.15 Plan-position Indicator. 532
13.16 The “ Resolved Time Base” Method of PPI Synthesis . 534
13.17 Resolved-current PPI 538
13.18 The Method of Pre-time-base Resolution. 544
13.19 The Range-height Indicator. 545

SIGNAL DISCRIMINATION, RESOLUTION, AND CONTRAST. 54s

1320 Resolution and Contrast 548

13.21 Special Receiving Techniques for Air-to-land Observation. 550

CHAP. 14. PRIME POWER SUPPLIES FOR RADAR. 555

.41RCRAFT SYSTEMS 555

141 Choice of Frequency. ., 555

14.2 Wave Shape . . . . . . . . . 557
143 Direct-driven Generators. ,. 557
14.4 Motor-alternator Sets 561
145 Voltage Regulators. 563
14.6 Speed Regulators . . . . . . . 571
14.7 Dynamotors . . . . . . . . . . 579
14.8 Vibrator Power Supplies 581
14.9 Summary of Recommendations for Aircraft Radar Power 582

GEOUNDAND SHIFBOARDSYeTE%lS. :83

1410FixedLocations. . . 583
14 11 Large Systems Where No Commercial Power Is Available, 584
1412 Smaller Mobile Units 585
14.13 Ultraportable Units 5s5
14.14 Ship Radar Systems. 586

CHAP. 15. EXAMPLES OF RADAR SYSTEM DESIGN 588

1511 ntroduction. .,.,. . . 588

152 The Need for System Testing. 590

DESIGN OF A HIGH-PERFOEXANCE RAnAR FOB Am SURVEILLANCE AND

CONTROL, . . . . . . . . . . ..592

153 Initial Planning and Objectives 592

15.4 The Range Equation. ,595
155 Choice of Pulse Length .596
15.6 Pulse Recurrence Frequency 598
15.7 Azimuth Scan Rate... . . . . . . .. 599
15.8 Choice of Beam Shape. 600
159 Choice of Wavelength. ,604
15.10 Components Design 606
15.11 hfodifications and Additions, 609
 CONTENTS xvii

DESIGN OF A LIGHTWEIGHT AIRBORNE RADAR FOR NAVI~ATION 611

15.12 Design Objectives and Limitations. 611

15.13 General Design of the AN/APS-10. 614
15.14 Detailed Design of the AN/AP&10 616

CHAP. 16. MOVING-TARGET INDICATION 626

INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...626

161 The Role of Moving-Target Indication. 626

162 Basic Principles of MTI. : : : ~ : : : : 626
16.3 A Practical MTI System. . . 632
16.4 Alternative Methods for Obtaining Coherence. 635

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA AND CHOICE OF SYSTEM CONSTANTS. 638

16.5 Stability Requirements. 638

16.6 Internal Clutter Fluctuations . 642
16.7 Fluctuations Due to Scanning 644
16.8 Receiver Characteristics : 646
16.9 Target Visibility . . . . . . . . .,...,..,.....649
16.10 Choice of System Constamts. 653

MOVING-TABGET INDICATION ON A MOVING SYSTEM . 655

16.11 Compensation for Velocity of System . . 655

1612 The Noncoherent Method. . 656
16.13 Beating Due to Finite Pulse Packet 657

COMPONENT DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658

16.14 The Transmitter and Its Modulator. 658

16.15 The Stable Local Oscillator. 659
16.16 The Coherent Oscillator 662
16.17 The Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . ...665
16.18 The Supersonic Delay Line. 667
16.19 Delay-line Signal Circuits : . . . 672
16.20 Delay-line Trigger Circuits 675
16.21 Special Test Equipment 677

CHAP. 17. RADAR RELAY.... . . . . . . . . . .. 680

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...680

17.1 The Usesof Radar Relay. . .680

17.2 The Elements of Radar Relay. 681

MISTHODS OF SCANNER DATA TRANSMISSION ... 682

17.3 General Methods of Scanner Data Transmission. 6S3

17.4 Methods of Combating Interference 685
17.5 The Method of Incremental Angle. .,. 689
17.6 The Phase-shift Method 695
17.7 Methods of Relaying Sine and Cosine 701
17.8 Pulse Method for Relaying Sine and Cosine. 705
17.9 Comparison of Synchronization Methods. 711
 ...
Xvm CONTENTS

THE RADIO-FREQUENCY EQUIPMENT . . . . 713

17.10 Antennas, Frequencies, and the Radiation Path. 713

17.11 General Transmitter and Receiver Considerations 717
17.12 A 300-Mc/sec Amplitude-modulated Equipment. 719
17.13 A 100-Mc/sec Frequency-modulated Equipment. 721
17.14 Microwave System for Point-to-point Service. 723

RA~AR RELAY SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . ...726

17.15 A Ground-to-ground Relay System 726

17.16 Relay System for Airborne Radar 732

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737