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Shear tests on undisturbed samples of clay at low normal effective stresses have proved to be
useful in order to understand the actual nature of cohesion. Drammen plastic clay was considered
to be a suitable material for this study as it is nonfissured and noncemented. Triaxial compression
and extension tests without membranes were performed on this clay in the low stress range. The
samples in compression failed along inclined planes, while those in extension failed nearly along a
horizontal plane. It was found that the shear resistance in the case of extension tests was
independent of the average effective normal stress in the low stress range. The magnitude of the
cohesion was nearly the same as the cohesion observed in compression tests. The reasons for
these differences are discussed in terms of a proposed model. The shear resistance in extension
tests is probably a structural cohesion and no friction seems to be mobilized under these
conditions. When the samples were reconsolidated to in situ stresses, the shear parameters in
extension tests were the same as in compression tests. It is, therefore, suggested that mobilization
of friction depends on the nature of the contacts which undergo modification when disturbance of
structure on account of reconsolidation takes place.
Des essais de cisaillement a faible contrainte normale effective sur des Cchantillons non
remanies d'argile se sont avCrCs utiles pour comprendre la veritable nature de la cohesion.
L'argile plastique de Drammen a Cte considCrCe comme un mattriau valable pour une telle Ctude
car elle est non-figurCe et noncimentke. Des essais triaxiaux en compression et en extension, sans
membranes, ont ete rCalisCs sur cette argile dans le domaine des faibles pressions. Les
Cchantillons en compression se sont ruptures suivant des plans inclines, les Cchantillons en
extension suivant des plans quasi-horizontaux. On a Btabli que la resistance au cisaillement en
extension etait indkpendante de la contrainte effective moyenne dans le domaine des faibles
contraintes. La valeur de la cohCsion Ctait pratiquement la meme que celle observCe dans les
essais en compression. Les causes de ces phtnomknes sont discutees en fonction d'un modkle
propose. La risistance au cisaillement dans des essais en extension est probablement due B une
cohision structurale, aucun frottement n'etant mobilisk dans ces conditions. Quand des
Cchantillons sont reconsolidCs sous 1'Ctat de contrainte in sitit, les paramktres de cisaillement en
extension et en compression sont identiques. En constquence, il est suggCrC que la mobilisation
de frottement depend de la nature des contacts qui subit des modifications lors du remaniement de
[Traduit par la Revue]
la structure reliC B la reconsolidation.
Introduction
Effective stress analysis of stability of slopes
on the basis that the entire cohesion and friction
can be mobilized on the failure surface has
been found to have limitations in the case of
Norwegian marine clays (Bjerrum 1969). This
is on account of the small strain failure when
only part of (the shear components) cohesion
and friction are mobilized and a proper understanding of the mechanism of shear resistance
development in clays is thus needed. A particularly significant gap in this field lies in the very
low stress range and also when the normal
effective stresses decrease during shear. The
latter problem arises in the stability analysis of
excavations on clays for floating foundations
Eor control of settlement.
Can. Geotech. J., 12,70(1975)
71
used ordinary rubber membranes with special (as well as sands) are of ionic nature. The
care to ensure that continuous horizontal folds number of bonds and consequently the shear
were obtained during jacketing of the sample. strength of the soil are thus proportional to the
The results of these tests showed virtually no effective normal stress at failure. It will be postensile stresses at failure in this clay, which gave sible to isolate the strength of bonds in the clay
an almost linear envelope in the low stress formed as a result of stress history only if the
region. According to Mitchell (1970), the shear effective stresses at failure are kept very low.
envelope of Leda clay consists of three zones. Further experimental studies on natural clays
In the very low stress region, there is a fric- in extension and compression in this stress
tional component (+) presumably due to range are very desirable from this point of view.
microfissures. The intermediate stress region is
Drammen plastic clay is a natural clay ocdominated by cementation bonds (cohesive in curring at a depth of 6-9 m in Drammen, Nornature) and a high stress region exists with way which has been widely studied. Though it
hardening due to plastic flow ( c - 4). The is a normally consolidated clay it is unique in
fracture was of either a cup and cone type or the respect that it has a preconsolidation presa rough almost horizontal surface for vertical sure p, determined from oedometer tests,
samples. But for samples, trimmed from hori- greater than the overburden stress p,,, the ratio
zontal direction (turned through 90" ) the p,/p, .= 1.4-1.5 at all depths. This significant
failure stresses were the same, except that the finding is believed to be due to the reserve
failure planes were inclined at 65-73' with the resistance of the clay on account of delayed
.
nature of
original horizontal direction. It is significant consolidation (Bjerrum 1 9 6 7 ~ )The
that in the absence of tensile stress, the frac- bonds in this clay is therefore of particular
ture was similar to tension tests. Similar results interest unlike those which have cementation
were reported on other Canadian clays (natur- bonds. It is fclt that such a clay is eminently
ally cemented soils) subjected to compressive suitable for this study.
tests (Sangrey 1972). Lo and Morin (1972)
Test Program
conducted drained and undrained triaxial tests
The
study
was
confined to drained triaxial
on specimens trimmed at various angles from
the vertical direction on Quebec clay. The compression and extension tests on undisturbed
results of this study which included Brazilian samples of Drammen plastic clay. Low effective
tests showed that the effective stress versus stresses were applied in these tests. The details
shear strength envelopes were pronouncedly of the test program are given in Table 1. The
nonlinear and strongly anisotropic. The value fracture patterns in the various tests were studied
of the drained tensile strength for fracture in relation to the failure envelope. The samples
across stratification was about three times that were collected from Konrudgaten, Drammen.
along stratification.
The significant properties of the clay are given
A study of the data available does not pro- in Table 2.
vide any comparison between extension and
Since the study was devoted to the behavior
compression tests at low normal stresses espe- of clay under low effective stress, it was necescially in undisturbed soils. The results pre- sary to adopt a technique suitable for imposing
sented by Parry (1960) on remolded clay tensile stresses on the sample by a deviator
showed that the shear stress envelope is the stress caused by lowering the axial stress on the
same in extension and compression tests. But sample while keeping the lateral pressure conthe stress range examined was not low nor did stant. Samples with reduced central cross secit involve clays with natural bonds. A study of tion were adopted in conformity with the earlier
the mechanism of mobilization of shear com- studies of Bishop and Garga (1969). To overponents under such conditions is likely to be come the inherent difficulties involved in using
very valuable to know the nature of bonding the rubber membrane, several tests were conmechanisms in clays. If the recent concepts of ducted without using rubber membrane by
Mitchell et al. (1969) and Andersland and using liquid paraffin as the cell fluid. This techDouglas (1970) are indications of soil be- nique has been developed at the Norwegian
havior, the bonds between particles in clays Geotechnical Institute, Oslo (Iversen and
72
TABLE
I. Test program
Effective stress at start
of test
Test
no.
Overburden
pressure ( p , ) Type
(kg/cm2) of test1
01,
(kg/cm2)
oyf
(kg/cm2)
Important features
Remarks
Stress controlled
Without membrane
(Salt water in cell)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
With membrane
Stress controlled
Stress controlled
Stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
preconsolidated
to 2 kg/cm2 stress
controlled
Vertical sample
preconsolidated
to 2 kg/cni2 stress
controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Horizontal sample,
stress controlled
Lateral stress
decreased
' C = compression; E
With menibrane
With membrane
With membrane
With niembrane
Without membrane (Paraffin)
extension.
TABLE
2. Properties of Drammen
plastic clay
Liquid limit (wL)
Plastic limit (w,)
Water content (w,)
Salt content
In situ vane
Strength (s,)
Sensitivity ( S 3
5466%
30-35%
48-56%
26 4 1
2-3 t/m2
8-10
73
Cotnpression Tests
Typical stress-strain curves for compression
tests arc shown in Fig. 1. The failure envclope
' (r3')/2)
is shown in Fig. 6. The values of ( ( u ~ u3')/2) at the commencement and
and ((crlr
end of shearing for each test are also given in
the same figure. The results of these tests gave
c' = 0.04 kg/cm%nd 4' = 30". (Earlier triaxial compression tests on cylindrical samples
of Drammen plastic clay gave c' = 0.036
kg/cm" 4 = 31.4" without corrections for
rubber membrane and c' = 0.012 kg/cm%d
4' = 31.7' with corrections for the membrane.)
The fracture patterns are shown in Fig. 7.
Extension Tests
( I ) Vertical Samples
Stress-strain curves for stress controlled tests
TABLE
3. Summary of data from triaxial tests
Test
no.
Test
type
1vi
wl
(%I
(%)
011
(kg/cmz)
03f
(kg/cm2)
PO
(kg/cm2)
( 0 1 ' - 03')~
2
(kg/cm2)
(01' f 03')r
2
(kg/cnl2)
hV,
V
Duration
days
COMPRESSION TESTS
CELL PRESSURE r iKQ/&(~MTIAL)
EXTENSION TESTS
are given in Fig. 2 while those for strain controlled tests are shown in Fig. 3. The failure
envelope is given in Fig. 6 and fracture pattern
in Fig. 7. It should be noted that the shear
resistance in strain controlled tests increases to
a maximum value and then decreases.
(2) Horizontal Samples
Stress-strain curves for the tests on samples
turned through 90' are given in Fig. 4 while
the shear envelope is given in Fig. 6. Fracture
patterns are shown in Fig. 7.
The results of the extension tests present an
interesting and unusual trend. Between the
effective stress regions of 0.05 and 0.15 kg/cm2,
the shear strength at failure is seen to be independent of the effective normal stress, showing
essentially a cohesive bchavior. But for tests
with major effective stress below 0.05 kg/cm2,
the shear strength envelope is seen to be frictional in character and above the stress of
0.15 kg/cm2, there is a gradual transition from
purely cohesive to partly cohesive and partly
frictional (c - 4 ) behavior. It appears from
the results that at larger stress levels, the envelope from extension tests may tend to become similar to that from compression tests. It
is also surprising that the results of extension
tests (Fig. 5 ) on samples R-21 and R-22 in
which the reserve resistance effect has broken
down because the reconsolidation pressure is
EXTENSION TESTS
CELL PEWRE
~ g f c m ' @mAL)
76
CAN.
GEOTECH. J.
EXTENSION TESTS
CELL PRESSURE-{ K ~ / C ~ ~ O N I T I A L )
x
'.
l.,.lb*
EXTENSfON TESTS
KQJC~(INIT~AL)
CELL PRESSURE
Q;
R.21
R.22
77
-CRACKS
in undrained extension tests on Drammen plastic clay with decreasing vertical stress showed
lower pore pressure generation in extension
than for compression tests, even though these
results are for samples reconsolidated to in situ
stresses (Berre 1970). However, the magnitude
of pore pressure generation during shear (prior
to dissipation) in drained tests seems to be a
governing factor in the formation of fracture
surfaces.
2 . Failure Planes in Coinpression and
Extension Tests
A comparative study of the failure planes
can be obtained from Fig. 7. Though it was
not possible to measure the inclination of
failure planes in all the tests accurately, the
following general trends could be noted. It was
observed that in all extension tests with low
effective stresses before shear (heavily overconsolidated), decrease of axial stress results
in cracks which are nearly perpendicular1 to
the minor principal stress even when the stress
'It is possible that although the overall surface is
horizontal failure might have been along inclined
surfaces merging in echelon into a nearly horizontal
crack.
RfGlD COHESIVE
DETAILS OF CONTACTS.
(CONCEPT MOOlFlEO AFTER BJERRUM. 1971)
COMPRESSION TESTS.
(NORMAL STRESS AND SHEAR STRESS INCREASING)
COHESION-FRICTION TRANSFER
FIG. 9.
clavs. even under drained conditiom. the transfer'is sudden because of the britt~dnature of
bonds and until the full cohesion is mobilized,
no transfer of normal stress takes place through
frictional contacts. This may resuli in low strain
failure with very little mobilization of friction
on account of structural breakdown (Bjerrum
and Kenney 1967). Such an abrupt cohesionfriction transfer has also been shown in the case
of Drammen plastic clay in terms of a yield
stress connected with breakdown of the structure causing a drained test to pass through an
undrained stage (Bjerrum 197 1) .
The most important factor governing the
shear resistance of the clay is thus the nature
of the contacts and their behavior under the
imposed stresses. The cohesional contacts may
harden as a result of sustained stress during"
delayed consolidation as in Drammen plastic
clay. When the effective stresses are lowered,
the frictional contacts are subjected to a state
of tensile stress, but they are held from responding to this change by the cohesive contacts. If
such a junction is subjected to increase in normal stress, these cohesive contacts can yield
and flow (similar to melting of ice under pressure). Such a flow enables transfer of compressive stress to new frictional contacts even
80
O H Shew
Coinyonents
The above mechanisms are all based on
brittle cohcsive contacts bro~ightabout by delayed consolidation. An examination of the
behavior of these contacts under different stress
ranges may now bc made. Whcn the effective
stresscs are very low at the end of reconsolidation, the soil mass gets broken down on account
of the many fissures. The shear strength is
governed not only by the friction, but also by
the dilatancy due to the angularities in the
surface. It is easier for sliding to take place
over these fissures than for shearing these
angularities when the normal stress is low.
Thus the shear envelope in this region can show
a higher friction angle relative to thc reigon of
higher stress, as in the case of rocks (Ladanyi
and Archambault 1969).
At higher effective stresses, the friction developed depends on the breakdown of the
bonds. The amount of disturbance to the sample
FIG. 10. Con~pression-swelling curves in clays and their relation to shear resistance.
82
12. 1975
c
c'
k,
p,
p,
u
wi
w,
a
a,'
a,'
u,,'
a,,'
a,'
a..'
T
#
#'
- Cohesion
83