Sangam Literature

Ancient commentators referred to Sangam literature as . Sangam poetry laid

down the foundation for the entire Tamil poetic tradition that has flourished for over two thousand
years. It is the root of the massive Tamil literary tree from which branches have spread in many
different directions. The predominantly secular Sangam poems influenced the later religious works
of Jain, Buddhist, Saivite and Vaishnavite poets. The universality of emotions, which are revealed
through the natural elements of the five landscapes, has made the poetry timeless, and for all
cultures.
There are a total of 18 Sangam Tamil books Ten long songs (Pthuppttu) and eight anthologies (
Ettuthokai), for a total of 2381 poems written by 473 poets (30 were female poets), and including
102 poems written by anonymous authors. There are 26,350 lines of poems. 16 poets are
responsible for about 50% of the total production (1177 out of the 2279 non-anonymous poems).
They are Kapilar, Ammoovanr, rampkiyr, Peyanar, thalnthaiyr, Paranar, Maruthan
Ilankanr, Plai Pdiya Perunkadunk, Avvaiyr, Nallanthuvanr, Nakkeerar, Ulochanr,
Mamoolanr, Kayamanr, Perunkundrr Kilr and Peristhanr. Scholars differ on the period of
the Sangam books, but many agree that they are between 300 B.C. and 300 A. D. Most of the
poems are secular in nature. There are very few references of northern religions in the early
anthologies. The poets, both men and women, came from all backgrounds kings, noble men,
learned men, doctors, businessmen, teachers, metal smiths, goldsmiths, cattle herders etc. etc. In
addition, there is Tholkppiyam, the ancient text. Parts of it were written before the poems.
However, some parts were written later.
The word Sangam is not Tamil. It is not used anywhere in the Sangam literature. It is derived from
the Sanskrit word samgha, which means academy or fraternity. It comes from the Buddhist and
Jain sanghas that existed in Madurai between the 6th and 8th centuries, competing with Hinduism.
The word is mentioned for the first time in the 8th 9th century commentary of Iraiyanr
Akapporul, by Nakkeerar. In A. K. Ramanujans words, This spurious name Sangam (fraternity,
community) for the poetry is justified not by history, but by poetic practice.
Sangam Age and other Dravidian literature: The beginnings of Sangam literature date back to
many centuries before Christ. There are many proofs that the bulk of the literature was written from
150 B.C. to 300 A.D. There is not a single reference to the Pallavas who established their rule in
Knchi around 350 A.D. in the Sangam poems; they must have been written before the Pallava
arrival. Also, we have detailed description of foreign trade, especially with Greece, found in these
poems, with descriptions of their ships, their gold coins, wines etc. The trade did not continue past
the 3rd century A.D. We have the accounts and observations of Greek and Roman writers like the
author of Periplus (A.D. 70), Pliny (A.D. 78), and Ptolemy (A.D. 140), which have elaborate
descriptions of many cities and ports in the Tamil country. The Sri Lankan king Gajabhu I and
Chran Chenguttuvan of Pathitruppathu were contemporaries. King Gajabhu reigned from 173 to
195 A.D. This Gajabhu synchronism is accepted by most scholars today. Iravatham Mahadevan
has shown that the inscriptions at Pukalr, which can be dated to 200 A.D. mentions the names of
Chera kings who appear in Pathitruppathu.

Other Dravidian literature came much later. The one that came after Tamil is Kannada, and that did
not happen for at least 1,200 years. To quote Kamil Zvelebil, the first narrative Kannada literature
is Sivaktis Vaddrdhane in 900 A.D. Telugu literature as we know it begins with Nannayas
translation of Mahabharatha in the 11th century A.D. In Malayalam, Unnunli Sandsam, an
anonymous poem of the 14th century, is based on the models of Sandsa or Dta poems; its very
language is true manipravlam, which is defined in the earliest Malayalam grammar (15th century
Lilthilakam) as the union of Malayalam and Sanskrit.
Epigraphical evidences in Tamil-Brahmi: The Mangulam cave inscriptions were first noted in
1882, observed again in 1906 and determined in 1965 by Iravatham Mahadevan to have inscriptions
from the 2nd century B.C. The inscriptions record the gift of a monastery to Nanta-siri Kuvan, a
senior Jaina monk. Two of the caves had inscriptions about King Neduncheliyan.
The Jambai cave inscription etched in Tamil-Brahmi and dated the 1st century A.D. was discovered
in 1981 by the Archaelogical Department. It states that the hermitage was given by Athiyamn
Nedumn Anji. It records the grant of the cave on the north bank of the South Pennar River near
Thirukoyilur in Vilupparam district by Athiyamn Nedumn Anji, who was one of the seven great
vallal kings of ancient Tamil Nadu.
The discovery of cave inscriptions from the 2nd century A.D. was made at Pugalur in 1928. Pugalur
is situated on the south bank of River Kaviri about 15 km. northwest of Karur, the ancient Chra
capital, which is in modern Karur district. However, its historical significance was only recognized
almost four decades later, in 1965. Out of the 12 inscriptions, 2 refer to the Chra royal family.
Both of these inscriptions record the construction of a rock shelter for Cenkyapan, a senior Jaina
monk when Ilankadunko, the son of Perunkatunkn the son of King than Selirumporai, became
the heir apparent.
Influence of Sanskrit: There is another important difference between Tamil and the other
Dravidian literary languages: the meta language of Tamil has always been Tamil, never Sanskrit.
As A.K. Ramanujan says (in Language and Modernization, p. 31), In most Indian languages, the
technical gobbledygook is Sanskrit; in Tamil, the gobbledygook is ultra-Tamil. Kamil Zvelebil
explains that there are traces of Aryan influence in early Tamil, just as the very beginnings of the
Rig Vedic hymns show traces of Dravidian influence. He writes in his book, The Smile of
Murugan, Historically speaking, from the point of development of Indian literature as a single
complex, Tamil literature possesses at least two unique features. First, it is the only Indian literature
which is, at least in its beginnings and in its first and most vigorous bloom, is almost entirely
independent of Aryan and specifically Sanskrit influences. Second, Tamil literature is the only
Indian literature which is both classical and modern, while it shares antiquity with much of Sanskrit
literature and is as classical, in the best sense of the word, as e.g. the ancient Greek poetry, it
continues to be vigorously living modern writing of our days.
Oral Tradition to Anthologies: Scholars believe that the poems were gathered into anthology
form as early as the 8th century A.D., at a time when Buddhist and Jaina sanghas existed in the
Tamil country, and hence the name Sangam.
The poems started out as oral tradition which must have gone on for several centuries. The process
is the creative act first, when the texts are composed. Next is the oral transmission of the texts.

Following is the editing and codification of the anthologies. The colophons were added to the
poems a couple of hundred years after the poems, around the 5th century A.D. Finally,
commentaries were written around the 13th and 14th centuries.
Ancient Commentaries: The ancient commentaries for the Sangam poems were written about a
thousand years later. The language of the commentaries is quite hard, and often, more difficult than
the original text. Ancient commentators had difficulties with ambiguous texts, much like we have
today. Also, they sometimes offer moral opinions, depending on the society which existed around
them at that point of time. Some of the modern commentators have also followed that complicated
style of writing, thereby limiting the poems to Tamil scholars. However, there are recent
commentaries that have been written in easily readable formats.
Commentaries for the Sangam books:
Ainkurunru: There is an ancient 13th century A.D. anonymous commentary. However, it is not
a detailed one.
Kurunthokai: Tradition says that Prasiriyar and Nachinrkkiniyar wrote commentaries, neither of
which have been found.
Natrinai: No ancient commentary is available.
Akannru: There is an ancient commentary for the first 90 poems, probably written in the 12th
century A.D.
Pathitruppathu: It has an old, 13th century A.D. brief commentary which is probably later than
the 12th century A.D.
Purannru: An old commentary probably from the 12th century is available for the first 266
poems.
Pathuppttu: Nachinrkkiniyar wrote full-fledged commentaries for the 10 long songs in the 14th
century A.D.
Paripdal: Parimlalakar wrote a full-fledged commentary in the 13th century A.D.
Kalithokai: Nachinrkkiniyar wrote a full-fledged commentary in the 14th century A.D.
Commentaries for Tholkppiyam:
1. Ilampranar: The first available commentary was written by him. He was probably a Jaina
scholar who lived in the 12th century A.D. His commentary has come down to us intact. His style is
simple and lucid.
2. Senvaraiyar: His commentary pertains only to Sol Athikram. It is dateable to 1275 A.D.
This author contests the view of Pavananthi, and also questions some of the conclusions of
Ilampranar.
3. Prsiriyar: His date is the 13th century A.D. His style is not as simple as lucid as that of
Ilampranar. It is not as artful as the commentary of Nachinrkkiniyar.
4. Nachinrkkiniyar: His style is artful, and he has a great poetic sense. His commentary reveals
his skills in both Tamil and Sanskrit. His date is probably the 14th century A.D.
5. Theivachilaiyr: He composed his commentary to the second book Sol Athikaram, in the 16th
century.

6. Kalldar: His commentary was for the second book Sol Athikaram. His work is dated 16th or
17th century A.D.
Loss and Recovery: We lost these manuscripts, which were etched on palm, for many centuries.
We knew of their existence since there were references to them in the commentaries written many
centuries after the Sangam age. They were buried amidst the collections of Saivite monasteries and
some families, without anyone knowing of their existence. They were re-discovered by U.V.
Swaminatha Iyer (1855 1942) and C. W. Thamotharam Pillai ((1832 1901) in the late 19th
century. U.V. Swamintha Iyer started the process in 1883 at the Thiruvvaduthurai Saiva
monastery, and both these men, along with the help of a few other scholars completed the work of
editing and bringing them to print, over the next few decades. But for Swaminatha Iyer, this
process of recovery would not have started then. We owe immense gratitude to him, and to all the
other scholars who helped him. They also edited and published the books during the last quarter of
the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century.
Nature Poetry: Sangam poetry is nature poetry. The elements of nature are intertwined with love,
valor, agony, ecstasy, kindness, war, cruelty, honor, charity, friendship and many more facets of
humanity. The Sangam poets never lost sight of the physical world around them. Keenly observing
nature, they brought to life the fauna and flora, and used them effectively in almost every poem, to
reveal human emotions, thereby creating beautiful vignettes. There are over one hundred trees
described in the poems. One can travel back in time and see many mammals, reptiles, insects,
birds, bushes, vines, flowers, mountains, forests, ponds, waterfalls, rivers and streams in the Tamil
country. The sky with the constellations, sun, moon, stars and planets are also used effectively. The
tiny red velvet bugs of the rainy season, to the mighty elephant in the jungle, are part of the drama.
A piece of foam dashing on the rocks in a flooding stream and losing itself little by little, is used to
describe the heroine fading away in pain in Kurunthokai 290.
Secular Poetry: Sangam literature is mostly secular, reflecting the early Tamil culture. However,
even the earlier works Natrinai, Kurunthokai, Akannru, Ainkurunru, Pathitruppathu and
Purannru have a few references of Hindu gods. They also have a few Buddhist and Jain
references and concepts. The later works Paripdal and Thirumuruktruppadai are Hindu books.
The later anthology Kalithokai is influenced by Hinduism. Perunthvanrs invocation poems were
added to Purannru, Natrinai, Kurunthokai and Akannru, around the 8th century when the texts
were compiled into anthologies. However, only in Purannru, it is inserted as poem 1, and is made
to be part of the anthology.
Akam: Poems that view life from inside the family, and concern the love between man and
woman. About 78% of the poems are in the Akam Thinai.
Puram: Poems that view life from outside the family, and deal with topics such as the king,
heroism, battle, ethics, and the life of wandering bards and poets.
According to Nachinrkkiniyar in his Tholkppiyam commentary (Porul 56), Akam and Puram
are like the inner palm and back side of the hands, respectively, when the palms are held together.
It could not have been explained any better, other than with the Tamil vanakkam symbol.
The Eight Anthologies Ettuthokai

 , , ,
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The eight anthologies consist of poems divided into two broad categories Akam (interior) and
Puram (exterior king, heroism, battle, ethics and wandering bards and poets). Purannru and
Pathitruppathu are the only two that belong to Puram category.
1. Natrinai: This anthology has 400 poems written by 175 poets. Poem 234 is missing, and only
parts of 395 have been recovered. There are 59 references to historical incidents.
2. Kurunthokai: This anthology has 400 poems written by 205 poets. U.V.Swamintha Iyers
edition has 401. One poem must have been added later, possibly the invocatory poem. There are 27
historical references in Kurunthokai.
3. Ainkurunru: This is an anthology with 500 short poems, as the title indicates. It is arranged in
five sections, each of 100 verses, each dealing with once facet of Akam Kurinji, Neythal,
Marutham, Mullai and Plai. Within the main 5 divisions, the poems are sets of 10 with thematic
headings as Monkeys, boars, peacocks etc. etc.). Each set of 10 poems are based on a single topic.
It has 17 historical references.
Kapilar wrote the Kurinji poems, rampkiyr wrote the Marutham poems, Ammoovanr wrote the
Neythal poems, Pyanr wrote the Mullai poems and thalnthaiyr wrote the plai poems.
4. Pathitruppathu: This has 80 poems (out of an original 100) and they belong to the Puram
category. The name means, The ten tens. It deals with the exploits and achievements of just one
dynasty The Chras. It is unique in that sense since it is exclusively devoted to the Chras.
The kings described in this collection are Imayavarampan Nedunchralthan (11-20), Palynai
Selkelu Kuttuvan (21-30), Kalankykanni Nrmudichral (31-40), Kadal Pirakttiya Chenguttuvan
(41-50), dukotpttu Chralthan (51-60), Selvakkadungo Valiythan (61-70), Perumchral
Imruporai (71-80), and Ilanchral Irumporai (81-90).
Each set of ten has been appended with a pathikam (epilog), which furnishes us with details of the
author, the hero, his lineage etc. These epilogs have been added much later, but it appears that the
historical information they provide could have been drawn from earlier resources.
5. Paripdal: This is unique among Sangam books, since it has both Akam and Puram poems. It is
one of the later anthologies. It was written a few centuries after the earlier ones. The collection has
22 poems. The topics for the poems are Thiruml, Murukan, and Vaikai River.
6. Kalithokai: This later anthology has 150 poems in the kali meter, of 12 to 80 lines by 5 poets,
each of whom has treated a different Akam theme. S. V. Damodaram Pillai who found these original
manuscripts and wrote the commentary for them, believed that the entire book was the work of one
poet and that it was written a couple of centuries later than the other books. Also, the prolific
Sangam poet Kapilar lived a few centuries earlier than the Kapilar who wrote the Kurinji poems in
this collection. Either there are two Kapilars, or the Kurinji poems were erroneously assigned to
Kapilar since he was a Kurinji Thinai expert.
Dr. Kamil Zvelebil is also of the view that the whole book was written by one person in the
Pndiyan kingdom. K.N. Sivaraja Pillai, Rajamanickam, Takanobu Takahashi and others hold the

same view.
What we see in the modern editions, are Kapilar for Kurinji, Plai Pdiya Perunkadung for Plai,
Nallanthuvanr for Neythal, Nalluthiran for Mullai and Marutham Ilankanr for Marutham.
7. Akannru: This anthology has 400 poems written by 142 poets. This anthology has also been
called Nedunthokai Nnuru since the poems are long. All the poems are in Akam thinai, as the
name implies. The poems are from 13 to 31 lines, and they have all reached us intact. There are
288 historical allusions.
8. Purannru: It has 400 poems and they deal with Puram (exterior). The poems were written by
both male and female poets. The poems are 4 to 40 lines, and are composed by 156 poets. There
were 14 kings, and 15 women among these poets. The female poet Avvaiyr wrote 33 poems.
Praising the Kings: There are a total of 138 poems which praise the 43 kings belonging to the three
great dynasties: Chra, Chla and Pndiya. There are 141 poems in praise of 48 small-region kings
the main ones are Athiyamn Nedumn Anji, Vl Pri, y Andiran, Pkan, Kumanan, Kri, Nnjil
Valluvan, Pittan Kotran and Elini. There are 121 poems whose heroes are unknown due to missing
words, defective colophons, fragmentary nature of the poems etc.
The Ten Long Songs Pathuppttu



.
These are long poems which are of 103 to 782 lines, and they do not totally fit well into the Akam
(interior) and Puram (exterior) categories, except for Kurunjippttu which is considered to be
Akam.
1. Thirumuruktruppadai: This song has 317 lines in the siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was
written by the poet Nakkeerar for Murukan.
2. Porunartruppadai: This song has 250 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter. It was written by
Mudathmakkaniyr. The king here is Chlan Kariklan.
3. Sirupntruppadai: This song has 269 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was written by
Nathathanr. The King is Nalliyakdan.
4. Perumpntruppadai: This song has 500 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter. It was written by
Kadiyalr Urithirankannanr. The king is Thondaimn Ilanthiraiyan.
5. Mullaippttu: This song has 103 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was written by poet
Nappoothanr. The king is Thalaiylanknathu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan.
6. Mathuraiknchi: This song has 583 lines in the siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was written by
poet Mngudi Maruthanr, for the Pndiyan king Neduncheliyan.
7. Nedunalvdai: This song has 188 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was written by poet
Nakkeeranr (son of Madurai Kanakkyanr), and the king is unknown. Some scholars speculate
that the king is Pndiyan, since there is a description of neem leaves tied to spears.

8. Kurinjippttu: This song has 261 lines in siriyapp/Akaval meter and was written by
Kapilar for the north Indian king Brahadatha. This song describes the Tamil mountain country, its
fauna and flora, and its marriage customs.
9. Pattinapplai: This song has 301 lines. There are 153 lines in Vanji meter and 138 lines in
siriyapp/Akaval meter. It was written by Kadiyalr Urithirankannanr. The king was Chlan
Kariklan.
10. Malaipadukadm: This song has 583 lines in the siriyapp/Akaval meter, and was written
by Perunkousikanr for King Nannan Venmn.
Thinai: There are seven thinai classifications in Puram, and five in Akam. (There are 2 more
Akam thinais which are rarely used, and are seen only in the later Kalithokai poems. They are
Kaikilai and Perunthinai which deal with one sided love, and are not regarded as pure Akam by
scholars).
Puram Thinais: According to the Tholkppiyam there are 7 thinais for Puram poems Vetchi,
Vanji, Ulignai, Thumpai, Vkai, Knji and Pdn. However, they do not agree with what we find
in Purannru. These are the 11 Purannru thinais Karanthai, Kanji, Kaikkilai, Thumpai,
Nochi, Padan, Perunthinai, Pothuviyal, Vanji, Vakai and Vetchi. The Ulignai thinai from
Tholkappiyam is not in Purannru. These seven thinais have been named after flowers -Vetchi,
Vanji, Ulignai, Thumpai, Vkai, Knji and Pdn. Vetchi is cattle raid, Vanji is preparation for war
and invasion, Ulignai is siege, Thumpai is battle, Vkai is victory, Knji is tragedy, and Pdn is
praise.
The Puram thinai poems are spoken by the poet himself, and frequently associated with real
persons, places and events in history.
Akam Thinais: Here are five thinais, and they are named after flowers and trees. These are
Kurinji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and Plai. In addition to the plant that gives it its name, each of
these five Akam thinais is associated with a certain kind of land, flora and fauna found in that land,
people who live there, a season, a time of day and a situation in the development or fulfillment of
love between a man and a woman. The poets have used Akam thinais to achieve poetic effect, and
it is very important to know them, to appreciate Sangam poetry. The metaphors and similes in the
poems are based on the elements in the particular landscape. Fauna, flora and the very landscape
itself is used to express the physical traits and emotions of the characters in the poems.
Kurinji: Mountains and adjoining lands. It is named after the Kurinji flower that blooms once in
12 years 0n mountain slopes. Kurinji and Knthal flowers grow in the mountains. Murukan is the
deity of the Kurinji land, and bears, tigers and elephants, parrots and peacocks live there. Wild rice,
millet, and tubers are grown. Sandal wood trees abound. The mountain dwellers hunt, collect
honey and raise millet. Villages are called siru kudi and kurichi. Springs and waterfalls
abound. Music is created with Kurinji lute in Kurinji tunes.
Lovers union is the main sentiment of Kurinji thinai. This is pre-marital.
The subject of the poems are usually the secret meeting of lovers, which might be at the millet field,
or at night when the heroine slips out of the house evading her mother, and the mother suspects that
her daughter is up to mischief.

Neythal: Seashore and adjoining lands. It is named after the blue waterlily that grows near the
seashore. Fish catching and salt making is done here. Blue waterlilies grow in the ponds.
Cormorants, gulls, herons and pelicans are the birds and crocodiles, sharks and buffaloes live here.
Screwpine trees (thlai) grow, and there are water wells and salt water ponds. Villages are called
pattinam and pkkam. Music is created with vilari lute in sevvali tunes.
Anxious waiting is the theme of Neythal thinai. This could be pre-marital or post-marital.
The subject is often separation, during which the unmarried woman believes that her lover has
abandoned her. Occasionally, Neythal poems concern the journey of the hero along the beach in his
chariot as he comes to see his beloved.
Plai: Dry wilderness and adjoining lands. It is named after the Plai tree which grows in very dry
areas. Tigers, red foxes, vultures, eagles and pigeons live in this plai land. Irruppai, mai and
ulignai trees are in this land. The common flowers are kuravam and pthiri. There are robberies on
the wasteland paths. Villages are kurumpu and paranthalai. Water sources are dried springs and
there are ring wells. Music is created with plai lute in panchuram tunes.
Separation is the theme of Plai. This could be pre-marital or post-marital.
The hero sets out across the wilderness to elope with his beloved, or, if hes unaccompanied, to
make enough money to marry her on his return. Occasionally the hero is married and undertakes a
journey for business purposes. The time is midday and the season is summer.
Mullai: Forest and adjoining lands. It is named after
jasmine, and the vine grows wild in forest areas, especially in the rainy seasons. Cattle herds, deer,
rabbits, and wild fowl live there. Wild grain and millet is grown. Flowers are jasmine and thndral,
trees are kondrai and ky, and villages are pdi and chri. Music is created with Mullai lute in
sthri tunes. Forest streams are active in the rainy season.
Patient waiting is the theme of Mullai. This could be pre-marital or post-marital.
The heroine waits for her man to return from a journey. Some poems in this category describe
union. All concern the fertility of the rainy season in the forest meadows. Rainy season is the
period. The time is usually evening.
Marutham: Paddy fields and adjoining lands. It is named after flowering Marutham trees which
grows in agricultural areas. White and red rice are grown, water buffalo is the animal, and lotus and
lilies are the flowers. The trees are Vanji, Knchi and Marutham. Settlements are prr and
moothr. Wells, ponds, rivers, and streams are all over the place. The birds here are pelican,
waterfowl and swan. Marutham lute is used create Marutham tunes. People work in the fields
planting, weeding and cutting the rice stalks.
Infidelity is the theme of Marutham. This is post-marital.
After marriage and usually after the couple have a son, the hero leaves his wife and begins to live
with courtesans, or visit them regularly. The time is day.
Understanding Akam thinais: It is very important to understand this to enjoy Akam poems. Each
Akam thinai consists of three components Muthal, Karu and Uri. Muthal consists of basic
elements such as a tract of land, a season, a time of day or night. Karu consists of the flora and

fauna in that tract, its inhabitants, their occupations etc. Uri is the aspect peculiar to each
landscape; more specifically, the feelings, deeds and situations of the dramatis personae in love
poetry.
Comparing Akam and Puram thinais: Akam means that which is inside and Puram means,
that which is outside, and they are the two sides of Sangam poetry. For each Akam thinai, there is
a coinciding Puram thinai.
The Puram poem is spoken by the poet, and has names, places and events of history. The Akam
poems are spoken by the hero, his friend, heroine, her friend (tholi), the friends mother (foster
mother- sevili), the heroines real mother, the courtesan and the passer-by.
The two genres differ from each other not only in theme, but also in technique. Akam poems make
much use of images suggesting a mood and a situation, while Puram poems do not and are more
straightforward. For Akam, the mood and the situation are closely associated with each thinai, but,
for Puram, the association is less. In Akam poetry, themes described in poems are connected with
each other, and, taken as a whole, form a love drama'; each scene depicted in Puram poems is a
solitary one and not connected with each other. Puram poetry is far less conventional than Akam
poetry, and its subject matter is easier to understand. Akam poems have many similes and
metaphors, and fauna and flora are used to express situations and human emotions.
Snapshot of life two thousand years ago: The 2381 Sangam poems reveal many vivid images of
the Tamil country from two thousand years ago. We see the fauna and flora in all the five
landscapes, food people ate, clothing that people in different geographical regions wore mountain
dwellers wore grass and flower garments and others wore woven cotton and silk clothes, jewelry
made with gold and precious stones, the lives of bards, dancers and musicians who played
instruments, cattle herders playing their flutes, the various musical instruments, battles and warriors,
trading with the Greeks and Romans whose large ships arrived in ports, just reigns of small-region
kings, great friendships between poets and kings, the three great kings who battled with each other
constantly, the seven great donors and small region kings, trades people did in the different
landscapes, war equipment, forts with moats, existence of metal smith workshops, knowledge of
the sky the sun, moon, venus, mars, saturn, comets and many constellations, casting of bronze
bells using the lost wax method, building of a small curved dam, the heat and wafting aroma from
sugar mills, using scissors for cutting hair, lizard omens, bird omens, an occasional kindness of a
hunter who lets the bird he trapped fly away, and even kindness of a ruthless, wild killer animal
letting its prey with young ones, get away.
Some Interesting Conventions and Facts that might help new readers:
1. Snakes are attacked by thunder, which chops off their heads and kills them.
2. Snakes spit sparkling gems.
3. Pearls drop off the tusks of elephants.
4. A tiger will not eat a prey if it does not fall on its right side.
5. Women in love get yellow pallor spots on their bodies, and their eyes become pale and yellow.
Their shoulders and arms become thin. Bangles fall off their wrists.
6. There is a mythical creature called asunam. The University of Madras lexicon defines asunam as
a creature believed to be so susceptible to harmony, that when it is fascinated by notes of music, a
sudden loud beat of the drum causes its instantaneous death.

7. There is a mighty animal li, which kills elephants. It could be a hyena or a lion.
8. The heroines friend (tholi) refers to the hero as our lover, since both the girls are very close
friends.
9. The heroines friend is sometimes the voice of the heroine and she tells the hero what the heroine
wants to tell him. It is because of an old convention which is in the Tholkppiyam, that the heroine
cannot utter her love feelings directly to the hero. This convention comes from ancient oral
tradition.
10. The utterances of the foster mother and real mother are not quite clear. The foster mother also
refers to the heroine as my daughter. Also, we need to be aware that the colophons, which have
information about the speaker and the listener, were written many centuries after the poems.
11. The speakers of Puram poems are the poets. The speakers of Akam poems are the hero, heroine,
heroines friend, heroines mother, heroines foster mother, heros charioteer, heros concubine and
passers-by, when the hero and heroine are in the wasteland.
12. The fathers and brothers of the heroine have never been speakers of any poem. However, they
are referred to in the poems.
13. When the heroine refuses to respond to the hero, he climbs on a palmyra stem horse (madal
ruthal, meaning climbing on a palmyra stem or frond) and has it pulled through town with a picture
of the heroine in his hand. He does that as a last resort as a jilted lover, if the heroine refuses his
love.
14. When the heroine is lovesick and thin, her mother fears that shes afflicted with a disease
because of the wrath of Murukan, and brings a diviner to her house to appease Murukan, the
mountain deity. The diviner (Velan) uses molucca beans and divines, offers a goat as sacrifice, ties a
talisman on the heroines arms and does frenzied ritual dances on freshly laid sand in the front yard
of the house that is decorated with flowers.
15. There is not a word in the English language for virali. A virali is a female artist who performs
dances and also sings. She belongs to the bards family. She is the bards wife in some poems.
16. A demon protects wounded warriors on the battlefield, when they have nobody to guard them.
This convention comes from Tholkppiyam Purathinai Iyal.
17. Young women are described as having bright forehead, sharp teeth, thick, dark hair,
fragrant hair, deer-like looks, bamboo-like arms, swaying walk, delicate shoulders etc. These
phrases are repeated quite often in the poems. Young girls drew designs on their breasts and
shoulders, and these were called thoyyil.
18. Morphemes are often used in the poems. These are words that function with nouns and verbs,
and have no independent existence (). The Tholkppiyam describes the different
morphemes and the situations where they can be used. They are: man , thil , kon
, um , O , , ena , endru , matru , etru , matraiyathu
, mandra , thanjam , anthil , kol , el , r , m
, miya , ika , mo , mathi , ikum , sin , amma,
nga , Polum , y , k , pira , pirakku , ar , p
, and mthu .
19. There are about 9 references to Yavanas (Greek Ionians but the word was probably used for
Romans and others later) in the poems. They brought wine, served as body guards to kings, were
merchants who brought us female figurine lamps with cupped hands as oil wells

in Perumpanatruppadai 316-317, and swan lamps in Nedunalvdai 101-103, There

are references in a couple of poems, Tamil kings repelling attacks of the Aryans, Aryans training
wild elephants, ryan acrobats performing on ropes etc. There are also references to Mauryan
incursions into Tamil Nadu.
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Words used to describe the hero in Kurinji poems: , ,
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Words used to describe the hero in Plai poems: , , , ,
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Words used to describe the hero in Mullai poems: ,
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