4 - Proakis Chapter 4 - Charaterization of Comm Signals and Systems 1-7-2010 Printable Version

Chapter 4
characterization of
communication
signals and systems
Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri
contents
4-1 Parts 1,2- Representation of Bandpass Signals
4-1-1 Representation of Bandpass Signals
4-1-2 Representation of Linear Bandpass System
4-1-3 Response of a Bandpass Systems to a Bandpass signal
4-1-4 Representation of Bandpass Stationary Stochastic Processes
4-2 Parts 3 signal space representation

4-2-1 Vector Space Concept
4-2-2 Signal Space Concept
4-2-3 Orthogonal Expansions of Signals
4-3 Parts 4,5,6 Representation of digitally modulated signals

4-3-1 Memoryless Modulation Methods
4-3-2 Linear Modulation with Memory
4-3-3 Nonlinear Modulation Methods with Memory
Part - 1
4-1 Representation of Bandpass

Signals
In the next subsections we will represent the
bandpass signals and systems in terms of equivalent
lowpass waveforms and the characterization of
band pass stationary stochastic processes
4-1-1 Representation of
Bandpass Signals
Signals and channels that satisfy the condition that their bandwidth is much
smaller than the carrier frequency are termed narrowband bandpass signals
and channels.
st Is a real value signal that shown in figure
Figure (4-1-1)
5
(4-1-1)
a signal that contains only the positive frequencies in st
S f 2u f S f
(4-1-1)
S f Is the Fourier transform of st
u f Is the unit step function

The Equivalent time-domain expression is:
s t S f e
j 2ft
dt
2u f F S F
1
s t the analytic signal or pre-envelope of st

6
(4-1-2)
j
F 2u f t
t
1
s t t st
t
j
st st
t
(4-1-3)
(4-1-4)
s t t st
t
s t st
t
st
(4-1-4)
1
1 s
st st
d
t
t
ht
st
1
ht , t
t
Such a filter is called a Hilbert transformer
8
(4-1-6)
(4-1-5)
The frequency response of a Hilbert transformer
H f ht e
2ft
dt
1 2ft
e dt
t
j f 0
0 f 0
j f 0
(4-1-7)
This filter is basically a 900 phase shifter for all frequencies f<0 and
possitive frequencies in the input signal.
9
for all
equivalent lowpass representation
Sl f S f f c
F
sl t s t e
frequency translation
j 2f c t
st jst e
j 2f c t
st jst sl t e
10
(4-1-8)
(4-1-9)
j 2f c t
(4-1-10)
The signal sl t is a complex-value and may be expressed as:
sl t xt jyt
st xt cos 2f ct y t sin 2f ct
(4-1-12)
st xt sin 2f ct y t cos 2f ct
(4-1-13)
(4-1-11)
xt and y t are called the quadrature components

of the bass band signal st
11
II- Another representation is:

j 2f t
j 2f t
c Re s t e
c
s t Re x t jy t e
l
(4-1-14)
sl t is usually called the complex envelope of the

Real signal st , and it basically the equivalent
lowpass signal.
12
Finally a third possible representation is:
sl t at e
j t
(4-1-15)
Where:
at x t y t
2
xt
t tan
yt
(4-1-16)
13
(4-1-17)
a t is called the envelop of st
t is called the phase of st
Then:
Reat e
st Re sl t e
j 2f c t
j 2f c t t
at cos2f c t t
14
(4-1-18)
Therefore:
st xt cos 2f ct y t sin 2f ct
(4-1-12)
st Re sl t e
(4-1-14)
j 2f ct
st at cos2f c t t
(4-1-18)
Are equivalent representation of bandpass signals
15
The Fourier transform of st is:
S f s t e
j 2ft
Res t e
l
j 2f c t
dt
dt e
j 2ft
dt
(4-1-19)
Using of the identity
1
Re
2
16
(4-1-20)
The basic relationship between the spectrum of

the real bandpass signal S f and the spectrum of
the equivalent lowpass signal Sl f
1
j 2f c t
j 2f c t j 2ft
S f sl t e
sl t e
e
dt
2
1
Sl f f c Sl f f c
2
(4-1-21)
17
The energy in the signal st is defined as:
s t dt
2
Res t e
j 2f c t
Using the identity
1
Re
2
dt
2
we obtain:
1
2
E sl t dt
2
1
2
sl t cos4f c t 2 t dt
2
18
(4-1-22)
(4-1-23)
a t varies slowly relative

2
the energy in bandpass signal expressed in terms of

the equivalent lowpass signal is:
st at cos2f c t t
1
2
E sl t dt
2
E - The energy in bandpass signal

Where sl t is just the envelop a t of st
19
(4-1-24)
4-1-2 Representation of Linear

Bandpass System
In this section we will described a filter or

a system by its impulse response or by its ht
frequency response.
20
A linear filter or system may be described either

by its impulse response ht or by its frequency
response H f
Since ht is real
H f H f
21
(4-1-25)
We define H l f f c as:
H f
Hl f fc
0
f
f
0
0
(4-1-26)
Then:
0
H f f c
H f
22
f 0
f 0
(4-1-27)
Using
H f H f
we have:
H f Hl f f c H f f c
F 1
ht hl t e
j 2f c t
2 Re hl t e
hl t
23
frequency translation
h t e
j 2f c t
(4-1-28)
j 2f c t
is the inverse Fourier transform and its a complex value of

(4-1-29)
Hl f
4-1-3 Response of a Bandpass

Systems to a Bandpass signal
In this section we demonstrate that output of a bandpass
system to a bandpass input signal is simply obtained
from the equivalent lowpass input signal and the
equivalent lowpass impulse response of the system.
24
st Is a narrowband bandpass signal, with an equivalent lowpass

signal sl t
ht Is the impulse response of a narrowband bandpass system, with an
equivalent lowpass impulse response hl t
st
sl t
25
ht
hl t
r t
rl t ?
The output of the bandpass system is also a bandpass

signal, and it can be expressed as:
r t Re rl t e
j 2f c t
(4-1-30)
And is related to the input signal and the impulse

response by the convolution integral:
r t s ht d
26
(4-1-31)
r t in the frequency domain expressed by:
R f S f H f
Substituting from:
S f
1
j 2f c t
j 2f c t j 2ft
s
t
e
s
t
e
e
dt
l
l
2
1
Sl f f c Sl f f c
2
(4-1-32)
for S f
and from: H f Hl f f c Hl f f c for H f
27
We obtain the result:
R f Sl f f c Sl f f c
2
H l f f c H l f f c
(4-1-33)
st narrowband bandpass signal

ht impulse response of a narrowband system
Sl f f c 0
and
H l f fc 0
Sl f f c H l* f f c 0
for f 0
Sl* f f c H l f f c 0
Therefore,
R f
1
Sl f f c Sl f f c
2
H l f f c H l f f c
simplifies to :
1 Sl f f c H l f f c
R f
2 Sl f f c H l f f c
1
Rl f f c Rl f f c
2
(4-1-34)
The output spectrum of the equivalent lowpass

system exited by the equivalent lowpass signal:
Rl f Sl f H l f
(4-1-35)
The time domain relation is given by the

convolution integral:
rl t sl hl t d
30
(4-1-36)
summary
NOTE 1:The combination of
rl t sl hl t d
with r t Re rl t e j 2f ct gives the relationship between the

bandpass output signal r t and the equivalent lowpass time
functions sl t and hl t
NOTE 2:This simple relationship allows as to ignore any linear

frequency translations encountered in the modulation of signal for
purposes of matching its spectral content to frequency allocation of a
particular channel.
Thus, for mathematical convenience, we shall deal

only with transmission of equivalent lowpass
signals through equivalent lowpass channels.
31
Part - 2
4-1-4 Representation of Bandpass

Stationary Stochastic Processes
In this section we extend the representation to sample

function of a bandpass stationary stochastic process.
33
definitions
nt Is a sample function definitions of wide-sense
stationary stochastic process with zero mean and
power spectral density nn f
The stochastic process nt Is said to be a narrow

bandpass process if the width nn f of the spectral
density is much smaller than f c the carrier frequency
34
under this conditions nt can be represented

by 3 equivalent forms:
nt at cos2f ct t
(4-1-37)
nt xt cos 2f ct yt sin 2f ct
(4-1-38)
nt Rezt e
(4-1-39)
j 2f c t
a t The envelope of the real valued signal.
t The phase of the real valued signal.

xt y t The quadrature components of nt .
z t The complex envelope of nt
If nt is zero mean then xt and y t must also have

zero mean values. In addition the stationary of nt
Implies that the autocorrelation and cross-correlation
function of xt and y t satisfy the following
properties:
36
xx yy
(4-1-40)
xy yx
(4-1-41)
The autocorrelation function nn of nt

nt xt cos 2f c t y t sin 2f c t
E nt nt Ext cos 2f c t y t sin 2f c t xt cos 2f c t y t sin 2f c t
xx cos 2f c t cos 2f c t
yy sin 2f c t sin 2f c t
xy sin 2f c t cos 2f c t
yx cos 2f c t sin 2f c t
37
(4-1-42)
Use of the trigonometric identities:
1
cos A cos B cos A B cos A B
2
1
sin A sin B cos A B cos A B
2
1
sin A cos B sin A B sin A B
2
38
(4-1-43)
In (4-1-42) yields the result:
E nt nt
1
xx yy cos 2f c
2
1
xx yy cos 2f c 2t
2
1
y yx xy sin 2f c
2
1
yx xy cos 2f c 2t
2
39
(4-1-44)
nt Is stationary.
the right-hand side of:
E nt nt
no
?
xx yy
xy yx
yes
1
xx yy cos 2f c
2
1
xx yy cos 2f c 2t
2
1
y yx xy sin 2f c
2
1
yx xy cos 2f c 2t
2
Must be independent of t .
nn xx cos 2f c yx sin 2f c
(4-1-45)
40
The autocorrelation function of the equivalent

lowpass process:
z t xt jyt
(4-1-46)
Is defined as:
zz E z t z t
2
41
(4-1-47)
Substituting zt xt jyt
we obtain:
into
zz Ez t z t
1
2
1
zz xx yy jxy j yx
2
If symmetry properties given in

xy yx
we obtain:
42
are used in
xx yy
(4-1-48)
and in
1
xx yy jxy jyx
zz
2
zz xx j yx
(4-1-49)
Finally, we incorporate the result given by zz xx j yx

into nn xx cos 2fc yx sin 2f c
and we have:
nn Re zz e
j 2f c
(4-1-50)
Thus, the autocorrelation function nn of the

bandpass stochastic process is uniquely determined
from the autocorrelation function zz of the
equivalent lowpass process z t and the carrier
frequency f c .
43
The power density spectrum of the stochastic process nt
nn f
Re e
zz
j 2f c
j 2f
1
zz f f c zz f f c
2
zz f
(4-1-51)
is the power density spectrum of the equivalent

lowpass process z t
Since the autocorrelation function of z t satisfies the

the property zz zz* , it follows that
zz f Is a real-valued function of frequency.
44
Properties of the Quadrature Components
The cross-correlation function of the quadrature

components of nt
xy yx
Furthermore, any cross-correlation function

satisfies the condition:
yx xy
45
(4-1-52)
xy xy
(4-1-53)
xy is an odd function of .
xy 0 0
xt and y t uncorrelated (for 0 only).
If xy 0 for all than zz Is real and the power
spectral density zz f satisfies the condition
zz f zz f
(4-1-54)
And vice versa. That is, zz f Is symmetric about f 0

46
in the special case in which the stationary stochastic

process nt is Gaussian the quadrature components
xt and y t are jointly Gaussian.
Moreover for 0 They are statistically independent,
hence, their joint probability density function is:
px, y
x2 y 2
1
2
2 2
(4-1-55)
The variance is defined as: 2 xx 0 yy 0 nn 0

47
Representation of White Noise

NOTE: White noise is a stochastic process that is defined to have a flat
(constant) power spectral density over the entire frequency range. This
type of noise cannot be expressed in terms of quadrature components, as
result of its wideband character.
The power spectral density of bandpass white noise

resulting from passing the white noise process through
a spectrally flat (ideal) bandpass filter
Figure 4-1-3
48
Bandpass white noise can be represented by :
nt at cos2f ct t
nt xt cos 2f ct yt sin 2f ct
nt Rezt e
j 2f c t
The equivalent lowpass noise z t has a power

spectral density:
N 0
zz f
0
49
f B
2
f B
2
(4-1-56)
The autocorrelation function is:
zz N 0
sin B
(4-1-57)
The limiting form of zz As B approaches infinity

Is
:
zz N 0
50
(4-1-58)
The power spectral density for white noise and

bandpass white noise is symmetric about f 0
so xy 0 for all Therefore:
zz xx yy
(4-1-59)
That is, the quadrature components x t and y t

are uncorrelated for all time shifts are the
autocorrelation functions of z t , xt and y t are all
equal.
51
Part - 3
4-2 signal space representation

In the next subsection we demonstrate that
signals are similar to vectors and we will
develop a vector representation for signal
waveform
53
4-2-1 Vector Space Concept

A vector with n-dimension v v ...... v
can be represent as a linear combination
of unit vectors or basis vectors
1
v viei
i 1
(4-2-1)
Where a unit vector has length of unity and

Is the projection of vector v on ei vi
54
The inner product of two vectors is defined as:

n
v1 v 2 v1ie2i
i 1
(4-2-2)
The vectors are orthogonal if v1 v2 0
(4-2-3)
The norm v of a vector (length) v is:

v v v
1/ 2
2
v
j
i 1
For all : 1 i
55
i j
jm
(4-2-4)
NOTE: A set of m vectors are defined as orthonormal if

the vectors are orthogonal and each one of them
are unit norm
NOTE: A set of m vectors are said to be linearly independent
if none of the vectors can be represented as a linear
combination of the remaining vectors
56
The triangle inequality of Two n-dimensional vectors

in the same direction:
v1 v 2 v1 v 2
(4-2-5)
If v1 av2 then we can say that the two

n-dimensional vectors are also satisfied the
Cauchy Schwartz inequality:
v1 v 2 v1
57
v2
(4-2-6)
The norm square (length) of the vectors:
v1 v 2 v1 v 2 2v1 v 2
2
(4-2-7)
And if they orthogonal ( v v 0 ) then:

1
v1 v 2 v1 v 2
2
58
2
(4-2-8)
Let us take vectors:
v1 v11 v12
.....v1n
v 2 v 21 v 22 .....v 2 n
v3 v31 v32 .....v 2 n
Normalizing v1
u 1
v1
v1
(4-2-11)
subtracting the projection of v 2 onto u 1
u2 v 2 v 2 u1u1
59
(4-2-12)
Normalizing the vector to unit length:

u 2
u2
u 2
(4-2-13)
Subtracting v 3 projection on u 1 and u 2
u3 v3 v3 u1u1 v3 u 2 u 2
(4-2-14)
Normalized it and we will get the next

orthonormal vector :
u
u3
u3
(4-2-15)
60
4-2-2 Signal Space Concept

developing a parallel treatment to two generally
complex value signals x t and x t on some
interval of a, b
1
61
The inner product of the complex signals is:

b
x1t , x 2t x1t x2 t dt
a
(4-2-16)
If the inner product of the complex signals is

zero then the signals are orthogonal.
The norm of the signals is:
1/ 2
2
xt xt dt
a
62
(4-2-17)
NOTE: As in the vector representation A set of m signals

are orthonormal if they are orthogonal and their
norms are all unity.
NOTE: A set of m signals is linearly independent, if no
signal can be represent as the linear combination of
the remaining signals.
63
The signals satisfy the triangle inequality:
x1t x 2t x1t x 2t
(4-2-18)
and the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality when x t ax t

2
1/ 2
2
x
1t x t dt
x
1t dt
a
1/ 2
2
x 2t dt
(4-2-19)
64
4-2-3 Orthogonal Expansions of

Signals
In this section we will develop a vector representation for
signal waveform and the equalities between a signal
waveform and its vector representation
65
st deterministic, real-valued signal with finite energy:
s st dt
2
(4-2-20)
fnt , n 1,2,...... N a set of orthonormal functions
0
fnt fmt dt 1
66
m n
mn
(4-2-21)
The approximate signal st by weighted linear

combination of:
k
st skfk t
k 1
sk the coefficients s ,
k
1 k K
The error approximation: et st st
67
(4-2-22)
(4-2-23)
we will like to select an s k to minimize the energy

of the approximate error e
2
e st st dt st skfk t dt
k 1
Two option to find the optimum of
sk
1.differeniaing the series for each coefficient and setting the

firs derivative to zero
2.Multiply with a orthonormal function f n t and base of the
mean-square-error criteria saying that the minimum will
obtain when the result will be zero e .
68
(4-2-24)

skfk t fn t dt 0
st
k 1
(4-2-25)
n 1,2,....., K
sn
st f t dt
n
k 1
min et st dt
69
(4-2-26)
2
2
s
t
dt
s
k
s
(4-2-27)
if min 0
v s
k 1
2
t
st dt
2
(4-2-28)
st skfk t
k 1
70
(4-2-29)
Appendix
Signal space
71
Signal Space
Inner Product
Norm
Orthogonality
Equal Energy Signals
Distance
Orthonormal Basis
Vector Representation
Signal Space Summary
ONLY CONSIDER SIGNALS, s(t)
s (t ) 0 if
t0
t T
t
T
Energy Es s 2 (t )dt
0
72
Inner Product - (x(t), y(t))

x(t ), y (t ) x(t ) y (t )dt
T
x y
x y x y cos
Similar to Vector Dot Product

73
Example
A
-A
2A
A/2
t
T
A T
T
3 2
x(t ), y(t ) ( A)( ) ( A)(2 A) A T
2 2
2
4
74
Norm - ||x(t)||
x(t ) x(t ), x(t ) x 2 (t )dt Energy Ex
T
x(t ) Ex
2
x x x
Similar to norm of vector
2 2
T
x(t ) ( A cos t ) dt A
Ex
T
2
0
T
-A
75
Orthogonality
x(t ), y(t ) 0
x(t ) y(t )dt 0

0
-A
Y(t)
Similar to orthogonal vectors
T
76
x y 0
ORTHONORMAL FUNCTIONS
X(t)
2/T
x(t ), y (t ) 0
and
x(t ) y (t ) 1
x(t ) y (t )dt 0
Y(t)
2/T
0
T
2
2
x
(
t
)
dt
(t )dt 1
y 1
x(t ), y (t ) 0
x (t ) y (t ) 1
77
x 1
Correlation Coefficient
x(t ), y (t )
x(t ) y (t )
x(t ) y (t )dt
1 -1
=1 when x(t)=ky(t)
Ex Ey
In vector presentation
x y
cos
xy
78
(k>0)
Example
Y(t)
X(t)
10A
t
T
-A
t
T/2 7T/8
5 2
x(t ), y(t ) x(t ) y(t )dt A T
4
0
Now,
T
5 A2T
x(t ), y (t )
4
0.14
Ex Ey (10 A T )( 7 A T )
8
shows the real correlation
79
Distance, d
T
d x ( t ) y( t ) x ( t ) y( t ) dt
2
d 2 Ex Ey 2 ExEy
For equal energy signals
d 2E (1 )
2
=-1 (antipodal)
d2 E
=0 (orthogonal)
d 2E
3dB better then orthogonal signals

80
Equal Energy Signals

d 2 E (1 )
To maximize d
(antipodal signals)
1
x(t ) y(t )
y
d2 E
PSK (phase Shift Keying)
x(t ) A cos 2f 0 t
(0 t T )
d2 E
y (t ) A cos 2f 0 t
81
EQUAL ENERGY SIGNALS

ORTHOGONAL SIGNALS (=0)
y
d 2E
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
d 2E
x(t ) A cos 2f1t
(0 t T )
y (t ) A cos 2f 0 t
1
3
(Orthogonal if ( f1 f 0 ) T , 1 , , ...)
2
2
82
Signal Space summary

Inner Product
x(t ), y (t ) x(t ) y (t )dt

T
Norm ||x(t)||
x(t ) x(t ), y (t ) x 2 (t )dt Energy

T
Orthogonality
x(t ), y(t ) 0
if
x(t ) y (t ) 1
83
(Orthogonal)
Corrolation Coefficient,
x(t ) y (t )dt
x(t ), y (t )
x(t ) y (t )
ExEy
Distance, d
T
d x ( t ) y( t ) x ( t ) y( t ) dt
2
d 2 Ex Ey 2 ExEy
84
Orthonormal Basis
Suppose we have a function x(t) and we are
given a set of orthonormal functions, (t )
i
i 1, 2 ,...,N
Suppose we try to approximate x(t) by writing,

Xa(t) where
N
xa (t ) aii (t ) x(t )
i 1
Question:
What are the best ai that we can select

such that Xa(t) is close to X(t) ?
85
We want to minimize the distance between x(t)

and xa(t) .
N
Distance d x(t ) xa (t ) x(t ) ai i (t )

i 1
The best ai are
ai x(t ), i (t ) x(t ) i (t ) dt
T
opt
0
N
d min Ex ai a N 1 ...
2
i 1
86
opt
OTHONORMAL BASIS
In general i (t )i 1, 2 ,... is an othonormal basis in L 2
if any function in L 2 can be written as
x (t ) ai i (t )
0t T
i 1
where
ai x (t ), i (t ) x (t ) i (t ) dt
T
Sometimes called COMPLETE ORTHONORMAL SET (COS)
87
A Set of Orthogonal functions - i (t )i 1, 2 ,...N
(t ), (t ) (t ) (t )dt 0
T
if i j
T
i (t ) 2 (t )dt 1
2
for all i
May be simply written as
0 if i j
i (t ), j (t ) ij {
1 if i j
ij Is the Kronecker Delta

88
EXAMPLE
Fourier Series
1 ( t ) 1
2 (t )
T
2
2
cos
t
T
T
2
2
3 ( t )
sin
t
T
T
4 (t )
2
2
cos 2
t
T
T
a2
x(t)
0
T
a3 x(t)
0
2
2
5 ( t )
sin 2
t
T
T
89
2
2
cos
tdt
T
T
2
2
sin
tdt
T
T
Signal Space Representation
x ( t ) a i ( t )
i 1
a i x ( t ), i ( t )
x(t) a
a
x(t)
* The function x(t) and the

vector, a (a 1 , a 2 ,...)
have a one - to - one correspondence .
90
Vector Representation
a3
a
a2
a1
The vector a (a1, a 2, a 3)
Represents one and only one function
(using a given basis) i ( t ), i 1,2,...

3
x( t ) ai i ( t )
i 1
91
Vector as a Signal
3 (t )
X(t)
2 (t )
1 (t )
Instead of using a , a1, a 2 and a 3
we use : 1 ( t ), 2 ( t ) and 3 ( t )
i - Is the basis thus x(t) can be represented as :
x(t) a 11 ( t ) a 2 2 ( t ) a 33 ( t ) ...
92
Norm (or Energy) In Signal
x ( t ) a i i ( t )
Space

i 1
x(t)
x(t)
Ex a i i ( t ), a j j ( t )
j1
i 1
ai
i 1
But if we look at the vector a

a (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ,...)
a
a a a ... a i
2
1
2
2
2
3
i 1
Therefore,
a x(t)
93
Ex
X(t) -
.
.
3 (t )
a3 5
X(t)
Ex
a2 3
2 (t )
a1 2
1 (t )
x(t ) Ex 2 2 32 52
Ex 38
Ex 38Joules
94
Distance, d, In Signal Space

The Distance d, between x(t) and y(t) is
d x(t ) y (t )
2
i 1
i 1
aii (t ) bi i (t )
d 2 ai bi i (t )
i 1
d ai bi
2
i 1
But if we look at the vectors a and b

the distance d a b between th e vectors is :
d a b a b ai bi
2
i 1
95
The Distance between the functions equals the distance between the
vectors
Y(t)=(2,6,0)
x(t)=(8,5,4)
a3 4
b3 0
a1 5
b1 6
X(t)
b2 2 a 2 8
Y(t)
d x (t ) y (t ) (5 6) 2 (8 2) 2 (4 0) 2
d 53
96
Signal Space Summary
x ( t ) a i i ( t )
i 1
a i x ( t ), ( t )
0tT
x(t) a
a (a 1 , a 2 ,...)
Energy x(t) a
2
Distance x(t) - y(t) a b

97
Gram-Schmidt Procedure
NOTE: This procedure construct a set of orthonormal
vectors from a set of n-dimensional vectors by
normalize zing its length
98
Part - 4
4-3 Representation of
digitally modulated signals
In the next subsections we will describe.
memoryless modulation methods.
Linear modulation with memory.
Nonlinear modulation methods with memory.
100
ASK
FSK
PSK
DSB
101
4-3-1 Memoryless Modulation

Methods
Pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) signals
Sm (t ) Re Am g (t )e
j 2 f t
c
Am g (t )Cos 2 f ct
m 1,2,....., M , 0 t T
4.3-1
(4-3-1)
The Am , 1 m M denote the set of M possible amplitudes

corresponding to M 2k possible k-bit blocks of symbols.
2d - distance between adjacent signals amplitudes.
Am (2m 1 M )d , m=1,2,...,M
102
4.3-2
(4-3-2)
R/k - The symbol rate for the PAM signals
Tb 1/ R
bit interval
T k / R kTb
symbol interval
The M-PAM signals have energies:
m
g
1 2T 2
1 2
S (t )dt Am g (t )dt Am g
2 0
2
2
m
- the energy in the pulse g(t).
Digital PAM is also called amplitude-shift keying (ASK).

103
4.3-3
(4-3-3)
The one-dimensional (N=1) signal:
Sm (t ) Sm f (t )
4.3-4
(4-3-4)
The signal waveform
f (t )
g (t )Cos 2 f ct
4.3-5
(4-3-5)
f(t) - the unit-energy
Sm Am
104
1
g , m=1,2,....,M
2
4.3-6 (4-3-6)
The Euclidian distance between any pair of signal points:
(e)
mn
Sm Sn
g Am An d 2 g m n
2
4.3(4-3-7)
The minimum Euclidean dist:
105
(e)
min
d 2 g
4.3-8
(4-3-8)
Signal space diagram for digital PAM signals
000
106
001
(a) M=2
00
01
11
10
011
010
110
111
(b) M=4
101
100
(c) M=8
Phase-modulated signals
The M signals waveforms are represented as:
Sm (t ) Re g (t )e j 2 ( m1) / M e j 2 f t , m=1,2,...,M, 0 t T
c
Sm (t ) g (t )Cos 2 f ct
(m 1)
4.3-11
M
2
2
g (t )Cos (m 1)Cos 2 f ct g (t ) Sin (m 1) Sin 2 f ct
M
M
g(t) - the signal pulse shape

m - the M possible phases of the carrier.
Phase-modulated signals is usually called phase-shift keying (PSK).
107
The energy of the signal waveforms:
1T 2
1
S (t )dt g (t )dt g
20
2
2
m
4.3-12
(4-3-12)
Represented as a linear combination of two orthonormal

signals:
Sm (t ) Sm1 f1 (t ) Sm 2 f 2 (t )
f1 (t )
Cos 2 f ct
f 2 (t )
4.3-13
Sin 2 f ct
(4-3-13)
4.3-14,1
(4-3-14,15)
The two-dimensional vectors are:

g
2
Sm
Cos
(m 1)
M
2
108
2
Sin
(m 1) , m=1,2,...,M 4.3-16
2
M
(4-3-16)
The Euclidean distance between signal point:
(e)
mn
Sm Sn
g 1 Cos (m n)
M
1/2
4.3-1
(4-3-17)
The minimum Euclidean distance: (|m-n|=1)
(e)
min
g 1 Cos
M
4.3-18 (4-3-18)
The preferred mapping or assignment of k information bits to the M 2k possible

phases is Gray encoding, so that the most likely errors caused by noise will result in
a single bit error in the k-bit symbol.
109
Signal space diagrams for PSK

01
0
11
M=2
(BPSK)
10
010
011
M=4
(QPSK)
001
000
110
111
100
101
110
00
M=8
(Octal PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

quadrature PAM or QAM
The waveforms:
Sm (t ) Re Amc jAms g (t )e j 2 f t , m=1,2,...,M, 0 t T
c
Sm (t ) Amc g (t )Cos 2 f ct Ams g (t )Sin2 f ct
(4-3-19)
4.3-19
Amc Ams the information-bearing signal amplitudes

g (t ) the signal pulse.
Alternative expression waveforms may be:

Sm (t ) Re Vme j m g (t )e j 2 f t Vm g (t )Cos (2 f ct m )
c
2
2
Vm Amc
Ams
111
m tan 1 Ams / Amc
(4-3-20)
4.3-20
Representation as a linear combination of two

orthonormal signal waveforms:
Sm (t ) Sm1 f1 (t ) Sm 2 f 2 (t )
f1 (t )
g (t )Cos 2 f ct ; f 2 (t )
Sm Sm1
112
4.3-21
g (t )Cos 2 f ct
1
1
Sm 2 Amc g Ams g
2
2
(4-3-21)
4.3-22
(4-3-22)
4.3-23
(4-3-23)
The Euclidean distance between any pair of signal

vectors:
d
(e)
mn
1
2
2
Sm Sn
g Amc Anc Ams Ans
2
4.3-2
(4-3-24)
In the special case signal amplitudes take the set of

discrete values {(2m-1-M)d,m=1,2,..,M}
the Euclidean distance reach the minimum
(e)
min
d 2 g
4.3-25
which the same results as for PAM

113
(4-3-25)
Several signal space diagrams for rectangular QAM.

M=64
M=32
M=16
M=8
M=4
114
FSK - orthogonal multidimensional signals

M equal-energy orthogonal signal waveforms:
Sm (t ) Re Slm (t )e j 2 f t , m=1,2,...,M, 0 t T
c
2
Sm (t )
Cos 2 f ct 2 mft
T
4.3-26 (4-3-26)
The equivalent low-pass signal waveform:

(4-3-27)
2 j 2 mf t
Slm (t )
e
, m=1,2,...,M, 0 t T (4.3-27)
T
c
115
The cross-correlation coefficients:

Sin T m k f j T ( mk ) f
2 / T T j 2 ( mk ) ft

e
dt
e
km
T m k f
(4.3-28)
(4-3-28)
The real part of km :

km Re( km )
Sin T m k f
Cos T m k f
T m k f
Sin 2 T m k f
2 T m k f
4.3-29
Re( km ) 0 when f 1/ 2T and m k

116
(4-3-29)
For the case in which f 1/ 2T the M FSK signals

are equivalent to the N-dimensional vectors:
s1 0 0 .... 0 0
s1 0 0 .... 0 0
s1 0 0 0 .... 0
4.3-30 (4-3-30)
The distance between pairs of signals:
d
117
(e)
km
(4-3-31)
How to
generate
signals
118
s m ( t ) A mc
2
2
cos 2f c t A ms
sin 2f c t
T
T
2 Eb cos 2f 0 t
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2 Eb sin 2f 0 t
119
s m ( t ) I( t ) cos 2f c t Q( t ) sin 2f c t
2 Eb cos 2f 0 t
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
s m (t )
6T
2 Eb sin 2f 0 t
120
s m ( t ) I( t ) cos 2f c t Q( t ) sin 2f c t
2 Eb cos 2f 0 t
I(t)
0
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
s m (t )
Q(t)
0
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2 Eb sin 2f 0 t
121
IQ Modulator
2 Eb cos 2f 0 t
I(t)
s m (t )
Q(t)
2 Eb sin 2f 0 t
122
Pulse shaping filter
IQ Modulator
2 Eb cos 2f 0 t
I(t)
s m (t )
Q(t)
2 Eb sin 2f 0 t
123
Part - 5
4-3-3 Nonlinear Modulation
Methods with Memory
In this section we consider a class of digital modulation

methods in witch the phase of the signal is constructed to
be continuous
125
PAM signal
d t I n g (t nT )
n
(4-3-50)
In sequence of amplitudes obtained by mapping k-bit blocks

of binary digits.
g(t) rectangular pulse of amplitude 1/2T and duration T

seconds.
d(t) frequency modulate the carrier.
126
Equivalent lowpass waveform

t
2
vt
exp j 4Tf d d ( )d 0

f d - peak frequency deviation.

- initial phase of the carrier.
0
127
(4-3-51)
Carrier modulated signal
S t
2
cos2f c t (t ; I ) 0
T
(t; I ) time varying phase of the carrier.
128
(4-3-52)
time varying phase of the carrier
t; I 4Tf d d ( )d
t
4Tf d I n g ( nT )d
(4-3-53)
The integral of d(t) is continuous. Hence we have

continuous phase signal.
The phase of the carrier in the interval nT t (n 1)T
is determined by integrating t; I
129
Integrating t; I
t; I 2f d T
n 1
2f d (t nT ) I n
n 2hI n q (t nT )
(4-3-54)
n - accumulation (memory) of all symbols up totime (n-1)T.

h - modulation index.
130
h, n ,and q(t) are defined as:
h 2 fdT
(4-3-55)
n 1
n h I k
(4-3-56)
t
q (t )
2T
1
131
t 0
0 t T
,
,
t T
(4-3-57)
Continuous-Phase Modulation (CPM)

When expressed in the form of t; I CPFSK
becomes a special case of a general class of CPM
signals in which the carrier phase is:
t; I 2
I h q(t kT ), nT t (n 1)T
k k
I k - sequence of M-ary information symbols.

hk sequence of modulation indices.
q(t )- some normalized waveform shape.
132
(4-3-58)
Waveform q(t) as integral of g(t) pulse.

t
q(t ) g ( )d
0
g t
q t
1
2
1
2
g t
1
1
2t
1 cos
q t
1
2
FIGURE 4-3-16
133
Pulse shapes for full response CPM (a,b)
(4-3-59)
q t
g t
1
2
1
4
1
t
g t
1 cos
q t
1
2
1
2
FIGURE 4-3-16 Pulse shapes for partial response CPM (c,d).
g t 0 for t T full response CPM. a, b

g t 0 for t T partial response CPM. c, d
GMSK pulses
134
Phase trajectory for binary CPFSK
CPFSK with binary symbols I n 1 .

Set of phase trajectories beginning at time t=0.
5h
4h
3h
2h
h
1
1
2h
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3h
1
1
4h
5h
FIGURE 4-3-17 Phase trajectory for binary CPFSK.

135
Phase Tree diagram for CPFSK.

6h
1
3
5h
3
1
1
3
4h
1
3
3h
1
3
2h
1
1
1
3
2h
1
3
1
1
3
1
3
1
1
3
3
1
1
3
4h
1
3
65hh
1
1
3
1
3
3h
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
3
6h
FIGURE 4-3-18
136
Phase trajectory for quaternary CPFSK.
Phase trajectory generated by the sequence:

(1,-1 , -1,-1 , 1,1 , -1,1)
i, I
1
1
137
1
1
FIGURE 4-3-19
Phase trajectories for binary CPFSK (dashed) and binary partial response CPM
based on raised cosine pulse of length 3T (solid).
Phase trellis or phase cylinder with

binary modulation
FIGURE 4-3-20
138
Phase cylinder for binary CPM with h=1/2 and a raised cosine
pulse of length 3T.[From sundberg (1986) ,(C) 1986 IEEE.]

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Chapter 4

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

4-2 Parts 3 signal space representation

4-3 Parts 4,5,6 Representation of digitally modulated signals

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

4-1 Representation of Bandpass

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

st Is a real value signal that shown in figure

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

a signal that contains only the positive frequencies in st

S f Is the Fourier transform of st

u f Is the unit step function

s t the analytic signal or pre-envelope of st

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The frequency response of a Hilbert transformer

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

equivalent lowpass representation

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The signal sl t is a complex-value and may be expressed as:

xt and y t are called the quadrature components

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

II- Another representation is:

sl t is usually called the complex envelope of the

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Finally a third possible representation is:

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

a t is called the envelop of st

t is called the phase of st

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Are equivalent representation of bandpass signals

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The Fourier transform of st is:

Using of the identity

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The basic relationship between the spectrum of

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The energy in the signal st is defined as:

Using the identity

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

a t varies slowly relative

the energy in bandpass signal expressed in terms of

E - The energy in bandpass signal

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

4-1-2 Representation of Linear

In this section we will described a filter or

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

A linear filter or system may be described either

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

is the inverse Fourier transform and its a complex value of

4-1-3 Response of a Bandpass

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

st Is a narrowband bandpass signal, with an equivalent lowpass

equivalent lowpass impulse response hl t

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

The output of the bandpass system is also a bandpass

And is related to the input signal and the impulse

Digital Communication Dr. Mahlab Uri

r t in the frequency domain expressed by:

and from: H f Hl f f c Hl f f c for H f