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Buildingmaterial
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Buildingmaterialisanymaterialwhichisusedforconstructionpurposes.Manynaturallyoccurring
substances,suchasclay,rocks,sand,andwood,eventwigsandleaves,havebeenusedtoconstruct
buildings.Apartfromnaturallyoccurringmaterials,manymanmadeproductsareinuse,somemoreand
somelesssynthetic.Themanufactureofbuildingmaterialsisanestablishedindustryinmanycountries
andtheuseofthesematerialsistypicallysegmentedintospecificspecialtytrades,suchascarpentry,
insulation,plumbing,androofingwork.Theyprovidethemakeupofhabitatsandstructuresincluding
homes.[1]

Contents

Concreteandmetalrebarusedto
buildafloor

1Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials
1.1Economiccosts
1.2Ecologicalcosts
1.3Energycosts
1.4Socialcosts
2Naturallyoccurringsubstances
2.1Brush
2.2Iceandsnow
2.3Mudandclay
2.3.1Wetlaidclaywalls
2.3.2Structuralclayblocksandbricks
2.4Sand
2.5Stoneorrock
2.6Thatch
2.7Woodandtimber
3Manmadesubstances
3.1Firedbricksandclayblocks
3.2Cementcomposites
3.3Concrete
3.4Fabric
3.5Foam
3.6Glass
3.7Gypcrete
3.8Metal
3.9Plastics
3.10Papersandmembranes
3.11Ceramics
4Buildingproducts
5Testingandcertification
6Seealso
7References
8Externallinks

Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials
Inhistorytherearetrendsinbuildingmaterialsfrombeing:naturaltobecomingmoremanmadeandcompositebiodegradabletoimperishable
indigenous(local)tobeingtransportedgloballyrepairabletodisposableandchosenforincreasedlevelsoffiresafety.Thesetrendstendto
increasetheinitialandlongtermeconomic,ecological,energy,andsocialcostsofbuildingmaterials.

Economiccosts
Theinitialeconomiccostofbuildingmaterialsisthepurchaseprice.Thisisoftenwhatgovernsdecisionmakingaboutwhatmaterialstouse.
Sometimespeopletakeintoconsiderationtheenergysavingsordurabilityofthematerialsandseethevalueofpayingahigherinitialcostin
returnforalowerlifetimecost.Forexampleanasphaltshingleroofcostslessthanametalrooftoinstall,butthemetalroofwilllastlongersothe
lifetimecostislessperyear.Riskswhenconsideringlifetimecostofamaterialisifthebuildingisdamagedsuchasbyfireorwind,orifthe
materialisnotasdurableasadvertised.Thecostofmaterialsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationtobeartherisktobuycombustivematerialsto
enlargethelifetime.Itissaidthat,'ifitmustbedone,itmustbedonewell'.

Ecologicalcosts
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Pollutioncostscanbemacroandmicro.Themacro,environmentalpollutionofextractionindustriesbuildingmaterialsrelyonsuchasmining,
petroleum,andloggingproduceenvironmentaldamageattheirsourceandintransportationoftherawmaterials,manufacturing,transportationof
theproducts,retailing,andinstallation.Anexampleofthemicroaspectofpollutionistheoffgassingofthebuildingmaterialsinthebuildingor
indoorairpollution.RedListbuildingmaterialsarematerialsfoundtobeharmful.Alsothecarbonfootprint,thetotalsetofgreenhousegas
emissionsproducedinthelifeofthematerial.Alifecycleanalysisalsoincludesthereuse,recycling,ordisposalofconstructionwaste.Two
conceptsinbuildingwhichaccountfortheecologicaleconomicsofbuildingmaterialsaregreenbuildingandsustainabledevelopment.

Energycosts
Initialenergycostsincludetheamountofenergyconsumedtoproduce,deliverandinstallthematerial.Thelongtermenergycostisthe
economic,ecological,andsocialcostsofcontinuingtoproduceanddeliverenergytothebuildingforitsuse,maintenance,andeventualremoval.
Theinitialembodiedenergyofastructureistheenergyconsumedtoextract,manufacture,deliver,install,thematerials.Thelifetimeembodied
energycontinuestogrowwiththeuse,maintenance,andreuse/recycling/disposalofthebuildingmaterialsthemselvesandhowthematerialsand
designhelpminimizethelifetimeenergyconsumptionofthestructure.

Socialcosts
Socialcostsareinjuryandhealthofthepeopleproducingandtransportingthematerialsandpotentialhealthproblemsofthebuildingoccupantsif
thereareproblemswiththebuildingbiology.Globalizationhashadsignificantimpactsonpeoplebothintermsofjobs,skills,andself
sufficiencyarelostwhenmanufacturingfacilitiesareclosedandtheculturalaspectsofwherenewfacilitiesareopened.Aspectsoffairtradeand
laborrightsaresocialcostsofglobalbuildingmaterialmanufacturing.

Naturallyoccurringsubstances
Brush
BrushstructuresarebuiltentirelyfromplantpartsandwereusedinprimitiveculturessuchasNative
Americans,[2]pygmypeoplesinAfrica[3]Thesearebuiltmostlywithbranches,twigsandleaves,and
bark,similartoabeaver'slodge.Thesewerevariouslynamedwikiups,leantos,andsoforth.
Anextensiononthebrushbuildingideaisthewattleanddaubprocessinwhichclaysoilsordung,usually
cow,areusedtofillinandcoverawovenbrushstructure.Thisgivesthestructuremorethermalmassand
strength.Wattleanddaubisoneoftheoldestbuildingtechniques.[4]Manyoldertimberframebuildings
incorporatewattleanddaubasnonloadbearingwallsbetweenthetimberframes.

Iceandsnow

ViewofagroupofMohavesina
brushhut

Snowandoccasionallyice,[5]wereusedbytheInuitpeoplesforigloosandsnowisusedtobuiltasheltercalledaquinzhee.Icehasalsobeen
usedforicehotelsasatouristattractioninnorthernclimates.[6]

Mudandclay
Claybasedbuildingsusuallycomeintwodistincttypes.Onebeingwhenthewallsaremadedirectlywith
themudmixture,andtheotherbeingwallsbuiltbystackingairdriedbuildingblockscalledmudbricks.
Otherusesofclayinbuildingiscombinedwithstrawstocreatelightclay,wattleanddaub,andmud
plaster.
Wetlaidclaywalls
Wetlaid,ordamp,wallsaremadebyusingthemudorclaymixturedirectlywithoutformingblocksand
SodbuildingsinIceland
dryingthemfirst.Theamountofandtypeofeachmaterialinthemixtureusedleadstodifferentstylesof
buildings.Thedecidingfactorisusuallyconnectedwiththequalityofthesoilbeingused.Largeramounts
ofclayareusuallyemployedinbuildingwithcob,whilelowclaysoilisusuallyassociatedwithsodhouseorsodroofconstruction.Theother
mainingredientsincludemoreorlesssand/gravelandstraw/grasses.Rammedearthisbothanoldandnewertakeoncreatingwalls,oncemade
bycompactingclaysoilsbetweenplanksbyhandnowadaysformsandmechanicalpneumaticcompressorsareused.[7]
Soil,andespeciallyclay,providesgoodthermalmassitisverygoodatkeepingtemperaturesataconstantlevel.Homesbuiltwithearthtendto
benaturallycoolinthesummerheatandwarmincoldweather.Clayholdsheatorcold,releasingitoveraperiodoftimelikestone.Earthen
wallschangetemperatureslowly,soartificiallyraisingorloweringthetemperaturecanusemoreresourcesthaninsayawoodbuilthouse,butthe
heat/coolnessstayslonger.[7]

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Peoplebuildingwithmostlydirtandclay,suchascob,sod,andadobe,createdhomesthathavebeenbuiltforcenturiesinwesternandnorthern
Europe,Asia,aswellastherestoftheworld,andcontinuetobebuilt,thoughonasmallerscale.Someofthesebuildingshaveremained
habitableforhundredsofyears.[8][9]
Structuralclayblocksandbricks
Mudbricks,alsoknownbytheirSpanishnameadobeareancientbuildingmaterialswithevidencedatingbackthousandsofyearsBC.
Compressedearthblocksareamoremoderntypeofbrickusedforbuildingmorefrequentlyinindustrializedsocietysincethebuildingblocks
canbemanufacturedoffsiteinacentralizedlocationatabrickworksandtransportedtomultiplebuildinglocations.Theseblockscanalsobe
monetizedmoreeasilyandsold.
Structuralmudbricksarealmostalwaysmadeusingclay,oftenclaysoilandabinderaretheonlyingredientsused,butotheringredientscan
includesand,lime,concrete,stoneandotherbinders.Theformedorcompressedblockisthenairdriedandcanbelaiddryorwithamortaror
clayslip.

Sand
Sandisusedwithcement,andsometimeslime,tomakemortarformasonryworkandplaster.Sandisalsousedasapartoftheconcretemix.An
importantlowcostbuildingmaterialincountrieswithhighsandcontentsoilsistheSandcreteblock,whichisweakerbutcheaperthanfiredclay
bricks.[10]

Stoneorrock
Rockstructureshaveexistedforaslongashistorycanrecall.Itisthelongestlastingbuildingmaterialavailable,andisusuallyreadilyavailable.
Therearemanytypesofrockthroughouttheworld,allwithdifferingattributesthatmakethembetterorworseforparticularuses.Rockisavery
densematerialsoitgivesalotofprotectiontooitsmaindrawbackasamaterialisitsweightandawkwardness.Itsenergydensityisalso
consideredabigdrawback,asstoneishardtokeepwarmwithoutusinglargeamountsofheatingresources.
Drystonewallshavebeenbuiltforaslongashumanshaveputonestoneontopofanother.Eventually,differentformsofmortarwereusedto
holdthestonestogether,cementbeingthemostcommonplacenow.
ThegranitestrewnuplandsofDartmoorNationalPark,UnitedKingdom,forexample,providedampleresourcesforearlysettlers.Circularhuts
wereconstructedfromloosegraniterocksthroughouttheNeolithicandearlyBronzeAge,andtheremainsofanestimated5,000canstillbeseen
today.GranitecontinuedtobeusedthroughouttheMedievalperiod(seeDartmoorlonghouse)andintomoderntimes.Slateisanotherstonetype,
commonlyusedasroofingmaterialintheUnitedKingdomandotherpartsoftheworldwhereitisfound.
StonebuildingscanbeseeninmostmajorcitiessomecivilizationsbuiltentirelywithstonesuchastheEgyptianandAztecpyramidsandthe
structuresoftheIncacivilization.

Thatch
Thatchisoneoftheoldestofbuildingmaterialsknowngrassisagoodinsulatorandeasilyharvested.
ManyAfricantribeshavelivedinhomesmadecompletelyofgrassesandsandyearround.InEurope,
thatchroofsonhomeswereonceprevalentbutthematerialfelloutoffavorasindustrializationand
improvedtransportincreasedtheavailabilityofothermaterials.Today,though,thepracticeisundergoing
arevival.IntheNetherlands,forinstance,manynewbuildingshavethatchedroofswithspecialridgetiles
ontop.

Woodandtimber
Woodhasbeenusedasabuildingmaterialforthousandsofyearsinitsnaturalstate.Today,engineered
woodisbecomingverycommoninindustrializedcountries.
Woodisaproductoftrees,andsometimesotherfibrousplants,usedforconstructionpurposeswhencut
orpressedintolumberandtimber,suchasboards,planksandsimilarmaterials.Itisagenericbuilding
materialandisusedinbuildingjustaboutanytypeofstructureinmostclimates.Woodcanbevery
flexibleunderloads,keepingstrengthwhilebending,andisincrediblystrongwhencompressedvertically.
Therearemanydifferingqualitiestothedifferenttypesofwood,evenamongsametreespecies.This
meansspecificspeciesarebettersuitedforvarioususesthanothers.Andgrowingconditionsareimportant
fordecidingquality.

Todatribehut

Awoodframedhouseunder
constructioninTexas,UnitedStates

"Timber"isthetermusedforconstructionpurposesexcepttheterm"lumber"isusedintheUnitedStates.
Rawwood(alog,trunk,bole)becomestimberwhenthewoodhasbeen"converted"(sawn,hewn,split)in
theformsofminimallyprocessedlogsstackedontopofeachother,timberframeconstruction,andlightframeconstruction.Themainproblems
withtimberstructuresarefireriskandmoisturerelatedproblems.
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Inmoderntimessoftwoodisusedasalowervaluebulkmaterial,whereashardwoodisusuallyusedforfinishingsandfurniture.Historically
timberframestructureswerebuiltwithoakinwesternEurope,recentlydouglasfirhasbecomethemostpopularwoodformosttypesof
structuralbuilding.
Manyfamiliesorcommunities,inruralareas,haveapersonalwoodlotfromwhichthefamilyorcommunitywillgrowandharvesttreestobuild
withorsell.Theselotsaretendedtolikeagarden.Thiswasmuchmoreprevalentinpreindustrialtimes,whenlawsexistedastotheamountof
woodonecouldcutatanyonetimetoensuretherewouldbeasupplyoftimberforthefuture,butisstillaviableformofagriculture.

Manmadesubstances
Firedbricksandclayblocks

TheGliwiceRadioTower(thesecond
tallestwoodenstructureintheworld)
inPoland(2012).

Bricksaremadeinasimilarwaytomudbricksexceptwithoutthe
fibrousbindersuchasstrawandarefired("burned"inabrick
clamporkiln)aftertheyhaveairdriedtopermanentlyharden
them.Kilnfiredclaybricksareaceramicmaterial.Firedbricks
canbesolidorhavehollowcavitiestoaidindryingandmake
themlighterandeasiertotransport.Theindividualbricksare
placeduponeachotherincoursesusingmortar.Successivecourses
beingusedtobuildupwalls,arches,andotherarchitectural
elements.Firedbrickwallsareusuallysubstantiallythinnerthan
cob/adobewhilekeepingthesameverticalstrength.Theyrequire
moreenergytocreatebutareeasiertotransportandstore,andare
lighterthanstoneblocks.Romansextensivelyusedfiredbrickofa
shapeandtypenowcalledRomanbricks.[11]Buildingwithbrick
gainedmuchpopularityinthemid18thcenturyand19thcenturies.
Thiswasduetolowercostswithincreasesinbrickmanufacturing
andfiresafetyintheevercrowdingcities.
Thecinderblocksupplementedorreplacedfiredbricksinthelate
20thcenturyoftenbeingusedfortheinnerpartsofmasonrywalls
andbythemselves.

Structuralclaytiles(clayblocks)areclayorterracottaandtypicallyareperforatedwithholes.

Cementcomposites

Apileoffiredbricks.

Clayblocks(sometimescalledclay
blockbrick)beinglaidwithan
adhesiveratherthanmortar

Cementbondedcompositesaremadeofhydratedcementpastethatbindswood,particles,orfibersto
makeprecastbuildingcomponents.Variousfiberousmaterials,includingpaper,fiberglass,andcarbonfiberhavebeenusedasbinders.
Woodandnaturalfibersarecomposedofvarioussolubleorganiccompoundslikecarbohydrates,glycosidesandphenolics.Thesecompoundsare
knowntoretardcementsetting.Therefore,beforeusingawoodinmakingcementbondedcomposites,itscompatibilitywithcementisassessed.
Woodcementcompatibilityistheratioofaparameterrelatedtothepropertyofawoodcementcompositetothatofaneatcementpaste.The
compatibilityisoftenexpressedasapercentagevalue.Todeterminewoodcementcompatibility,methodsbasedondifferentpropertiesareused,
suchas,hydrationcharacteristics,strength,interfacialbondandmorphology.Variousmethodsareusedbyresearcherssuchasthemeasurement
ofhydrationcharacteristicsofacementaggregatemix[12][13][14]thecomparisonofthemechanicalpropertiesofcementaggregatemixes[15][16]
andthevisualassessmentofmicrostructuralpropertiesofthewoodcementmixes.[17]Ithasbeenfoundthatthehydrationtestbymeasuringthe
changeinhydrationtemperaturewithtimeisthemostconvenientmethod.Recently,Karadeetal.[18]havereviewedthesemethodsof
compatibilityassessmentandsuggestedamethodbasedonthematurityconcepti.e.takinginconsiderationbothtimeandtemperatureof
cementhydrationreaction.
BrickswerelaidinlimemortarfromthetimeoftheRomansuntilsupplantedbyPortlandcementmortarintheearly20thcentury.Cementblocks
alsosometimesarefilledwithgroutorcoveredwithapargecoat.

Concrete
Concreteisacompositebuildingmaterialmadefromthecombinationofaggregateandabindersuchascement.Themostcommonformof
concreteisPortlandcementconcrete,whichconsistsofmineralaggregate(generallygravelandsand),portlandcementandwater.
Aftermixing,thecementhydratesandeventuallyhardensintoastonelikematerial.Whenusedinthegenericsense,thisisthematerialreferred
tobytheterm"concrete".

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Foraconcreteconstructionofanysize,asconcretehasaratherlowtensilestrength,itisgenerallystrengthenedusingsteelrodsorbars(known
asrebars).Thisstrengthenedconcreteisthenreferredtoasreinforcedconcrete.Inordertominimiseanyairbubbles,thatwouldweakenthe
structure,avibratorisusedtoeliminateanyairthathasbeenentrainedwhentheliquidconcretemixispouredaroundtheironwork.Concretehas
beenthepredominantbuildingmaterialinthemodernageduetoitslongevity,formability,andeaseoftransport.Recentadvancements,suchas
insulatingconcreteforms,combinetheconcreteformingandotherconstructionsteps(installationofinsulation).Allmaterialsmustbetakenin
requiredproportionsasdescribedinstandards.

Fabric
Thetentisthehomeofchoiceamongnomadicgroupsallovertheworld.Twowellknowntypesinclude
theconicalteepeeandthecircularyurt.Thetenthasbeenrevivedasamajorconstructiontechniquewith
thedevelopmentoftensilearchitectureandsyntheticfabrics.Modernbuildingscanbemadeofflexible
materialsuchasfabricmembranes,andsupportedbyasystemofsteelcables,rigidorinternal,orbyair
pressure.

Foam
FalkirkWheel

Recently,syntheticpolystyreneorpolyurethanefoamhasbeenusedincombinationwithstructural
materials,suchasconcrete.Itislightweight,easilyshaped,andanexcellentinsulator.Foamisusually
usedaspartofastructuralinsulatedpanel,whereinthefoamissandwichedbetweenwoodorcementor
insulatingconcreteforms.

Glass
Glassmakingisconsideredanartformaswellasanindustrialprocessormaterial.
Clearwindowshavebeenusedsincetheinventionofglasstocoversmallopeningsinabuilding.Glass
panesprovidedhumanswiththeabilitytobothletlightintoroomswhileatthesametimekeeping
inclementweatheroutside.
Glassisgenerallymadefrommixturesofsandandsilicates,inaveryhotfirestovecalledakiln,andis
verybrittle.Additivesareoftenincludedthemixtureusedtoproduceglasswithshadesofcolorsor
variouscharacteristics(suchasbulletproofglassorlightemittance).
Theuseofglassinarchitecturalbuildingshasbecomeverypopularinthemodernculture.Glass"curtain
walls"canbeusedtocovertheentirefacadeofabuilding,oritcanbeusedtospanoverawideroof
structureina"spaceframe".Theseusesthoughrequiresomesortofframetoholdsectionsofglass
together,asglassbyitselfistoobrittleandwouldrequireanoverlylargekilntobeusedtospansuchlarge
areasbyitself.

Foamedplasticsheettobeusedas
backingforfirestopmortaratCIBC
bankinToronto.

Glassbrickswereinventedintheearly20thcentury.

Gypcrete
Gypcreteisamixtureofgypsumplasterandfibreglassrovings.Althoughplasterandfibresfiborousplasterhavebeenusedformanyyears,
especiallyforceilings,itwasnotuntiltheearly1990sthatseriousstudiesofthestrengthandqualitiesofawallingsystemRapidwall,usinga
mixtureofgypsumplasterand300mmplusfibreglassrovings,wereinvestigated.Itwasdiscovered,throughtestingattheUniversityofAdelaide,
thatthesewallshadsignificant,loadbearing,shearandlateralresistancetogetherwithearthquakeresistance,fireresistance,andthermal
properties.Withanabundanceofgypsum(naturallyoccurringandbyproductchemicalFGDandphosphogypsums)availableworldwide,
gypcretebasedbuildingproducts,whicharefullyrecyclable,offersignificantenvironmentalbenefits.

Metal
Metalisusedasstructuralframeworkforlargerbuildingssuchasskyscrapers,orasanexternalsurfacecovering.Therearemanytypesofmetals
usedforbuilding.MetalfiguresquiteprominentlyinprefabricatedstructuressuchastheQuonsethut,andcanbeseenusedinmostcosmopolitan
cities.Itrequiresagreatdealofhumanlabortoproducemetal,especiallyinthelargeamountsneededforthebuildingindustries.Corrosionis
metal'sprimeenemywhenitcomestolongevity.
Steelisametalalloywhosemajorcomponentisiron,andistheusualchoiceformetalstructuralbuildingmaterials.Itisstrong,flexible,
andifrefinedwelland/ortreatedlastsalongtime.
Thelowerdensityandbettercorrosionresistanceofaluminiumalloysandtinsometimesovercometheirgreatercost.
Copperisavaluedbuildingmaterialbecauseofitsadvantageousproperties(see:Copperinarchitecture).Theseincludecorrosion
resistance,durability,lowthermalmovement,lightweight,radiofrequencyshielding,lightningprotection,sustainability,recyclability,and
awiderangeoffinishes.Copperisincorporatedintoroofing,flashing,gutters,downspouts,domes,spires,vaults,wallcladding,building
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expansionjoints,andindoordesignelements.
Othermetalsusedincludechrome,gold,silver,andtitanium.Titaniumcanbeusedforstructural
purposes,butitismuchmoreexpensivethansteel.Chrome,gold,andsilverareusedasdecoration,
becausethesematerialsareexpensiveandlackstructuralqualitiessuchastensilestrengthor
hardness.

Plastics

Plasticpipespenetratingaconcrete
floorinaCanadianhighrise
apartmentbuilding

Theterm"plastics"coversarangeofsyntheticorsemisynthetic
organiccondensationorpolymerizationproductsthatcanbe
moldedorextrudedintoobjects,films,orfibers.Theirnameis
derivedfromthefactthatintheirsemiliquidstatetheyare
malleable,orhavethepropertyofplasticity.Plasticsvary
immenselyinheattolerance,hardness,andresiliency.Combined
withthisadaptability,thegeneraluniformityofcompositionand
lightnessofplasticsensurestheiruseinalmostallindustrial
applicationstoday.

CopperbelfryofSt.Laurentius
church,BadNeuenahrAhrweiler

Papersandmembranes

Buildingpapersandmembranesareusedformanyreasonsinconstruction.Oneoftheoldestbuilding
papersisredrosinpaperwhichwasknowntobeinusebefore1850andwasusedasanunderlaymentinexteriorwalls,roofs,andfloorsandfor
protectingajobsiteduringconstruction.Tarpaperwasinventedlateinthe19thcenturyandwasusedforsimilarpurposesasrosinpaperandfor
gravelroofs.Tarpaperhaslargelyfallenoutofusesupplantedbyasphaltfeltpaper.Feltpaperhasbeensupplantedinsomeusesbysynthetic
underlayments,particularlyinroofingbysyntheticunderlaymentsandsidingbyhousewraps.
Thereareawidevarietyofdampproofingandwaterproofingmembranesusedforroofing,basementwaterproofing,andgeomembranes.

Ceramics
FiredclaybrickshavebeenusedsincethetimeoftheRomans.Specialtilesareusedforroofing,siding,flooring,ceilings,pipes,flueliners,and
more.

Buildingproducts
Inthemarketplacetheterm"buildingproducts"oftenreferstoreadymadeparticles/sections,madefromvariousmaterials,thatarefittedin
architecturalhardwareanddecorativehardwarepartsofabuilding.Thelistofbuildingproductsexcludesthebuildingmaterialsusedtoconstruct
thebuildingarchitectureandsupportingfixtures,likewindows,doors,cabinets,etc.Buildingproducts,rather,supportandmakebuilding
materialsworkinamodularfashion.
"Buildingproducts"mayalsorefertoitemsusedtoputsuchhardwaretogether,suchascaulking,glues,paint,andanythingelseboughtforthe
purposeofconstructingabuilding.

Testingandcertification
ASTMInternational
UL(safetyorganization)
ETLSEMKOBuildingProductTestingLaboratoryintheUSA,partofIntertek,basedinLondon
NTAIncBuildingProductCertificationAgencybasedinNappanee,Indiana,USA

Seealso
Biocidalnaturalbuildingmaterial
Listofbuildingmaterials
Phenomenology(architecture)
Materiality(architecture)
Thermalemittance
Thermalmass
Prefabrication

References
1. "building"def.2and4,"material"def.1.OxfordEnglishDictionarySecondEditiononCDROM(v.4.0)OxfordUniversityPress2009
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2. Nabokov,Peter,andRobertEaston.NativeAmericanarchitecture.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989.16.Print.
3. Kent,Susan.Domesticarchitectureandtheuseofspace:aninterdisciplinarycrossculturalstudy.Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress,
1990.131.Print.
4. Shaffer,G.D."AnArchaeomagneticStudyofaWattleandDaubBuildingCollapse."JournalofFieldArchaeology,20,No.1.Spring,1993.5975.
JSTOR.Accessed28January2007(http://jstor.org/search)
5. Lyon,G.F..TheprivatejournalofCaptainG.F.Lyon,ofH.M.S.Hecla,duringtherecentvoyageofdiscoveryunderCaptainParry....London:J.
Murray,1824.280281.Print.
6. Hall,ColinMichael,andJarkkoSaarinen.Tourismandchangeinpolarregions:climate,environmentsandexperiences.MiltonPark,Abingdon,Oxon,
England:Routledge,2010.30.Print.
7. McHenry,PaulGraham.Adobeandrammedearthbuildings:designandconstruction.NewYork:Wiley,1984.104.Print.
8. Smith,MichaelG."CobBuilding,AncientandModern,"inKennedy,SmithandWanek,(2002),132133.
9. [1](http://web.archive.org/web/20100416132054/http://www.takungpao.com/news/10/01/28/_IN1208245.htm)EarliestChinesebuildingbrickappearedin
Xi'an()].takungpao.com(2010128)
10. ZoyaKpamma,Z.MohammedKamil,K.AdinkrahAppiah,"MakingWallConstructionProcessLean:TheInterlockingBlocksystemasaToole"[sic],
InternationalConferenceonInfrastructuralDevelopmentInAfrica(ICIDA),KNUST,Kumasi,Ghana,March2012.
http://www.academia.edu/2647016/MAKING_WALL_CONSTRUCTION_PROCESS_LEAN_THE_INTERLOCKING_BLOCK_SYSTEM_AS_A_TOOL
accessed12/11/2013
11. [2](http://www.wienerberger.com/naturalbuildingwithclay/historyofbricks)Historyofbrickswienerberger.com
12. Sandermann,W.andKohler,R.(1964)Studiesonmineralbondedwoodmaterials.IV.Ashorttestoftheaptitudesofwoodsforcementbondedmaterials.
Holzforschung18,53:59.
13. Weatherwax,R.C.andTarkow,H.(1964)EffectofwoodonsettingofPortlandcement.For.Prod.J.14(12),567570.
14. Hachmi,M.,Moslemi,A.A.andCampbell,A.G.(1990)Anewtechniquetoclassifythecompatibilityofwoodwithcement.WoodSci.Technol.24(4),
345354.
15. Hong,Z.andLee,A.W.C.(1986)Compressivestrengthofcylindricalsamplesasanindicatorofwoodcementcompatibility.For.Prod.J.36(11/12),87
90.
16. Demirbas,A.andAslan,A.(1998)Effectsofgroundhazelnutshell,woodandteawasteonthemechanicalpropertiesofcement.CementConcreteRes.
28(8),11011104.
17. Ahn,W.Y.andMoslemi,A.A.(1980)SEMexaminationofwoodPortlandcementbonds.WoodSci.13(2),7782.
18. KaradeSR,IrleM,MaherK(2003)Assessmentofwoodcementcompatibility:Anewapproach.Holzforschung,57:672680.

Externallinks
MediarelatedtoBuildingmaterialsatWikimediaCommons
MaterialesdeConstruccin(http://materconstrucc.revistas.csic.es)Bilingual(Spanish/English)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejo
SuperiordeInvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.
InformesdelaConstruccin(http://informesdelaconstruccion.revistas.csic.es)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejoSuperiorde
InvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.
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