Q.NO.

1. Purpose
2. Definitions
3. Background
4. Plans
5. Specifications
6. Estimates
7. Required Contract Provisions
8. PS&E Assemblies
1. Purpose. To set forth guidelines for the preparation of plans, specifications, and estimates
(including standard plans, and specifications) for physical construction projects financed with
Federal-aid highway funds. It is emphasized that the provisions of this Appendix are intended to
serve as guidance to be used by the States at their discretion and should not be construed as
mandatory requirements.
2. Definitions
a. Developmental Specifications - a specification developed around a new process,
procedure, or material with the prior knowledge that subsequent adjustments might be
necessary prior to adoption for standard usage.
b. Estimate - the predicted project cost at the time of receipt of bids developed from a
knowledge of the costs for materials, labor, and equipment required to perform the
necessary items of work.
c.

Plans - the contract drawings which show the locations, character, and dimension of the
prescribed work, including layouts, profiles, cross sections, and other details.

d. Required Contract Provisions - those provisions required by law or regulation of the

various jurisdictions involved in funding projects and administering contracts for
construction projects.
e. Special Provisions - additions and revisions to the standard and supplemental
specifications applicable to an individual project.
f.

Specifications - the compilation of provisions and requirements for the performance of

prescribed work.

g. Standard Plans (Standard Detail Drawings) -drawings approved for repetitive use
showing details to be used where appropriate.
h. Standard Specifications - a book of specifications approved for general application and
repetitive use.
i.

Supplemental Specifications - approved additions and revisions to the standard

specifications.

j.

Traffic Control Plan - a plan for handling traffic through a specific highway or street work
zone or project.

3. Background. The preparation of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&E) for highway and
bridge construction projects is essential in order to facilitate construction, provide contract control,
estimate construction costs, and provide a uniform basis for bidding purposes.
a. To accomplish this, each highway contracting agency (HA) is encouraged to:
1. develop plans and specifications for highway construction projects which:
a. are complete and clear to the maximum extent practicable, and
b. provide for uniformity of practice in contractual procedures and relations.
2. use standard plans (standard detail drawings) and specifications to:
a. simplify and facilitate the interpretation and use of the project plans and
specifications by contractors and others performing the construction
operations and furnishing materials and equipment therefor, and
b. reduce duplication of effort that would be required to produce sets of
plans and specifications that involve features and provisions that are a
part of the majority of construction projects.
b. Guidelines for development of plans and specifications will encourage nationwide
uniformity and consistency, and facilitate review and approval of project plans and
specifications.
4. Plans
a. General. Plans are, in effect, instructions using drawings containing engineering data or
details pertaining to geometrics, drainage, structures, soils and pavements and other
appurtenances.
1. Plans should not encompass material that is properly a part of the specifications.

2. The original drawings should be on standard sheets conforming to modern

accepted drafting practices or aerial photograph base maps.
3. Abbreviated plans may be used provided they give sufficient information to
properly complete the project.
a. This type of plan is particularly adaptable to special types of projects
such as those for minor emergency relief, safety improvements,
resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation and pavement marking.
b. A typical set of abbreviated plans consists of only that information
necessary to describe the type of work and its limits such as:
1. General plan, sketch, or line drawing,
2. Cross section, if appropriate,
3. Estimate of quantities,
4. Tabulation of construction items, providing station, offset, and
evaluation,
5. General notes, and/or
6. Special details.
b. Standard Plans. Standard plans are used to reduce the number of drawings required to
be supplied for each project and provide uniformity of design and construction where the
details are the same from project to project for items such as pipe culverts, guardrails,
curbs, gutters, sidewalks, retaining walls, noise walls, prestressed bridge girders,
pedestrian bridges, drainage structures, slope protection, bus stop shelters, bridge
railing, bridge bearings, deck joints, sign supports, light standards, fencing, and other
appurtenances.
1. Standard plans should contain all appropriate information from paragraph 4c that
is necessary to properly describe the details of the work proposed as standard.
2. Standard plans can be in the form of individual sheets, plan packages, or
booklets which are made available to interested parties such as engineers and
contractors.
3. Those standard plans not included as part of the plan assembly should be
referenced in the project plans.
4. Standard plans should be kept current or meet currently used specifications.

a. Standard plans, which become obsolete or ineffective, should be

superseded or withdrawn.
b. When modifications to standard plans are necessary for a specific
project, specialdetails should be prepared, properly describing the work,
and included in the project plans.
c.

Contract Plans. Contract plans show the details that are necessary to construct a specific
project and should be tailored to provide all information necessary to accomplish the work
in an orderly manner.
1. Title Sheet. The title sheet should show in a convenient arrangement:
a. title,
b. scales used for the plans,
c.

a location sketch with sufficient iden tifying information so that the project
may be easily located on a county or State map,

d. project length,
e. a detail or group index of the sheets in the set of plans,
f.

the conventional symbols employed,

g. design designation (average daily traffic, design hour volume, directional

distribution, percent trucks, and design speed),
h. Federal-aid project designation,
i.

a provision for the dates and signatures of the appropriate approving

officials,

j.

standard specifications and amendments applicable to the project, and

k.

standard plans applicable to the project.

2. Typical Sections. Typical cross sections of the improvement should be placed on

the sheet immediately following the title sheet, except that on combined roadway
and bridge projects the crosssection for the bridges may be shown with other
bridge design information.
a. Typical cross sections should be included in plans for all projects
including those for bridges only, and those where abbreviated plans are
to be used.

b. All functional elements should be shown to a convenient scale including:

1. all different slopes of cut and fill,
2. the width of the roadbed and median,
3. the shape of the finished surface and shoulders,
4. curb and gutter if part of the design,
5. all integral parts of the surfacing and shoulders including, as
appropriate, subbase, base course, and surface course,
6. limiting locations where each typical cross section is to be used,
7. ultimate typical cross section for stage construction project,
8. thickness for each element of the surfacing system,
a. Where variations in surfacing or base thickness are
proposed because of differing soil conditions or other
reasons, such variations should be in tabular form,
including station limits for each thickness.
b. In instances in subparagraph a above, the typical section
need show only that varying thicknesses are to be
employed.
9. relation between either proposed or ultimate status and a control
survey line and profile gradeline, and
10. lateral location of profile gradeline (grade point).
3. Summary of Quantities
a. The summary of quantities for the entire project may be placed on the
typical cross section sheets if such may be done without crowding;
otherwise, this information should appear on separate sheets following
the typical sections.
b. If more than one category of funds is required for a project, the quantity
of each item required for each category should be identified separately
and then combined for bidding purposes.
1. There should be a breakdown of the urban and rural quantities
for projects that cross urban boundaries.

2. A county-by-county breakdown should be provided where

projects cross county lines.
3. Non-Federal-aid work included as part of a Federal-aid contract
should be identified separately.
c.

Earthwork may be computed by the cross sectioning method or by any

combination of aerial photography and photogrammetric and electronic
computer methods that have demon strated acceptable accuracy.

4. Tabulation of Quantities. Summarizing miscellaneous construction items such as

drainage, signing, guardrail, earthwork and others in a tabular form showing
station and offset for the location of the item is desirable on large and complex
projects to assist in identifying locations where the specific item is to be installed.
5. Plan and Profile
a. General. Plan and profile sheets should be prepared at a scale adequate
to show the necessary details as governed by the topography to be
shown and the complexity of the work.
1. Plans are usually drawn to a horizontal scale of 1 inch equals 50
feet, or 1 inch equals 100 feet, but either larger or smaller scales
can be used when the contracting agency considers their use
appropriate for the conditions.
2. Profiles should be drawn to the same horizontal scale as the
plan, but the vertical scale may be 5 to 10 times that of the
horizontal scale.
b. Plans
1. The general highway plan should include:
a. the base line of the survey which, if practicable, should
also be the centerline of the proposed roadbed,
i.

When the centerline and the base line are not

coincident, their relationship should be indicated.

ii.

Divided highways, where independent base

lines are used, may be treated as separate
roadways indicating only the general relationship
between the two.

iii.

Special areas such as interchanges and safety

rest areas should be shown with separate
survey control lines as necessary.

b. stationing reading from left to right including Equations of

Stationing,
c.

the horizontal position of the beginning and ending

stations described by coordinates in the State Plan
Coordinate System, datum adjusted on an area or
project basis,

d. design data of curves,

e. right-of-way and access control lines, easements, and
special use areas,
f.

North point,

g. general soils, rock out crop, topography, streams,

railroads, and other culture such as roads, streets, and
airports on or near the right-of-way when these items
influence the proposed construction,
h. location of borings, test pits, or other sites where
subsurface investigations have been made,
i.

incidental construction items such as erosion control

provisions, guardrail, and retaining walls,

j.

amount and volume of materials available at known

sources, and

k.

existence of and disposition of all public utilities,

buildings, and any other obstruction or encroachment
within the right-of-way, or adjacent thereto if affect ing
the proposed construction.
i.

If not part of the project, their disposition should

be included in the project records,

ii.

If part of the project, the plan should show the

present and, if applicable, the propo sed location
including both horizontal and vertical positions
and such additional details as may be needed to
indicate the scope of work to be performed.

2. On complex projects, a reference sheet is desirable to facilitate

the use of the plans.
c.

Profiles
1. Profile grade represents the trace of the vertical plane
intersecting the top surface of the wearing course, base course,
or other surface along the designated base line.
2. The existing ground line should represent the trace of a vertical
plane intersecting the present traveled way or ground line along
the designated base line.
3. Profiles should show:
a. a grade and existing ground lines,
i.

When standard plan and profile sheets are used,

surface elevations may be omitted and grade
elevations shown at changes of gradient only.

ii.

When plan sheets are used, grade and existing

ground elevations should be shown.

b. datum line,
c.

station ordinate lines,

d. percentage of gradient,
e. balance points, if necessary or desirable, together with
excavation and fill quantities involved,
f.

location and depth of subsurface borings or test pits

(actual log or test results need not be shown, but a
reference should be included indicating where this
material may be viewed),

g. vertical and horizontal clearances and the cross section

of the roadbed for railroads, highways, and streambeds
under proposed and existing structures,
h. identification of type and clearance under and over utility
lines within the right-of-way,
i.

notation as to whether profile gradeline represents the

surface of pavement or subgrade, and

j.

culverts.

6. Bridges. Detail plans for bridges should include:

a. a site plan,
b. location and log of each foundation sounding or boring indicating the
results of the subsurface explorations,
c.

profile of the crossing,

d. typical cross section,

e. sectional drawings, as needed, to detail the structure completely,
f.

quantities of materials required,

g. reinforcing bar list and bar bending diagram,

h. design loadings, working stresses, class(es) of concrete, and grade(s) of
steel,
i.

drainage area and applicable runoff of hydraulic properties,

j.

design and construction details, and all other details essential to

completeness, and

k.

reference to applicable specifications.

7. Drainage Facilities
a. Detail plans for culverts (drainage structures 20 feet or less in length
between abutments measured along the centerline of the roadway)
should include the applicable items from subparagraph 4c(5) to properly
describe the required installation.
b. Detail plans for other minor drainage structures such as erosion control
structures, headwalls, inlets, and manholes should include the applicable
items from subparagraph 4c(5) to properly describe the required
installation.
8. Traffic Control Plan (TCP)
a. The TCP should be:
1. designed specifically for the project detailing the requirements for
controlling traffic through the project, or

2. referenced to standard plans, a section of the Manual on Uniform

Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways, or a standard
HA manual.
b. The plan should provide for appropriate treatment of all significant
hazards likely to be encountered during the project, with the degree of
detail depending on the project complexity and traffic interference with
con struction activity.
c.

Appropriate parts of the TCP, showing the applicable items from

subparagraph 4c necessary to properly describe the required work,
should be included in the plan assembly.

9. Standard Plans and Special Details

a. Standard plans not incorporated into separate plan packages or booklets
should be a part of the contract plan assembly.
b. Special details should be prepared and included, as necessary, to
properly describe the work.
10. Environmental Mitigation. Commitments for environmental mitigation features
which are contained in the environmental documentation should be detailed as
necessary and included in the project plans as special details and/or shown at
the appropriate location in the plans.
11. Cross Sections
a. If cross sections are shown, sections should be taken as often as
necessary to determine accurately the character and extent of the
proposed work.
b. Cross sections should show:
1. profile of the ground line,
2. the proposed cross section,
3. station location,
4. gradeline elevation,
5. areas, and
6. minor drainage structures.

12. Contiguous Projects. A general plan or layout of contiguous construction projects

that are to be constructed with either a different class of funds or by another
agency should be included to show the location and effect of the work. (Such
details and information necessary to establish their relationship to the project
should be shown.)
d. Right-of-Way Plans
1. Right-of-way plans should show:
a. right-of-way and access control lines,
b. width to be acquired,
c.

proposed slope limits,

d. centerline and stationing with appropriate ties to intersecting property

lines and changes in right-of-way widths,
e. any additional easement areas, either temporary or permanent, that are
required to accommodate intersecting roads and streets, land service,
access and temporary roads, drainage areas, material storage areas,
slope widening, utilities, railroads, or any other special uses,
f.

all pertinent data affecting the cost of the right-of-way such as structures,
land service or access roads, improvements, drain fields, and fences,

g. all approved points of entry to or exit from the traffic lanes, even where
the right-of-way lines and access control lines are coincident,
h. disposition of improvements within the proposed right-of-way, and
i.

for each parcel to be acquired:

1. a parcel identification number,
2. the property ownership lines,
3. the name of the property owners, and
4. the area in square feet or acres of the part to be taken and of
each remainderof a partial taking.

2. The size, form, and arrangement of right-of-way plans should conform to the
general requirements for highway plans and should contain sufficient dimensional
and angular data to permit ready identification and correlation with the legal

descriptions of all parcel easements and special use areas that are required by
the associated highway project.
5. Estimates
a. The Engineer's Estimate should be prepared and reviewed carefully to reflect as
realistically and accurately as possible the expected costs of the work at the time of
receipt of bids.
b. Has should establish consistent and compatible procedures for the preparation, review,
and updating of estimates.
1. The unit prices used for estimates, and corresponding actual unit bid prices when
available, for the preceding 12 months should be reviewed to determine if
changes in estimated unit prices are needed to reflect any trends that have
occurred.
2. The estimate should reflect prices that are realistic for the areas, times, and
characteristics of the work to be done (regional adjustment and seasonal
adjustment are especially important).
3. Incentive/disincentive or escalation clauses should be considered in determining
the estimated unit costs since such clauses may affect the estimate considerably.
4. Other factors that can affect the estimated cost of a project such as labor rates,
equipment rates, interest rates, time to complete, competition levels, and material
shortages should be considered and estimated costs adjusted as necessary.
5. Bid price data bases should be current at the time of estimate preparation and
should be current (within 4 weeks) at the time of advertisement.
c.

Estimates should include a number of description of the item, estimated quantity, unit,
and price (words and numerals) for each proposed item of work.

d. For accounting purposes, the Engineer's Estimate should identify separately:

1. urban and rural quantities,
2. county-by-county breakdown,
3. tabulations of items coded on the basis of the predominant Improvement and
Construction Type Code.
e. Construction Engineering should be shown as a separate line item.
6. Required Contract Provisions

a. Federal, State, and local agencies have certain required contract provisions covering
employment, records of materials and supplies, subletting or assigning the contract,
safety, false statements, termination, nonsegregated facilities, and environmental
requirements among others that are to be included in contracts for construction projects.
b. Because requirements may change on short notice, required contract provisions should
not be included in bound books of general specifications.
7. PS&E Assemblies. PS&E assemblies should include:
a. complete sets of plans (Applicable plans previously approved as standards should be
incorporated by reference and need not be included as part of each PS&E assembly.),
b. proposal assembly including bidding documents, special provisions and required contract
provisions (Previously approved standard and supplemental specifications should be
incorporated by reference and need not be included as part of each PS&E assembly.),
c.

engineer's estimate, and

d. approved agreements with railroads, utilities, and municipalities, if not previously

submitted.

Q.NO. 10

Definition
An opening through an embankment for the conveyance of water by mean of pipe or an enclosed
channel.
OR
It is a transverse and totally enclosed drain under a road or railway.

Type of Culverts
1. Pipe Single or Multiple
2. Pipe Arch Single or Multiple
3. Box Culvert Single or Multiple
4. Bridge Culvert
5. Arch Culvert

Pipe culverts are made of smooth steel, corrugated metal, or concrete material. Their primary
purpose is to convey water under roads, although a variety of wildlife uses them as passageways.
Pipe culverts typically range from 1- 6 feet in diameter and are the least expensive type of culvert.
Round culverts are best suited to medium and high stream banks.

Pipe Arch Single or Multiple

Pipe-arch culverts provide low clearance, openings suitable for large waterways, and are more
aesthetic. They may also provide a greater hydraulic advantage to fishes at low flows and require
less road fill.

Box Culvert Single or Multiple

Box culverts are used to transmit water during brief runoff periods. Theses are usually used by
wildlife because they remain dry most of the year. They can have an artificial floor such as concrete.
Box culverts generally provide more room for wildlife passage than large pipe culverts. Box culverts
are usually made up of Reinforced Concrete (RCC)

Arch Culvert
A pipe arch culvert is a round culvert reshaped to allow a lower profile while maintaining flow
characteristics. It is good for installations with shallow cover.
Materials used for arch culverts are RCC, Corrugated Metal or Stone Masonry.

Design of Reinforced Concrete Culverts

Location
Ideally, the axis of a culvert should coincide with that of the natural streamed and the structure
should be straight and short. This may require modification of the culvert alignment and grade. Often
it is more practical to construct the culvert at right angles to the roadway. However, the cost of any
change in stream channel location required to accomplish this should be balanced against the cost
of a skewed alignment of the culvert, and changes in channel hydraulics should be considered.

Grade and camber

The culvert invert gradient should be the same as the natural streambed to minimize erosion and
silting problems. Foundation settlement should be countered by cambering the culvert to ensure
positive drainage.

Entrance and outlet conditions

It is often necessary to enlarge the natural channel a considerable distance downstream of the
culvert to prevent backwater from entering the culvert. Also, enlargement of the culvert entrance may
be required to prevent pending above the culvert entrance. The entrance and outlet conditions of the
culvert structure directly impact its hydraulic capacity. Rounding or beveling the entrance corners
increases the hydraulic capacity, especially for short culverts of small cross section. Scour problems

can occur when abrupt changes are made to the streamed flow line at the entrance or outlet of the
culvert.

Materials used
Foundation material
Materials to be used for the culvert pipe foundation should be indicated on the drawings. Refer to the
geotechnical foundation report for the project.

Bedding materials
Bedding class and materials for culverts should be indicated on the drawings. When designing the
bedding for a box culvert, assume the bedding material to be slightly yielding, and that a uniform
support pressure develops under the box section.

Purpose and Use

1. Culverts are used in roads, bridges, and berm construction to prevent flooding and washing
out of roads.
2. They also minimize erosion, build-up of standing water, and provide pathways for run-off.

Q.NO.6

Choice of Foundation
Foundation types depend primarily on the depth and safe bearing pressures of the bearing stratum,
also restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type of bridge deck. Generally in the case
of simply supported bridge decks differential settlements of about 20 to 25 mm can be tolerated,
whereas multi-span continuous decks 10 mm is usually considered as a maximum.
Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:

i.

Strip footings, one for each pier and abutment. However, it is sometimes convenient to split
the deck into two halves longitudinally along the centre line, this is then continued to the
footing.

ii.

Piled foundations.

It is possible to have a combination of both (i.e. piers being piled with abutments on strip footings).

Design Considerations
The design of foundations comprise of the following stages :

i.

From the site investigation report decide upon which stratum to impose the structure load and
its safe bearing pressure.

ii.

Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing the suitability of several types.

iii.

Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure to the ground.
Ensure that the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil is not reached and settlement
is within the allowable limits.

Strip Footings
The overall size of strip footings is determined by considering the effects of vertical and rotational
loads. The combination of these two must neither exceed the safe bearing capacity of the stratum or
produce uplift. The thickness of the footings is generally about 0.8 to 1.0 m but must be capable of
withstanding moments and shears produced by piers or abutments.
The critical shearing stress may be assumed to occur on a plane at a distance equal to the effective
depth of the base from the face of the column.
Cover to reinforcement should never be less than values given in BS 5400: Part 4: Table 13, and crack
control calculation must be carried out to ensure the crack width is less than 0.25mm (Table 1). Cover
to reinforcement will need to be increased to comply with BS 8500 requirements.

Piled Foundations
The type of piles generally used for bridge foundations are :

a.

Driven Piles; preformed piles of concrete or steel driven by blows of a power hammer or
jacked into the ground.

b.

Preformed Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end
and filling the tube with concrete.

c.

Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and filling
the tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.

d.

Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by boring a hole and filling it with concrete.

a. to c. are known as displacement piles, and the problems of calculating the load carrying capacity
and settlement require a different approach to that for bored piles.
Driven type piles can, depending on the strata, be either end bearing or friction piles; sometimes a
combination of both.
Bored piles are generally end bearing and are often of large diameter. To increase their bearing
capacity the bottom can be under-reamed to produce a greater bearing area. However, additional
safety precautions are required with larger diameter piles.
A specialist form of pile consisting of stone aggregate consolidated by water or air using the
'Vibroflotation' technique is suitable in some granular soils.
Choice of pile type depends largely on the strata which they pass through, none of them however give
the most economic and satisfactory solution under all conditions.
The art of selecting the right sort of pile lies in rejecting all those types which are obviously unsuited
to the particular set of circumstances and then choosing from those which remain, the one which
produces the most economical solution.
Concurrently with the choice of pile type must go the choice of the strata which will carry the main
loads from the structure, because this very often influences the choice. In most all cases the rejection
of conventional pad or strip foundations arises because the computed settlement is more than the
structure can safely withstand and hence the main purpose of the piled foundation will be to reduce
this settlement. It follows, therefore, that if more compressible strata exists within reasonable
distance of the surface, it is very desirable that a high proportion of the foundation load should be
carried by this more stable strata; the ideal solution is where piles support the load wholly in end
bearing on hard rock where the settlement will be negligible. It follows that piles wholly embedded in
the same soil that would under-lie a conventional foundation has very little effect in reducing
settlement. With soft normally consolidated alluvial clays, the remoulding effect of driven piles may
well increase the settlement of the soil under its own dead weight and thus increase the settlement of
the foundation itself.

Aspects of design of piled foundations which influence choice of pile type

All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear failure in the soil and no excessive settlement; piled
foundations also have to meet this criteria. There are well established methods for ensuring that the

first criteria is met, but the second presents more of a problem. The working load of an individual pile
is based on providing an adequate factor of safety against the soil under the toe failing in shear and
the adhesion between the shaft and the soil surrounding it passing its ultimate value and the whole
pile sinking further into the ground. There are basically four methods for assessing this effect :

i.

Through soil parameters i.e. summing shaft friction and bearing capacity. The ultimate bearing
capacity is usually modified to compensate for the driving effect of the pile.

ii.

By means of test piles.

iii.

By means of dynamic formulae i.e. Hiley formulae which equates the energy required to drive
the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.

iv.

Piling contractors 'know how'.

Q.No.1

Types of Bridges
Bridges are often built over huge landmasses or water bodies. Their design depends on their
function. To know about the various types of bridges, read on...
Bridge is not merely a piece of construction, it's a concept, I think sometimes. It represents the
idea of crossing over large spans of land or water, thus 'bridging' the gaps spanning long
distances. A bridge connects two far-off points thus reducing the distance between them and
bringing them within reach. What does it take to construct this 'idea'? It takes ingenuity! Here,
we take you through all the different types of bridges, and tell you about the civil engineering
Arch Bridge: It is arch-shaped and has supports at both its ends. The weight of an arch-shaped
bridge is borne by the supports at its ends. The Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in Greece of 1300
BC is the oldest existing arch-shaped bridge. Etruscans and ancient Greeks were aware of the
concept of arches since a very long time. But the Romans were foremost in discovering the use
of arches in the construction of bridges. Arch bridges have now evolved into compression arch
suspended-deck bridges that enable the use of light and tensile materials in their construction.
Moon arch, pointed arch, deck arch and two or three storied arches are some of the designs in
this type of bridges.
Quick Fact: The Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing, Southwest China is the largest arch bridge
in the world. It is 1741 meters in length.

Beam Bridge: A beam bridge was derived from the log bridge. It is built from shallow steel
beams, box girders and concrete. Highway overpasses, flyovers or walkways are often beam
bridges. A horizontal beam supported at its ends is roughly how the structure of a beam bridge is.
The construction of a beam bridge is the simplest of all types of bridges. The design of a beam
bridge should be such that it does not bend under load. For this, the top surface of this bridge is
compressed and the bottom surface is under tension, thus helping the beam remain in a straight
line.
Quick Fact: The longer a beam bridge, the weaker it is! Typically, beam bridges are not more
than 76 meters long.
Cable-stayed Bridge: Structured similar to suspension bridges, the difference lies in the way
they support load. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which bear the
load. Two variants of cable-stayed bridges are harp and fan. In the harp design, cables are
attached to multiple points of the tower in a parallel manner. In the fan variant, all the cables
connect to the tower or pass over it. Cable-stayed bridges are much stiffer than suspension
bridges. The cables serve as a good support for the bridge deck. Also any number of towers can
be used and it requires less cable than a suspension bridge does.
Quick Fact: Skybridge, Canada is the longest transit-only cable-supported bridge in the world.
Cantilever bridge: Cantilevers are structures that project along the X-axis in space. They are
supported on one end only. Bridges intended to carry lesser traffic may use simple beams while
those meant to handle larger traffic make use of trusses or box girders. In a typical cantilever
bridge, cantilever arms extending from opposite ends meet at the center, while in a suspended
span design, they do not meet. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is a railway bridge using the
cantilever design and is one of the oldest known cantilever bridges. San Francisco-Oakland Bay
Bridge that is 1400 feet long is another known example of a cantilever bridge.
Quick Fact: The 1800 feet Quebec Bridge of Canada holds the record of being the world's
longest cantilever bridge. Drawbridge: The term is used to refer to a bridge-like structure which
is movable. Typically, a drawbridge opens up to extend over the distance it is meant to span. A
castlebridge, for example, opens like a door, serving as a doorway to the castle. It could be in the
form of a plank that is pivoted to the center that rotates along a designated circumference. This
type of construction is often used above tidal waters, where the water levels rise and fall. A
vertical lift bridge is a drawbridge that moves vertically in a plane parallel to its deck. Bascule
bridges are drawbridges that swing up and down to facilitate boat traffic.
Quick Fact: Tower Bridge across Thames in London is a well-known bascule bridge.

Suspension Bridge: Simply put, a bridge suspended from cables is a suspension bridge.
Suspension cables are anchored at each end of the bridge. The load that the bridge bears converts
into the tension in the cables and is transferred to the towers. Cables stretch beyond the pillars up

to the dock-level supports further to the anchors in the ground. Vertical cables suspended down,
bear the weight of the deck. One advantage of this bridge design is that it can span long distances
and resist earthquakes. It requires less construction material, which reduces its cost of
construction. The Tsing Ma Bridge of China and the Humber Bridge of England are some of the
famous suspension bridges.

Suspension Bridge: Simply put, a bridge suspended from cables is a suspension bridge.
Suspension cables are anchored at each end of the bridge. The load that the bridge bears converts
into the tension in the cables and is transferred to the towers. Cables stretch beyond the pillars up
to the dock-level supports further to the anchors in the ground. Vertical cables suspended down,
bear the weight of the deck. One advantage of this bridge design is that it can span long
distances and resist earthquakes. It requires less construction material, which reduces its cost of
construction. The Tsing Ma Bridge of China and the Humber Bridge of England are some of the
famous suspension bridges.

Parts of a Suspension Bridge

A suspension bridge suspends a roadway by cables. Because the bridge uses these
cables as an integral part of its design, the bridge is flexible and affected by wind.
Engineers plan the design to account for this and to increase stability.

1. Superstructure and Substructure

o

A suspension bridge has two types of parts. The superstructure above includes the
deck, towers and main suspension cables. The substructure below includes piers
and anchorages.

Deck
o

The deck is the roadway or walkway of a suspension bridge and can be made of
one or more pieces. The deck is also called the girder.

Large Anchors
o

Anchorages of rock or concrete hold the cables at both ends of a suspension

bridge. Cables entering the anchors are separated into strands within the rock to
distribute the tension load.

Piers and Towers

o

Piers are the lower foundations of a suspension bridge, supporting the towers over
which the cables travel. The weight of the cables is transferred into the towers
and piers.

Cables

Main cables stretch from one anchorage, then over the towers, then into the
anchor at the other side of the bridge. Suspension cables connect the deck to the
main cables.

Quick Fact: The Golden Gate Bridge of USA, declared as one of the Modern Wonders of the
World is a suspension bridge.
Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built by connecting straight elements with the help of pin joints.
Triangular units connected at joints form the skeleton of a truss bridge. Owing to the abundance
of wood in the United States, truss bridges of the olden times used timber for compression and
iron rods for bearing tension. Truss bridges came to be commonly constructed from the 1870s to
the 1930s. Truss is the oldest form of modern bridge design. Deck truss railroad bridge that
extends over the Erie Canal is one of the many famous truss bridges..
Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built by connecting straight elements with the help of pin joints.
Triangular units connected at joints form the skeleton of a truss bridge. Owing to the abundance
of wood in the United States, truss bridges of the olden times used timber for compression and
iron rods for bearing tension. Truss bridges came to be commonly constructed from the 1870s to
the 1930s. Truss is the oldest form of modern bridge design. Deck truss railroad bridge that
extends over the Erie Canal is one of the many famous truss bridges.
Quick Fact: Quebec Bridge, the longest cantilever bridge span, has a riveted steel truss structure.
Man's desire to reach the 'unreachable' and venture new places led him to construct bridges that
spanned huge distances and helped him overcome obstacles. A log of wood floating on water
might have inspired man to build bridges for the very first time! Thanks to the developments in
engineering and architecture, distances could be bridged and seemingly unreachable destinations
came within man's reach.