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Step response
1.4
1.2
2% settling time
1
Amplitude
108
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3
Time (sec)
FIG. 2.1z
The step response shown has a 4.2-second 2% settling time.
2.1(11)
c=
Kc K p
1 + Kc K p
2.1(12)
PID
Plant
FIG. 2.1aa
Block diagram of a PID feedback control loop.
de(t )
dt
Step response
1.5
1
0.5
0
4
5
6
Error signal
10
3
4
5
6
7
Derivative of error signal
10
e (t)
0.5
0
0.5
de(t)
-----dt
1
0
1
2
10
FIG. 2.1bb
The step response of a PD controller showing the responses of the
controlled variable (top), the error (center), and the derivative of
the error (bottom).
0.8
0.6
0.4
PD
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
5
Time
10
2.1(13)
Controller output
109
FIG. 2.1cc
The anticipation of the PD controller can be seen by noting the
controlled variable response of a plain proportional controller
(solid line) and that of a PD controller (dashed line) to the same
step upset.
Control Theory
1
u(t ) = K p e(t ) +
T
e( )d + Td
de(t )
dt
2.1(14)
Feedforward control is another basic technique used to compensate for uncontrolled disturbances entering the controlled
process. Both feedback and feedforward control are discussed in detail in Section 2.8 and therefore only an introduction is given here. In this technique the control action is
based on the disturbance input into the process without considering the condition of the process. In concept, feedforward
control yields much faster correction than feedback control
does, and in the ideal case compensation is applied in such
a manner that the effect of the disturbance is never seen in
the controlled variable, the process output.
A skillful operator of a direct contact water heater could
use a simple feedforward strategy to compensate for changes
in inlet water temperature by detecting a change in inlet water
temperature and in response to that, increasing or decreasing
the steam rate to counteract the change (Figure 2.1dd). This
same compensation could be made automatically with an
inlet temperature detector designed to initiate the appropriate
corrective adjustment in the steam valve opening.
The concept of feedforward control is very powerful, but
unfortunately it is difcult to implement in most process
110
1
0.5
0
10
10
Hot water
Cool water
Steam
valve
Temperature
indicator
FIG. 2.1dd
The concept of feedforward control implemented by a human
operator.
1.5
1
0.5
0
Water
heater
Steam
Amplitude
FIG. 2.1ee
If a step disturbance occurs at t = 5, the controlled variable of a
first-order process responds to that upset as shown in the top portion
of the figure. The bottom part shows the response of a feedback
PID controller to such an upset, which generates the manipulated
variable.