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OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
POL
Petroleum Open Learning
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
Printed by Astute Print & Design, 44-46 Brechin Road, Forfar, Angus DD8 3JX www.astute.uk.com
ISBN 1 872041 85 X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval or information storage system, transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publishers.
Contents
Page
Training Targets
Introduction
Bacteria
Suspended Solids
Dissolved Gases
Dissolved Solids
Other Chemical Treatments
15
Visual Cues
Contents (cont'd)
*
Page
19
Bacteria Control
Sodium Hypochlorite Generation
Filtration Equipment
Basket Filters
Sand Filters
Dual Media Filters
Cartridge Filters
Oxygen Removal
Gas Stripping
Vacuum Deaeration
54
Visual Cues
Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Injection Water Treatment you will be able to :
Define the terms porosity and permeability as applied to reservoir rock
Explain three basic reservoir drive mechanisms
Explain how reservoir pressure is maintained by water injection
Explain the reasons for treating injection water
Describe the function, construction and operation of sea treatment equipment,
including filters, sodium hypochlorite generators, and deaerators
Describe a typical injection water treatment
List and describe common chemicals used in the treatment of injection water
Tick the box when you have met each target.
Introduction
The production efficiency of most oil reservoirs can be improved by injecting water into the layer of water which
underlies the oil in the reservoir rock. But why should this be so ? Where do we get the water from and what
treatment does the water require before it is injected ? In this unit we are going to look at these questions and
try to answer them.
The unit is divided into four sections.
In Section 1, we will look at the reasons for injecting water into a reservoir in oilfield operations. We will concentrate
on the nature of a typical reservoir and the properties which influence the way in which oil is produced. You will
see that the most common type of water used for injection purposes is sea water.
Section 2 will focus on the problems which could result from injecting untreated sea water into a reservoir rock,
and the methods used to overcome these problems.
In Section 3, I will explain the construction and operation of equipment used in the treatment of injection water.
Finally, in Section 4, we will look at a typical sea water injection system. I will take you through this hypothetical
system step by step. This will give you an overall picture of the operation and control of such a process.
porosity
permeability
Figure 1
6
Sandstone is a common reservoir rock. It is made Figure 2 is an illustration of a porous and permeable Before we move on, complete the following Test
up of grains of sand which are cemented together rock.
Yourself question.
at the points where they touch. Between the sand
grains are void spaces - the pores.
The ratio of the volume of the pores to total rock
volume expressed as a percentage is the rock
porosity.
This means that, if you have a sandstone reservoir
with a porosity of 25% , for every 4 m3 of reservoir
rock, 1 m3 consists of holes and 3 m3 solid sand
grains.
Another common reservoir rock is limestone. This
is a rather brittle rock which contains lots of tiny
cracks and fissures. These tiny cracks give the
limestone its porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid The following example may help you to visualise
to flow through the rock from one pore to another. porosity and permeability in a reservoir.
In order for it to be able to do this, the pores must
be interconnected.
We have all seen an ordinary building brick, but
have you ever examined one carefully ? Take a
Permeability is measured in darcys, named after close look at a brick under a magnifying glass and
a French engineer who studied the flow of liquids you will see that the surface is a mass of tiny holes.
through filters. He found that the flow increased in A building brick is both porous and permeable.
proportion to the pressure increase. However he If you place one in a bowl of water you will see
also discovered that the flow was affected by the small bubbles rising from the surface. This occurs
thickness, or viscosity, of the fluid.
as water flows into brick and displaces the air. In
many ways an oil reservior rock is similar, in terms
Generally there is a wide spread of permeability of porosity and permeability, to a building brick.
values in reservoir rocks.
Test Yourself 1
a) What is the porosity of a rock whose
pore spaces occupy one fifth of its total
volume?
b) What is the likely permeability of a cap
rock?
c) Which of the following materials is likely
to be porous and permeable?
i) sponge
ii) glass
iii) sandstone
iv) slate
water drive
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
G.O.R.
Water production
Very little
Recoverable oil
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
G.O.R.
Water production
Low
Recoverable oil
10
Water Drive
Finally let's look at water drive mechanisms, as
illustrated in Figure 5.
The greatest natural source of energy available to
produce oil is the water which underlines the oil in
certain reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the porous
rock occupies tremendous volumes. However, the oil
bearing part of the rock will be only a relatively small
proportion of the total. The water occupies a very large
volume compared with the oil.
We generally consider water to be incompressible. It
can be compressed to a very small extent, however,
and when such tremendous volumes are involved, this
compressed water can have quite an influence on the
behaviour of the oil reservoir.
As oil is produced, the pressure in the reservoir
tends to decline. This decline is counteracted by the
expansion of the water, as it moves to replace the
produced oil.
These types of reservoir are usually the most efficient.
Once again I have included a table which shows the
characteristics of water drive reservoirs.
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
Remains high
G.O.R.
Remains low
Water production
Recoverable oil
11
Oil Recovery
Test Yourself 2
Identify the type of drive mechanism present of the
following reservoirs :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Look again at the expected oil recovery from the three types of drive mechanism.
water drive
12
Pressure Maintenance By
Water Injection
Figure 6 is an illustration of an artificial water drive
being used on an oil reservoir.
As the oil is removed from the reservoir via the oil
production wells, water is injected into the water layer
beneath the oil. The water layer is often called the
aquifer. The injection of water into the aquifer helps to
maintain the reservoir pressure, many of the problems
which decrease the efficiency of the reservoir are
avoided.
It is usually necessary to inject more water than the
volume of oil being removed - in some cases as much Some reservoirs produce oil at over 16,000 m3 per day and water may be injected at a rate of over
30,000 m3 per day. Imagine. This amount of water being forced through the reservoir rock, every day for
as 2 m3 injected per m3 produced.
the life of the reservoir.
13
Summary of Section 1
In this section we have looked at the nature of oil and
gas reservoirs. We started by considering the shape of
a basic dome type reservoir. From there we saw that the
two rock properties which influence the way in which oil
and gas are produced are:
porosity
permeability
We then considered reservoir drive mechanisms. Here
you saw there are three basic mechanisms which utilise
natural forces to drive fluids through a reservoir towards
a well. These are:
water drive
14
bacteria
suspended solids
dissolved gases
dissolved solids
Bacteria
Sea water contains tiny micro-organisms called
bacteria. They are very simple life-forms which are
split into two categories. They are
aerobic bacteria
anaerobic bacteria
15
Suspended Solids
If we look closely at sea water we can see with the
naked eye a whole variety of suspended solids.
In areas of clear water we may see small fishes,
shrimps, jelly fish and other life forms. In areas
of muddy water we can see very fine particles of
sand and clay. All of these items are classed as
suspended solids.
Bearing in mind what we have already said about
the properties of reservoir rocks Im sure you can
visualise what would happen if we tried to inject
water containing suspended solids into the rock.
Test Yourself 3
Explain what the consequences would be
of injecting water containing sand or clay
particles into a reservoir rock.
Dissolved Gases
Sea water contains dissolved gases, the main
one of which is air. The air is made up mainly of
oxygen and nitrogen. It is the oxygen from the air
dissolved in the sea water which provides fish and
other living organisms with the means to live.
Test Yourself 4
We have said that it is necessary to
remove oxygen from injection water. This
in itself could create further problems.
What problems are these?
You will find the answer to Test Yourself
4 on Page 55.
16
Dissolved Solids
17
Summary of Section 2
In this short section we have looked at
the make up of sea water which renders it
unsuitable for injection in its raw state.
You saw that:
Bacteria can cause slimes to form
which can foul the system
Bacteria can cause the formation of
hydrogen sulphide, a corrosive and
toxic gas
Suspended solids can plug the pores
of the reservoir
Test Yourself 5
Which of the problems associated
with the use of sea water as injection
water is tackled by each of the following
treatments?
5. Injecting polyelectrolytes.
6. Injecting biocides.
You will find the answer to Test Yourself
5 on Page 55.
18
Bacteria Control
I stated earlier that we use a biocide to kill the
bacteria present in the sea water.
A simple domestic bleach was advertised in the
1980s as being capable of killing all known
germs dead. It sounds ideal for our purpose.
Take the time to look at the small print on a bottle
of strong domestic bleach. You will find that it
contains sodium hypochlorite. This substance is
a biocide a chemical which is capable of killing
bacteria. Sodium hypochlorite is a very powerful
biocide and is the most common one used in sea
water treatment.
The component of the bleach which does the job
is chlorine. This is a gas, however, which would
be difficult to handle. Hypochlorite is a convenient
way of storing chlorine in liquid form.
Occasionally the sodium hypochlorite may be
purchased and delivered to the injection water
treatment plant as bulk chemical. However, it can
be made from sea water on-site and this is often
much more convenient.
19
Filtration Equipment
Figure 7 shows a simplified illustration of a
sodium hypochlorite generator, where the process
takes place. It consists of a length of pipe with
a titanium coated steel tube suspended in the
centre. Electrical connections are made to the pipe
and tube. The combination of outer pipe and inner
length of tube is called a chlorination cell.
20
21
Basket Filters
Basket filters use a sheet of fine wire mesh to
remove the solids from the sea water. They are most
often used for coarse filtration, and are usually found
at the very start of the filtration process.
The sea water is pumped through the filter and the
suspended solids are trapped on the front face of
the mesh. As we have already seen, the solids build
up on the surface of the mesh and create a more
efficient filtering medium than the mesh itself.
Take time to study the illustration in Figure 9, which
shows a basket filter in normal operation.
22
23
In our example:
the support plate is a stainless steel plate
which is drilled with holes or slots which are
smaller than the support material
The filtered solids are washed off the front face of the
wire mesh screen into the cleaning head. When the
cleaning head has rotated through 360 the whole of
the filtering surface will have been cleaned.
The main advantage of this type of filter is that
it can be backwashed whilst it is still on line and
filtering water.
Sand Filters
As the name implies, this type of filter uses grains
of sand as the filtering medium.
Figure 11 shows a simplified cross section through
a sand filter.
24
25
Turbidity Analyser
The turbidity analyser (TA) is an instrument which
measures the turbidity of the water. Turbidity is a
measure of clearness. By measuring the level of
turbidity we have an indication of whether or not
the filter is performing properly.
Most turbidity analysers shine a light through a
stream of water, which is picked up by a receiver.
The level of light transmitted is measured. The
level of light received is also measured. The
difference between the two is a measure of the
turbidity of the water.
It should be noted that turbidity is only an indication
that a filter is operating correctly. Two or three
large particles per m3 (large enough to clog the
reservoir) may register the same level of turbidity
as 150 to 200 very fine particles per m3 (small
enough not to affect the reservoir).
Cartridge Filters
The cartridge filter is one of the easiest filters to
install, operate and maintain. It is also one of the
most popular filters in everyday life.
26
27
Oxygen Removal
In Section 2 we established that sea
water contained
dissolved oxygen and
we determined that, if the oxygen is not
removed:
Test Yourself 6
Are the following statements true or false ?
True
False
28
Gas Stripping
The process of stripping dissolved oxygen from
water is conducted in large stripping towers.
Inside the tower the water is spread out to increase
the surface area, and natural gas is passed
over the surface of the water. This reduces the
concentration of oxygen which is in the atmosphere
in contact with the water.
29
30
Vacuum Deaeration
You should note that the term vacuum is used to
denote any pressure below atmospheric pressure.
We also speak of a deep vacuum, which is
a vacuum well below atmospheric pressure. A
shallow vacuum on the other hand, is a vacuum
which is only slightly below atmospheric pressure.
Figure 16
31
32
33
Test Yourself 7
Do the following statements apply to : gas stripping
deaerators, vacuum deaerators, both types of
deaerator or neither of them?
a) Water enters the column at the top and is
distributed through a sparge pipe.
b) A vortex breaker ensures that gas is not drawn
out of the vessel with the deaerated water.
c) The upper packing support plate accommodates
seal chimneys.
d) The concentration of the oxygen in the gas
mixture in contact with the water is reduced.
e) Pall rings may be used as packaging.
The discharge side of the ejector is connected
to the suction of the vacuum pump. A line
connects the nozzle of the unit to the deep
vacuum section of the deaerator.
As the vacuum pump draws atmospheric
air through the nozzle of the ejector the air
speeds up. This creates an area of very low
pressure at the nozzle which in turn pulls a
deep vacuum on the deaerator.
34
Summary of Section 3
In this section we have been looking at the equipment and processes which are used to treat sea water.
This equipment ensures that the water is rendered suitable for injection into a reservoir.
We started by considering the equipment used
to make sodium hypochlorite from sea water.
You saw that the process is one of electrolysis
using a chlorination cell.
From there we went on to look at the different
types of filter which could be used to reduce the
suspended solids content of the injection water.
The types which we looked at were:
basket
sand
dual media
cartridge
35
Test Yourself 8
To which piece of injection water treatment equipment or system do the following
components belong ?
If the piece of equipment is a filter, state which type. You should indicate if the
components belong to more than one piece of equipment or system.
sparge pipe ......................................................
backwash controller..................................................
degassing tank..................................................
demister pad.............................................................
vortex breaker...................................................
vacuum pump............................................................
ejector................................................................
seal chimney.....................................................
cartridges...........................................................
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 8 on Page 56.
36
Figure 20
37
38
Chlorination Facilities
Figure 22 shows the main pipelines
and controls to be found on the NaOCI
generator.
39
40
Test Yourself 9
State the function of the following
equipment in the sea water intake, coarse
filters and chlorination facilities.
a) The analyser indicator controller at the
discharge from the transfer pumps.
b) The differential pressure switch
connected across the coarse filters.
c) The low flow switch at the inlet to the
NaOCI generator.
d) The air blower in the chlorination
facilities.
41
NaOCI
shock dosing
a biocide connection
a polyelectrolyte connection
42
Fine Filtration
43
44
Test Yourself 10
What is the significance of having two
turbidity analysers in the system?
The filtered sea water leaves the fine filter via valve
XV3. This valve operates as part of the backwash
sequence which we will look at shortly. The water
then joins the water discharged from the other
filters before being fed to the deaerator via the
crude oil coolers.
Before continuing, go over the last few paragraphs
again, together with the drawing. Make sure that
you understand the way in which the total flow is
distributed between the filters.
Look now at two other devices which are fitted to
the fine filter. They are:
45
46
Test Yourself 11
The following steps, which are out of order, are the first part of a typical backwash sequence.
Place the steps in the correct order. Start with inlet valve closes and finish with filter is now
being backwashed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
47
Deaeration
The deaerator column in our system is a
vacuum deaerator. Figure 25 shows the main
components of the system and the associated
controls. Take a few minutes to study this Figure
before moving on. First of all try to establish the
main flow of sea water through the deaerator
column to the surge vessel and on towards the
booster pumps.
Figure 25
48
a non-hypochlorite biocide
an oxygen scavenger
49
50
51
52
Test Yourself 12
Make a simple block diagram of a water
injection system similar to the one at the start
of Section 4. In addition, your diagram should
show:
1.
2.
3.
Summary of Section 4
In this section we have looked at the operation
of a typical sea water treatment system
which uses:
53
Check Yourself 1
Check Yourself 2
Check Yourself 3
a)
1.
2.
b)
3.
4.
Water drive.
5.
c)
Sponge
Sandstone
54
Check Yourself 4
Check Yourself 5
Check Yourself 6
1.
a)
2.
b)
TRUE.
3.
c)
TRUE.
4.
d)
5.
6.
e)
f)
screen.
direction.
TRUE.
55
Check Yourself 7
a)
Both.
b)
c)
Vacuum deaerator.
d)
e)
Both.
f)
Neither.
g)
Vacuum deaerator.
h)
Both
Check Yourself 8
sparge pipe...................... deaerators
degassing tank................ NaOCI generator
support material............... filters (sand & dual media)
vortex breaker.................. deaerators
ejector.............................. vacuum deaerator
seal chimney................... vacuum deaerator
cartridges......................... cartridge filter
backwash controller......... filters (basket, sand, dual media)
cleaning head motor........ basket filter
demister pad.................... deaerators
vacuum pump.................. vacuum deaerator
56
Check Yourself 9
Check Yourself 10
a)
b)
c)
d)
Check Yourself 11
The correct sequence would be
(a)
(h)
(e)
(b)
(i)
(c)
(f)
(k)
(d)
(j)
(g)
(I)
57
Check Yourself 12
58