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In:
Proceedings of the XXIII ISPIM Conference: Action for Innovation: Innovating from
Experience. Barcelona. ISBN 978-952-265-243-0.
1 Introduction
Design was always a catalyst for innovation processes in product and service
development. But over the last 7 years, with numerous publications about Design
Thinking (Brown, 2009; Martin, 2009; Lockwood, 2010; Cross, 2011; Liedtka & Ogilvie,
2011) and the creation of special interest groups in social networks (for example the
Design Thinking Group in LinkedIn since 2007), the term has gained popularity in
business media and become a label for the awareness that any kind of business and
organisation can benefit from the designers way of thinking and working (see for
example in www.innovationmanagement.se). Today, Design Thinking is understood as a
way of thinking which leads to transformation, evolution and innovation, to new forms of
living and to new ways of managing business. This is one of the reasons that design
schools, such as the Design Department of Stanford University (http://
design.stanford.edu/pd/designthinking.html) or the HPI School of Design Thinking of the
University in Potsdam (http://www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/d_school) offer graduate degrees
in Design Thinking. There is no doubt that Design Thinking has much to offer innovation
management, but what is still unclear to many managers is the added value of Design
Thinking for innovation in practice, and how to evaluate and choose the most effective
DT model for their individual innovation practices.
identify, to visualise, to solve and to preview problems in a systematic and creative way.
And if we differentiate Design Thinking from Design, we leave the whole aesthetic and
semantic dimension of product language to the professional designers, and we transport
merely the way of thinking in new business possibilities to innovation managers.
the problem-solution space of the task the design thinker is working on. Apart from the
mental support that visualising offers, the playful aspect of sketching and model making
gives pleasure to the designer, which in turn helps his concentration and perceptive
sensitivity.
In the same way that sketching helps the designer to think and elaborate ideas, early
prototyping is another way of visualising and testing new solutions, and thus is a
principal, and tool, of Design Thinking. It is a visual manifestation of concepts, the
transformation of an idea in a testable model, and thus, according to Liedtka and Ogilvie
(2011) indispensable to the creative design process. And as the designer never has
enough information about a project, and probably never the crucial, rapid prototyping
allows testing of early product or business details, forms and nuances. And as rapid
prototyping materials are cheap, it permits early failure. The understanding and
acceptance that failure and mistakes are important elements of Design Thinking,
differentiates DT from the traditional way of thinking in business. Dealing with
incomplete information, with the unpredictable, and with ambiguous situations, requires
designers to feel comfortable with uncertainty (Pombo & Tschimmel, 2005).
Another fundamental characteristic of Design Thinking is its human-centred
approach, which expresses itself in the collaborative way designers work and in
participatory methods of co-creation. We are witnessing a shift in attitude from designing
for users to the human centred approach of designing with users. In design practice
the American design agency IDEO is an excellent example of this change of approach
(see Brown 2009 and http://www.ideo.com/work/). Their HCD-model (introduced in
chapter 4 of the paper) applied in social innovation processes, foresees the involvement
and participation of impoverished communities in the whole design process, from
identifying the problems and challenges, to idea generation, prototyping and evaluating
the design outcomes. Designers not only develop innovative solutions by working in
teams with colleagues (other designers, engineers, marketing specialists, etc.), researchers
and stakeholders, but also often in collaboration with the final customers and users of
their creations. In the participatory approach, the product user is seen as a partner in the
whole creative process, from data research on to prototyping the new ideas and design
solutions. The general benefit of collaborative Design Thinking is obvious. Besides
improving the image of a product, the well-being of the future users and their loyalty to
the brand, co-creation increases the effectiveness of creative and innovation processes. In
the design process users are considered as experts - experts in their interactions with, and
experiences of, determined products and services.
The following table compares the main characteristics of Design Thinking with the
way of thinking a traditional manager applies. It shows side by side the changes in
thought processes that managers have to make if they are to think as designers.
Table 1 How could Managers think like Designers?
characteristics of a
Design Thinking Manager
characteristics of a
Design Thinking Manager
customer-driven, deep
understanding about what clients
would like to have for their social
status
principally collaborative
principally individual
an iterative process (Stickdorn & Schneider, 2010: 122), and thus we can also assign
them to the new design paradigm of emergence.
In the domain of Design Thinking applied in business and innovation, several process
models have been published and defended as the most appropriate. Some of the best
known models are the 3 I model (Brown & Wyatt, 2010) and the HCD model
(http://www.ideo.com/work/human-centered-design-toolkit), both developed by the
design agency IDEO, the Double Diamond model from the British Design Council
(http://www.designcouncil.org.uk), the Design Thinking model of the Hasso-PlattnerInstitute (http://www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/d_school/designthinking) and the Service
Design model proposed by Stickdorn and Schneider (2010). In the following, these
models will be introduced and discussed, so that innovation managers can form an
opinion about the model which they feel most comfortable about integrating into their
creative working processes.
IDEOs 3 I Model
The DT model of 3 Is (Inspiration, Ideation, Implementation) was developed by IDEO
in 2001 in the context of social innovation. As the design agency was increasingly being
asked to work on problems far removed from traditional design (health care, learning
environments, etc.), they wanted to distinguish this new type of experience oriented
design work from industrial design (Brown & Wyatt, 2010). Inspiration, the first Design
Thinking space of the model, includes the following design activities: the identification
of the design problem or opportunity, the elaboration of the design brief to give the
design team a framework, and the observation of the behaviour of the target group in
their daily living environment. After identifying the context by observation and design
research, the Ideation space of the Design Thinking process starts: an interdisciplinary
team goes through a process of synthesis in which they distil what they have observed
and learned, into insights that lead either to opportunities to change, or immediately to
new solutions (id. ibid.: 34). During this brainstorming process, visual representations of
concepts are encouraged, to help others to understand complex ideas. The third space of
the IDEO DT model is Implementation, the space in which the best ideas are turned into a
action plan. According Brown and Wyatt (ibid.), prototyping is the core of the
implementation process. Through prototyping, new ideas and material solutions are
tested, iterated and improved. After the final product or service has been created, the last
activity of the implementation space is the development of a communication strategy, to
help communicate the solution inside and outside the organisation.
Figure 1 The DT model of 3 Is (recreated from the bad quality example available in
http://www.flickr.com/photos/9698909@ N02/, 02/05/2012).
On the positive side of IDEOs 3 I model is its easy memorable name and its
associated spaces of acting, and that it was the first model, based on an acronym, on the
market. The weak point of this model is in my opinion the terms used for the two first
spaces, Inspiration and Ideation. Because of the etymological significance, they can lead
to wrong interpretations: Inspiration leads us to the false impression of easily formed
ideas and an artistic approach of the creative process. Ideation etymologically limits the
second phase to idea generation, excluding the material and technical contributions to
new ideas and concepts. We can even get the impression that the 3 I model does not
describe the whole design process, but only the phase of idea generation, in which we
must first observe human behaviour to get inspired, then generate ideas through
combining the observed elements in new concepts, and finally develop a strategy to
realise the new concept in practice. But this 3 I interpretation would exclude a lot of
essential moments of the design process.
The HCD model is composed of a kit of DT techniques, organised into the 3 process
spaces, and all illustrated by examples of real projects in impoverished communities in
Africa or India. There is even a facilitator version of the toolkit. The introduction also
includes four possible scenarios in which to apply the method (pp. 13-16). Personally I
dont think that designers or interdisciplinary teams are using the toolkit as a rigid
method to follow. But what I really appreciate in the HCD model is the invitation to
choose some of the tools, which are explained in a project context. I think the HCDtoolkit a very good source from which to get more ideas about how to work in a
collective design process, regardless of the social context of the design project.
In comparison with the 3 I model, the HCD model is a lot more complex and
comprehensive. The double meaning of the acronym HCD happily embraces the human
centred design approach and the 3 spaces of the creative process. And the etymological
associations of Hear, Create and Deliver are in my opinion much more appropriate to
describe creative design thinking and process than Inspiration, Ideation and
Implementation.
Figure 2 The description of each of the 3 steps of the HCD model (available in
http://www.ideo.com/work/human-centered-design-toolkit/, 10/09/2011).
Figure 4 The 4 D Model or Double Diamond design process model, developed by the Design
Council (http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/designprocess, 03/05/2012).
The first quarter of the Double Diamond represents the initial divergent part of the
project, the Discovery phase, in which the designer is searching for new opportunities,
new markets, new information, new trends, and new insights. The second quarter, which
closes the first Diamond, marks the Definition stage, a kind of filter where the first
insights are reviewed, selected and discarded. The Define stage also covers the initial
development of project ideas, in which the designer must engage with the wider context
of the identified opportunity. The key activities during the definition phase are project
development, project management and corporate sign-off, all described in detail at the
Design Council site (http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/about-design/How-designerswork/The-design-process/Define/). The third quarter of the Double Diamond represents
the period of Development. As in the Develop stage the project has been taken through a
corporate and financial sign-off, we find ourselves again in a divergent period. Designled solutions are developed, iterated and tested within the company by multi-disciplinary
teams and under the use of DT tools such as brainstorming, sketches, scenarios,
renderings or prototypes. In the last phase of the 4 D model, the convergent Deliver stage,
the final concept is taken through final testing, signed-off, produced and launched.
Every phase of the Double Diamond design process is much more detailed and
complex than we can show here in this paper, and of course we can say the same for the
other models. Of all the models presented here, the Double Diamond is the more
complete one, probably because it was produced for designers use, while the other three
models have been created with business and management in mind. Also the visual name,
the diamond, and the possibility of using the acronym of 4 Ds is a positive argument for
this model. For the introduction of Design Thinking to business and innovation
management environments, perhaps the model is a little too complex to be easily used in
workshops or facilitation processes. But for young designers, it is in my opinion the most
interesting one to work with, as it is also for interdisciplinary groups.
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A Conclusion
From the methodological point of view, this study belongs to the research paradigm of
constructivism. The constructivist perspective, that all knowledge is dependent on the
social actors and the environment of the interaction, leads us to multiple interpretations of
the DT models here presented; there is nothing objectively 'true', only meaning,
depending on the disciplinary background of each professional who is involved in a
innovation process. This is the reason why the assessment of the value of each DT model
has to be done by each innovator himself. The opinions I gave about every model are
only my opinions, somebody coming from a design and creativity background. There is
no universal best DT process model, the choice innovation managers make depends on
their disciplinary background and their personal taste. Criteria used to choose the more
appropriate process model include, amongst others, the characteristics of the innovation
task, its context, the number and composition of the team and its dynamic, and the
available time for the innovation process.
Although it can be misleading to synthesise the Design Thinking process into three,
four or six steps or spaces, the advantage of these models is that they are making the DT
process more accessible and explicit, easily understandable and applicable in
organisations and business. In comparison to the classical design methods or the CPS
approach of the 1970s, the focus of these process models is on the graphic synthesis of
the dynamic and phases of the DT process, and the integration of the wide range of
techniques and tools which have meanwhile been developed and which can help to make
the creative process a lot more fluid and effective. Above all when applied in
interdisciplinary groups and in situations in which the user enters the creative process. All
DT tools presented in the next chapter could be integrated in every one of the DT models
presented here.
Tools for observing, getting empathy and clarifying the project task
The basis of the human-centred approach of design is the idea of intense observation
(with all the senses) and empathy. To understand better the essence of a project task or
problem, designers try to get the widest possible range of information about the users of
their future products. The research frequently starts with the review of existing literature
on the project subject and context. Observation techniques, in-depth interviews with
those observed, photographs and other visual registers and interpretations of the context
of the users, are most important for getting empathy and for clarifying the project task.
They are also vital for later use as an impulse for idea generation.
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each keyword can be associated with other words and images. Starting from a central
topic/theme, a Mind Map consists of labeled twigs and branches, which represent
relationships. In its preparation, colours, images and symbols should be used to stimulate
associative operations and to make the outcome of the Mind Map clearer and more
legible. Mind Maps can be realised individually or in groups, as process maps or as
concept presentations.
Figure 5 Example of a group Mind Map, realised by students of the 2nd year at ESAD - School of
Art and Design in Matosinhos, Portugal to explain a concept to their colleagues.
Figure 6 Examples of Empathy Maps, realised by students of the 2nd year at ESAD - School of Art
and Design in Matosinhos, Portugal.
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5. Sketching
As we saw in chapter 2, the transformation of ideas and information into images plays a
special role in Design Thinking. Some authors even call visualisation tools the mother of
all design tools, because they are used in every stage of a DT process (Liedtka &
Ogilvie, 2011: 49). Particularly for generating new ideas and perspectives, sketching,
rapidly executed freehand drawing, is essential to make ideas tangible and concrete.
Sketches dont have to be sophisticated, simple drawing on a whiteboard or big paper can
be a powerful tool to explain, clarify and discuss ideas.
Figure 8 Examples of simple sketches, realised by students of the 2nd year at ESAD - School of
Art and Design in Matosinhos, Portugal.
7. Storyboard
A Storyboard is a series of images (drawings, illustrations or photographs), displayed in
sequence, to visualise a process, service or event. In the elaboration of a concept it is very
useful to test a sequence of users interactions with a new product, service or business
model. This process of visual thinking and planning promotes a dialogue between the
participants. The draft storyboard is frequently made with Post It notes (because of their
mobility) (Fig. 9), which are replaced when the final sequence is decided. Fully
elaborated Storyboards can be used in presentations to clients of a new product, a
campaign, a new service or a new business.
Figure 9 Examples of a storyboard, realised by web design students in a DT class at ESAD School of Art and Design in Matosinhos, Portugal.
8. Rapid Prototyping
As with Sketches and Draft Storyboards, Rapid Prototyping is a quick way of visualising
and materialising concepts. Concept details, forms and nuances with a crude and
unfinished appearance, are brought to life and tested. The sooner Rapid Prototyping is
done the better, because early failure with the concept development saves a lot of money
in later development. The purpose of Rapid Prototyping is to swiftly create something
material that can facilitate conversations with partners, be tested with users, refined and
improved, and final discussed with a broader audience.
Figure 10 Examples of Rapid Prototyping, realised by students of the 2nd year at ESAD - School
of Art and Design in Matosinhos, Portugal.
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9. Storytelling
Storytelling is a tool, designers use for sharing new concepts, situating the new product or
service within a narrative context. Presenting a project in an emotional context allows the
public to follow much more closely the details of the new proposal. Stories are generally
illustrative, symbolic and easily memorable to create a strong emotional bond with the
audience. The Storytelling tool is frequently combined with Role Play or Storyboard to
communicate visually the story about the use of the new product and the new experience.
effectively in innovation processes and to give new impulses to their colleagues. Some of
the students even started to implement systematic creative processes in their SMBs and
to facilitate them. Design Thinking, in my opinion, should not only be a discipline in
Business Schools, but also in other university courses, such as psychology, sociology or
politics. Learning how to move in creative processes through the application of DT tools
is useful to everybody who wants to identify new human needs, who wants to create and
communicate new visions in a visual way; everybody who provides change in the
material or immaterial world, whos working in a collaborative way and whos future
oriented.
1. Design Thinking is not merely the designers mental ability, but can be
developed and trained by anybody who wants to solve problems in a creative
way, who wants to conceive new realities and who wants to communicate new
ideas. The advice: encourage cross-training, which means giving design training
to engineers and marketing people, and business training to your designers.
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on wallpapers without fear that the drawings are not good enough to be seen. To
create quick and rough prototypes.
5. Every innovation process is guided by a kind of road map, which could be the
Stage-Gate model or others. To get an idea of the potential of DT tools,
managers could little by little introduce DT tools into the existing stages of their
innovation processes, without being attached to a specific DT process model.
6 Future Research
At the moment, I am working on my own DT process model, which I am testing in my
methodology classes with design students and in workshops with innovation managers.
2
The model is called E.volution 4 : Evolution because the creative process is an
evolutionary process in which a lot of individuals and situations are interacting. E.4,
because in Portuguese language the division in 4 process spaces, which I consider the
most appropriate ones, are starting with an E: Empatia (Empathy), Experimentao
(Experimentation), Elaborao (Elaboration) and Entrega (Deliver, which I call in the
english version Exit) (an visual model is available in www.namente.pt, Formao Modelo de processo). Since there are moments of Exploration (divergence) and Entering
(convergence) in every phase of the model, this model is called E.42. In future research, I
have to examine whether it is easy for innovation managers to work with this model in
practice, how to integrate some of the most important DT tools in the most
understandable way, and whether the model could be used without an external facilitator
in organisations.
References
BROWN, Tim (2009). Change by Design. How Design Thinking transforms
Organizations and inspires Innovation. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
BUZAN, Tony, BUZAN, Barry (1993). The mind map book: Radiant Thinking
Major Evolution in Human Thought. London: BBC Books.
COLLINS, Hilary (2010). Creative Research. The Theory and Practice of Research
for the Creative Industries. Lausanne: AVA Publishing.
CROSS, Nigel (2011). Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and
Work. Oxford: Berg.
CROSS, Nigel, DORST, Kees, ROOZENBURG, Norbert (Eds.) (1992). Research in
Design Thinking. Delft: Delft University Press.
DORST, Kees (1997). Describing Design, A Comparison of Paradigms. Delft: Delft
University Press.
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