Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Contents
4 Notes
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
Atenism
Zeno of Citium
Stoicism
Egyptian
Life of founder
22nd century BC
(short chronology)
21st century BC (short
chronology)
14th century BC
(conventional
Egyptian chronology)
Indian
877777 BC[1][2][3][4]
Central Iranian/Airya
717 BC 673 BC
Chinese
Babylonian
(southern dialect of
Akkadian)
6th century BC
Indian
599527 BC[6]
Indian
c. 5th century BC
Chinese
Greek, born on Samos
Chinese
Judean, Levite tribal
through Aaronic line
Greek, born on Samos
possibly Phoenician,[8]
albeit a Greek national
551 BC 479 BC
fl. 520 BC
470 BC 390 BC
6th century BC
Jesus
Pauline Christianity
Patanjali
Jewish Christianity
Talmudic Rabbinical
Judah haNasi
Judaism
Marcion of Sinope Marcionism
Nagarjuna
Madhyamaka
Plotinus
Neoplatonism
Mani
Manichaeism
Arius[n 3]
Arianism[n 4]
Pelagius[n 3]
Pelagianism[n 5]
Nestorius[n 3]
Nestorianism[n 6]
Eutyches
Monophysitism[n 7]
Indian
2nd century BC
2nd century AD
Pontic Greek
Telugu Dravidian
may have been of
Roman,[9]
Greek,[10] or Hellenized
Egyptian[11]
ancestry; Roman
citizen
Persian Western
Iranian/Airya
possibly Berber,
born in Libya;
hellenophone
British,[12] possibly
Irish;[13] fluent in Greek
and Latin
Assyrian,
albeit a Byzantine
national
born in Constantinople
110160
150250
205270
216276
250336
354430
386451
380456
Life of founder
520s
Zen Buddhism
6th century
Islam
Tibetan Buddhism
Shugend
Zen Buddhism in China and East Asia
Nyingma
Neo-Confucianism
Tendai Buddhism (descended from
Tiantai)
Kkai
Adi Shankara
Ramanujacharya
Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad
Basava
Hnen
Eisai
Shinran
Dgen
Haji Bektash Veli
Nichiren
Madhvacharya
Sant Mat (group of saints)
John Wyclif
Jan Hus
Ramananda
Srimanta Sankardeva
Guru Nanak Dev
Baba Sri Chand
Vallabha Acharya
Martin Luther
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Menno Simons
Conrad Grebel
Jacob Hutter
John Calvin[14]
Michael Servetus[15]
John Knox[16]
Akbar the Great
Jacob Arminius
John Smyth[17]
Avvakum[citation needed]
George Fox[18]
Philipp Jakob Spener[19]
Jakob Ammann
Emanuel Swedenborg
Shingon Buddhism
Advaita Vedanta
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
Druze
Lingayatism
Jdo Buddhism (descended from Pure
Land Buddhism)
Rinzai Zen Buddhism (descended from
Linji)
Jdo Shinsh Buddhism (descended from
Jdo)
St Zen Buddhism (descended from
Caodong)
Bektashi Sufi)
Nichiren Buddhism
Dvaita
774835
9th century
1017-1137
11th century
12th century
11311212
11411215
11731263
12001253
12091271
12221282
12381317
13th to 15th
Bhakti movement (of Hinduism)
centuries
Lollardy
1320s1384
Hussitism
13721415
Sant Mat Vaishnavism
15th century
Mahapuruxiya Dharma
14491568
Sikhism
14691539
Udasi
14941629
Shuddhadvaita
14791531
Lutheranism and Protestantism in general 14831546
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Achintya Bheda
14861534
Abheda
Mennonitism
14961561
Swiss Brethren, Anabaptism
14981526
Hutterites
15001536
Calvinism
15091564
Unitarianism
1511?1553
Presbyterianism
15101572
Din-i-Ilahi
15421605
Arminianism
15601609
Baptists
15701612
Russian Orthodox Old Believers
16201682
Religious Society of Friends
16241691
Pietism
16351705
Amish
16561730
The New Church
1688-1772
Hasidic Judaism
Methodism
Wahhabism
Shakers
16981760
17031791
17031792
17361784
Life of founder
17721833
17811830
17981857
17981887
17991890
18021866
18041869
18051844
18051871
18131899
18141864
18171892
18191850
18211881
18211884
18211910
18231874
18241883
18271915
18311891
18331851
18351908
18481919
18521916
18561932
18611925
18631902
18631947
18721950
18741974
Aleister Crowley
Charles Fox Parham
"Father Divine"
Ng Vn Chiu
Guy Ballard
Frank Buchman
Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan
Gerald Gardner
Felix Y. Manalo
Frank Bruce Robinson
Noble Drew Ali
Marcus Garvey
Ernest Holmes
Sadguru Sadafaldeo Ji Maharaj
Aimee Semple McPherson[28]
Zlio Fernandino de Moraes[29]
Ida B. Robinson
Thelema
Pentecostalism
International Peace Mission movement
Cao Dai
I AM
Oxford Group/Moral Re-Armament
Reconstructionist Judaism
Wicca
Iglesia Ni Cristo (Church of Christ)
Psychiana
Moorish Science Temple
Rastafari movement
Religious Science
Vihangam Yoga
Foursquare Church
Umbanda
Mount Sinai Holy Church of America
Nation of Islam
Paramahansa Yogananda
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada
Ruth Norman
Swami Muktananda
Ikuro Teshima
L. Ron Hubbard
Kim Il-sung
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
Samael Aun Weor
Mark L. Prophet
Ben Klassen
Ahnsahnghong
Huynh Phu So
Yong (Sun) Myung Moon[31]
Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar
Clarence 13X
Mestre Gabriel
Nirmala Srivastava
Sveinbjrn Beinteinsson
Sathya Sai Baba
Anton Szandor LaVey
Rajneesh Chandra Mohan[32]
Self-Realization Fellowship
International Society for Krishna
Consciousness
Unarius
Siddha Yoga
Makuya
Church of Scientology
Juche[30]
Transcendental Meditation
Universal Christian Gnostic Movement
The Summit Lighthouse
Creativity
World Mission Society Church of God
Hoa Hao Buddhism
Unification Church
Ananda Marga
The Nation of Gods and Earths
Unio do Vegetal
Sahaja Yoga
satr
Sathya Sai Organization
Church of Satan
Osho movement
18751947
18731929
c. 18761965
18781926
18781939
18781961
18811983
18841964
18861963
18861948
18861929
18871940
18871960
18881902
18901944
18911975
18911946
1891 (disappeared
1934)
18931952
18961977
19001993
19081982
19101973
19111986
19121994
19172008
19171977
19181973
19181993
1918-1985
19191947
19202012
19211990
19221969
19221971
19232011
19241993
19262011
19301997
19311990
1918-1973 1939
2009
19392008
1946
1949
1951
1956
19561961
1969
19931965
Notes
1. "Controversy over Zarautra's date has been an embarrassment of long standing to
Zoroastrian studies. If anything approaching a consensus exists, it is that he lived ca.
1000 BCE give or take a century or so, though reputable scholars have proposed dates as
widely apart as ca. 1750 BCE and '258 years before Alexander.'" (Encyclopdia Iranica)
2. historicity disputed but widely considered plausible. Gosta W. Ahlstrom argues the
inconsistencies of the biblical tradition are insufficient to say that Ezra, with his central
position as the 'father of Judaism' in the Jewish tradition, has been a later literary
invention. (The History of Ancient Palestine, Fortress Press, p.888)
3. The teaching of the traditional "founding father" of a "heresy" is may well have differed
greatly from the contents of the heresy as generally understood. For references see
following notes.
4. Acc. to Rowan Williams, 'Arianism' was essentially a polemical creation of Athanasius in
an attempt to show that the different alternatives to the Nicene Creed collapsed back into
some form of Arius' teaching. (Arius, SCM (2001) p.247)
5. Pelagius' thought was one sided and an inadequate interpretation of Christianity, but his
disciples, Celestius and, to a greater extent, Julian of Eclanum pushed his ideas to
extremes.(Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines A & C. Black (1965) p.361) Pelagius
himself was declared orthodox by the synod of Diospolis in 415, after repudiating some
of Celestius' opinions. (Frend, W.H.C. Saints and Sinners in the Early Church DLT
(1985) p.133)
6. Nestorius specifically endorsed the repudiation of "Nestorianism" reached at Chalcedon
in 451 (Prestige, G.L. Fathers and Heretics SPCK (1963) p.130)
7. Monophysitism represents an advanced type of Alexandrian Theology; it emerged in a
distinctive form in 433 as a result of the agreement between John of Antioch and Cyril of
Alexandria. The exaggerated form held by Eutyches was condemned in 451 by the
Council of Chalcedon. In its moderate forms the divergence from orthodoxy may be
simply terminological. Alexandrian Theology stressed both divine transcendence and a
marked dualism between the material and the spiritual and so tended to nullify the
humanity of Christ.(Cross & Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
(1974) arts. Monophysitism, Alexandrian Theology)
8. The Old Catholic Churches are a grouping of national churches which have broken from
Rome at different times: The Church of Utrecht in 1724; German Austrian and Swiss
Christians who refused to accept the dogma of papal infallibility as defined in 1870 and
received the apostolic succession from Utrecht; these two groups were later some small
groups of Slav origin living in the USA (Cross & Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church (1974) arts. Old Catholics; Holland, Christianity in)
Contents
1 Imperial cults
2 Posthumous deification
3 Involuntary deification
4 Self-deification
5 See also
6 References
Imperial cults
Who
Egyptian pharaohs
Image
When
Notability
Egyptian pharaohs were kings of Ancient Egypt, and
were considered gods by their culture. Their titles
equated them with aspects of the likes of the hawk god
Horus, the vulture goddess Nekhbet, and the cobra3050 goddess Wadjet. The Egyptians believed that when
30 BC their Pharaoh died, he would continue to lead them in
the next life, which is why his burial was grand and
completed to perfectionto please him in the next life
and ensure his immortality to protect his people. See
List of pharaohs.[1][2]
Naram-Sin
2255
The first Mesopotamian king to claim divinity.[3]
2119 BC
Chinese Emperors
221 BC
Deified as "Sons of Heaven" since the Qin Dynasty
AD
under Qin Shi Huang.[4]
1911
Roman Emperors
Japanese Emperors
Natchez rulers
The Sailendras
Who
Image
Dalai Lamas
When
Notability
Inca Emperors
1438
Nepalese monarchs
Posthumous deification
Main article: Apotheosis
Who
Image
When
Notability
Imhotep
Queen Dido of
Carthage
8th
century Venerated at Alexandria by Ptolemy IV Philopator.
BC
Who
Siddhrtha Gautama
Buddha
Hephaestion
Alexander III of
Macedon the Great
(hero cult)
Jesus
Image
When
Notability
the historicity of Romulus, in part because of the 1988
discovery of the Murus Romuli on the north slope of
the Palatine Hill in Rome.[12]
Antinous
Mary (mother of
Jesus)
Who
Guan Yu
Al ibn Ab Tlib
Sugawara no
Michizane
El-Hakem b'Amr
Allah
Image
When
Notability
Guan Yu has been deified as early as the Sui Dynasty
and is still popularly worshipped today among the
Chinese people variedly as an indigenous Chinese
deity, a bodhisattva in Buddhism and a guardian deity
581 AD in Taoism. He is also held in high esteem in
618 AD Confucianism. In Hong Kong both police and
gangsters consider him a divine object of reverence. In
certain schools of Taoism and Chinese Buddhism he
has been deemed divine or semi-divine status. The
reverence for him may date back to the Sui dynasty.[14]
According to the Alawite faith, Ali ibn Abi Talib is
one member of a trinity (Ali-Muhammad-Salman the
599 AD Persian) corresponding roughly to the Christian
661 AD Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. He is considered to be
the second emanation of God by Yarsan and the
supreme deity in Ali-Illahism.
Japanese Imperial courtier banished from the capital
845 AD
and deified upon his death to appease his angry spirit.
903 AD
Worshipped as Tenjin, kami of scholarship.
Sixth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, ruling from 996 to
1021. The members of the Druze faith believe that the
985 AD
Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is God
1021 AD
incarnate and that he will come back as the Mahdi.[15]
[16][17][18][19]
Majapahit Kings
Tokugawa Ieyasu
L. L. Zamenhof
1859
Considered a god by members of the Oomoto religion.
1917
Who
Image
When
Notability
Jos Rizal
Wallace Fard
Muhammad
Kanichi Otsuka
George Washington
Involuntary deification
Who
Ezra HaSofer
Antiochus II Theos
Image
When
Notability
Ezra established Second Temple Judaism[25] and is
regarded as a very important figure in Judaism.[26] The
458 BC
Quran claims that Yemenite Jews believed Uzair was
the son of God.[Quran 9:30][27]
Seleucid ruler. The younger son of Antiochus I and
Stratonice, succeeded his father in 261. He liberated
286
Ephesus, Ionia, Cilicia and Pamphylia from Egyptian
246 BC
domination, and in return for their autonomy the cities
of Asia Minor gave him the title Theos ("God").[28]
Zheng He
1371
Worshiped by some Chinese and South East Asians.[29]
1433
General John
Nicholson
1822
Inspired the cult of Nikal Seyn.
1857
Who
Image
When
Notability
Jiddu Krishnamurti
Haile Selassie I of
Ethiopia
Prince Philip of
Greece and
Denmark, Duke of
Edinburgh
1921
-?
Kumari
Self-deification
Main article: Self-deification
Further information: Maitreya claimants, Buddha claimants and Messiah claimants
Who
Image When
Notability
Seleucid ruler (reigned 175-164); the only Seleucid
king to claim divine honors, calling himself Theos
Epiphaneus "God Manifest" and Nikephoros "Bringer
of Victory." Nearly conquered Ptolemaic Egypt, the
Antiochus IV
215
primary rival of the Seleucids among the Diadochi
Epiphanes
164 BC
states. Famously attempted to impose ancient Greek
religion on the Jews by persecution, leading to the
Maccabean Revolt; remembered as a major persecutor
in Jewish tradition.[28]
Who
Simon Magus
Image
When
Notability
Considered a god in Simonianism. According to
Irenaeus, he "was glorified by many as if he were a
god; and he taught that it was himself who appeared
among the Jews as the Son, but descended in Samaria
1st as the Father while he came to other nations in the
century character of the Holy Spirit. He represented himself, in
a word, as being the loftiest of all powers, that is, the
Being who is the Father over all, and he allowed
himself to be called by whatsoever title men were
pleased to address him."[32]
Veleda
Ismail I
Danila Filippovich
Kondratii Selivanov
Hong Xiuquan
Father Divine
Taher Saifuddin
Francisco Macas
Nguema
Who
Juanita Peraza
(Mita)
Lou de Palingboer
Image
When
Notability
Jim Jones
1931
1978
1935
2007
Nirmala Srivastava
Jehovah Wanyonyi
1924
1926
2011
Mitsuo Matayoshi
1944
Claude Vorilhon
Who
Image
Vissarion
When
Notability
Claims to be Jesus Christ returned, which makes him
1961
not "God" but the "word of God".
List of deities
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is an index to polytheistic deities of the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the
world, listed by type and by region. This is not a list of names or epithets of gods in modern
monotheistic religions, for which see "Names of God". For deified individuals see "List of
people who have been considered deities", "Apotheosis" and "Imperial cult". For deities whose
cult is fictional see "List of deities in fiction".
Contents
1 By classification
2 By cultural sphere
3 Syncretic mythologies
4 See also
5 References
By classification
Ruler of the Pantheon
Celestial, Cosmological
Creator
Moon
Sky
Sun
Time
Chthonic
Mother Earth
Mother Nature
Night
Ocean, water
Human sphere
Death
Father, Mother
Fate
Household, hearth
Hunting
Knowledge or wisdom
Thresholds, doorways
Trickster
War
Culture heroes
Imperial cult
Sacred king
Spiritual entity
Avatar
By cultural sphere
Near East and North Africa
Kassite deities
Canaanite deities
o Anatolia
Hittite deities
Hurrian deities
Lydian deities
o Caucasus
Armenian deities
Georgian deities
Ossetian deities
Siberian
o Raven God of Kamchatka and Chukotka
Turco-Mongol
o Tengri
East Asia
Chinese deities
Japanese deities
Korean deities
List of bodhisattvas
The image illustrates the Hindu belief that each part of the cow embodies a particular deity
Hindu deities
o Rigvedic deities (see also Proto-Indo-Iranian religion)
Southeast Asia
Europe
Baltic deities
Celtic deities
o Irish deities
Etruscan deities
Finnic deities
Germanic deities
o Anglo-Saxon deities
o List of Norse gods and goddesses
Greek pantheon (see also List of Greek mythological figures, Twelve Olympians, Greek
hero cult, Family tree of the Greek gods, Mycenaean gods, Hellenismos)
Hungarian deities
Lusitani deities
Sami deities
Slavic deities
Sub-Saharan Africa
Contemporary poster of a Mami Wata, "serpent priestess" painted by German (Hamburg) artist
Schleisinger, ca. 1926, displayed in shrines as a popular image of Mami Wata in Africa and in the
Diaspora.[1][2]
African deities
o Alusi
o Guanche deities
o Yoruba deities
Afro-American religion
o Loa
o Orisha
Americas
Mesoamerica
o Aztec deities
o Maya deities
North America
o Inuit deities
o Native American deities
South America
o Incan deities
o Guarani
o Mapuche
Australia-Oceania
Mori deities
Polynesian deities
Syncretic mythologies
Religious symbols in clock-wise order: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Bah' Faith, Hinduism,
Taoism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Slavic neopaganism, Celtic polytheism, Heathenism (German
paganism), Semitic neopaganism, Wicca, Kemetism (Egyptian paganism), Hellenism, ItaloRoman neopaganism.
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, beliefs, and world views that establishes symbols that
relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. While religion is hard to define,
one standard model of religion, used in religious studies courses, was proposed by Clifford
Geertz, who simply called it a "cultural system".[1] A critique of Geertz's model by Talal Asad
categorized religion as "an anthropological category".[2] Many religions have narratives, symbols,
traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of
life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle
from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature. According to some estimates, there are
roughly 4,200 religions in the world.[3]
The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" or "belief system", but religion
differs from private belief in that it has a public aspect. Most religions have organized behaviors,
including clerical hierarchies, a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership,
congregations of laity, regular meetings or services for the purposes of veneration of a deity or
for prayer, holy places (either natural or architectural), and/or religious texts. Certain religions
also have a sacred language often used in liturgical services. The practice of a religion may also
include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts,
trance, initiations, funerals, marriages, meditation, music, art, dance, public service, or other
aspects of human culture. Religious beliefs have also been used to explain parapsychological
phenomena such as out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences and reincarnation, along
with many other paranormal experiences. [4][5]
Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories: world
religions, a term which refers to transcultural, international faiths; indigenous religions, which
refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and new religious
movements, which refers to recently developed faiths.[6] One modern academic theory of
religion, social constructionism, says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all spiritual
practice and worship follows a model similar to the Abrahamic religions as an orientation system
that helps to interpret reality and define human beings,[7] and thus religion, as a concept, has been
applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures that are not based upon such systems, or in
which these systems are a substantially simpler construct.
Contents
1 Abrahamic religions
o 1.1 Bbism
o 1.2 Bah' Faith
o 1.3 Christianity
o 1.4 Gnosticism
o 1.5 Islam
o 1.6 Druze
o 1.7 Judaism and related religions
o 1.8 Black Hebrew Israelites
o 1.9 Rastafari movement
o 1.10 Mandaeans and Sabians
o 1.11 Shabakism
2 Indian religions
o 2.1 Ayyavazhi
o 2.2 Bhakti movement
o 2.3 Buddhism
o 2.4 Din-e Ilahi
o 2.5 Hinduism
o 2.6 Jainism
o 2.7 Meivazhi
o 2.8 Sikhism
3 Iranian religions
o 3.1 Zoroastrianism
o 3.2 Gnostic religions
o 3.3 Bb movement
o 3.4 Yazdnism
o 4.3 Taoism
o 4.4 Other
4.4.1 Chinese
4.4.2 Korean
4.4.3 Vietnamese
7 Historical polytheism
o 7.1 Ancient Near Eastern
o 7.2 Indo-European
7.2.1 Hellenistic
o 7.3 Uralic
8.1.1.1 Thelema
9 Modern Paganism
o 9.1 Syncretic
o 9.2 Ethnic
13 Fictional religions
15 Others
16 Other categorisations
o 16.1 By demographics
o 16.2 By area
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
Abrahamic religions
Main article: Abrahamic religions
A group of monotheistic traditions sometimes grouped with one another for comparative
purposes, because all refer to a patriarch named Abraham.
Bbism
Main article: Bbism
Azali
Bah' Faith
Christianity
Main article: Christianity
See also: List of Christian denominations
Western Christianity
Main article: Roman Catholic Church
Main article: Protestantism
Anabaptists
Anglicanism
Baptists
Calvinism
Congregational churches
Lutheranism
Methodism
Moravians
Nonconformism
Pentecostalism
Pietism
Presbyterianism
Quakerism
o Shakers
Waldensians
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Catholics (In full communion with Rome, but retaining a diverse array of Eastern
liturgical rites; including the Maronites and Chaldean Catholics)
Eastern Orthodox Church (Includes the Greek Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Russian
Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Bulgarian Orthodox, and several other autocephalous
churches and Patriarchates)
Arianism
Christadelphians
Christian Gnosticism
Christian Identity
Christian Science
Christian Universalism
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jesuism
Millerites
Nontrinitarianism
Messianic Judaism
Rastafarianism
Spiritual Baptists
Swedenborgianism
Unification Church
Gnosticism
Many Gnostic groups were closely related to early Christianity, for example, Valentinism.
Irenaeus wrote polemics against them from the standpoint of the then-unified Catholic Church.[8]
Main article: Gnosticism
See also: List of Gnostic sects
Yazidis
Persian Gnosticism
Mandaeism
Syrian-Egyptic Gnosticism
None of these religions are still extant.
Main article: Syrian-Egyptic Gnosticism
Sethianism
o Basilideans
o Valentinianism
Bardaisan#Bardesanite school
Neo-Gnostic Groups
Ecclesia Gnostica
Islam
Main article: Islam
See also: Islamic schools and branches
Kalam Schools
Main article: Ilm al-Kalam
Ash'ari
Maturidi
Murji'ah
Mu'tazila
Kharijite
Main article: Khawarij
Azraqi
Haruriyyah
Sufri
Shia Islam
Main article: Shia Islam
Isma'ilism
o Mustaali / Dawoodi Bohra
o Nizari
Ja'fari jurisprudence
o Twelver
Akhbari
Shaykhism
Usuli
o Alawites
o Alevism / Bektashi Order
Zaidiyyah
Sufism
Main article: Sufism
Bektashi Order
Chishti Order
Mevlevi Order
Mujaddidiyah
Naqshbandi
o Jahriyya
o Khufiyya
Ni'matullh
Tariqa
Qadiriyya
Sufism Reoriented
Suhrawardiyya
Tijaniyyah
Universal Sufism
o Dances of Universal Peace
Sunni Islam
Main article: Sunni Islam
Hanafi
o Barelvi
o Deobandi
o Gedimu
o Yihewani
o Xidaotang
Hanbali
Maliki
Shafi'i
Quranism
Main article: Quranism
Quranism
Tolu-e-Islam
Black Muslims
Main article: Black Muslims
Five-Percent Nation
Nation of Islam
Ahmadiyya
Main article: Ahmadiyya
Yarsanism
Al-Fatiha Foundation
European Islam
Ittifaq al-Muslimin
Jamaat al Muslimeen
Jadid
Wahhabi movement
Mahdavia
Alevism
Bektashi Order
Druze
Main article: Druze
Orthodox Judaism
o Haredi Judaism
o Hasidic Judaism
o Modern Orthodox Judaism
Conservative Judaism
o Masorti
o Conservadox Judaism
Reform Judaism
Progressive Judaism
o Liberal Judaism
Karaite Judaism
Main article: Karaite Judaism
Samaritanism
Samaritans use a slightly different version of the Pentateuch as their Torah, worshiping at Mount
Gerizim instead of Jerusalem, and are possibly the descendants of the lost Northern Kingdom.
They are definitely of ancient Israelite origin, but their status as Jews is disputed.[9]
Main article: Samaritans
Falasha or Beta Israel
Modern Non-Rabbinic Judaism
Alternative Judaism
Jewish Renewal
Reconstructionist Judaism
Historical groups
Essenes
Zealots (Judea)s
o Sicarii
Sabbateans
o Frankism
Rastafari movement
Main article: Rastafari movement
Mandaeism
Sabians
o Mandaean Nasaraean Sabeans
o Sabians of Harran
Shabakism
Main article: Shabak people
Indian religions
Main article: Indian religions
Indian religions are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent; namely Hinduism,
Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism and religions and traditions related to, and descended from,
them.
Ayyavazhi
Main article: Ayyavazhi
Bhakti movement
Main article: Bhakti movement
Kabir panth
Ravidassia religion
Sant Mat
Buddhism
Main article: Schools of Buddhism
Nikaya schools (which have historically been incorrectly called Hinayana in the West)
o Theravada
Dhammakaya Movement
o Vipassana movement
Mahayana
o Humanistic Buddhism
o Madhyamaka
Prasagika
Svatantrika
Jonang
o Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Sh
Nichiren Shsh
Soka Gakkai
Jdo-sh
Jdo Shinsh
o Buddha-nature
Hwaeom
Kegon
o Tiantai
Tendai
Cheontae
o Yogcra
o Chan Buddhism
Caodong school
Zen
St
Keizan line
Jakuen line
Giin line
Linji school
Rinzai school
baku
Fuke-sh
Won Buddhism
Sanbo Kyodan
Vajrayana
o Shingon Buddhism
o Tibetan Buddhism
Bon
Gelug
Kagyu
Karma Kagyu
Barom Kagyu
Drukpa Lineage
Shangpa Kagyu
Nyingma
Sakya
Dagpo Kagyu
Jonang
Nipponzan-Myhji-Daisanga
Din-e Ilahi
Din-e Ilahi
Hinduism
See also: Hindu denominations
Swaminarayan
Shrauta
Lingayatism
Shaivism
Shaktism
Tantrism
o Ananda Marga[11]
Smartism
Vaishnavism
o Gaudiya Vaishnavism
Hinduism in Indonesia
Nyaya
Purva mimamsa
Samkhya
Vaisheshika
Yoga
o Ashtanga Yoga
o Bhakti Yoga
o Raja yoga
o Karma yoga
o Jnana yoga
o Kundalini yoga
o Hatha yoga
o Siddha Yoga
o Surat Shabd Yoga
o Tantric Yoga
o Sahaja Yoga
Jainism
Main article: Jainism
Digambara
o Bispanthi[14]
o Digambar Terapanth
o Kanji Panth[14]
o Panth of Kanji Swami
vtmbara
o Murtipujaka (Deravasi)
o Sthnakavs
o Svetambar Terapanth
Meivazhi
Meivazhi
Sikhism
Khalsa
o Nihang
Ravidassia religion
Sahajdhari
Iranian religions
Main article: Iranian religions
Zoroastrianism
Main article: Zoroastrianism
Zurvanism
Mazdakism
Behafaridians
Gnostic religions
Mandaeism
Manichaeism
Mithraism
Bb movement
Bbism
Bah' Faith
Azali
Yazdnism
Main article: Yazdnism
Alevi (this is contested; most Alevi consider themselves to be Shia or Sufi Muslims, but a
minority adhere to the Yazdani interpretation)
Yarsani
Yazidi
Confucianism
Main article: Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
New Confucianism
Shinto
Main articles: Shinto and Shinto sects and schools
Koshint
Shugend
Yoshida Shint
Shinto-inspired religions
Konkokyo
Oomoto
Seicho-no-Ie
Shinmeiaishinkai
Tenrikyo
Zenrinkyo
Taoism
Main article: Taoism
Taipingjing-based movements
Xuanxue (Neo-Taoism)
Yiguandao
Dudeism
Other
Chinese
Chan Buddhism
Falun Gong
Yiguandao (I Kuan-Tao)
Mohism
Xiantiandao
Korean
Cheondoism
Daejongism
Daesun Jinrihoe
Gasin faith
Jeung San Do
Juche
Korean shamanism
Suwunism
Vietnamese
Cao i
o Bu Sn K Hng
o Da
o Mu
Ha Ho
African diasporic religions are a number of related religions that developed in the Americas
among African slaves and their descendants in various countries of the Caribbean Islands and
Latin America, as well as parts of the southern United States. They derive from African
traditional religions, especially of West and Central Africa, showing similarities to the Yoruba
religion in particular.
Batuque
Candombl
Dahomey mythology
Haitian mythology
Kumina
Macumba
Mami Wata
Obeah
Oyotunji
Palo
Quimbanda
Santera (Lukumi)
Umbanda[15]
Vodou
African
Main article: African traditional religions
West Africa
Akan mythology
Central Africa
East Africa
Southern Africa
Khoisan religion
American
Main article: Native American mythology
Abenaki mythology
Anishinaabe
Aztec mythology
Blackfoot mythology
Cherokee mythology
Chickasaw mythology
Choctaw mythology
Creek mythology
Crow mythology
Ghost Dance
Guarani mythology
Haida mythology
Hopi mythology
Inca mythology
Inuit mythology
Iroquois mythology
Kuksu
Kwakiutl mythology
Lakota mythology
Longhouse religion
Mapuche mythology
Maya mythology
Midewiwin
Miwok
Navajo mythology
Nootka mythology
Ohlone mythology
Olmec mythology
Pomo mythology
Pawnee mythology
Salish mythology
Selk'nam religion
Seneca mythology
Sun Dance
Tsimshian mythology
Urarina
Ute mythology
Wyandot religion
Zuni mythology
Eurasian
Asian
Chinese mythology
Japanese mythology
Korean shamanism
Koshint
Manchu Shamanism
Mun (Lepcha)
Siberian Shamanism
Tengrism
European
Asatru
Estonian mythology
Eskimo religion
Marla faith
Odinism
Romuva
Wotanism
Oceania/Pacific
Austronesian beliefs
o Balinese mythology
o Javanese beliefs
o Melanesian mythology
o Micronesian mythology
Modekngei
o Philippine mythology
Anito
Gab
Kulam
o Polynesian mythology
Hawaiian mythology
Mori mythology
Mori religion
Moai
Tangata manu
Cargo cults
Main article: Cargo cults
John Frum
Johnson cult
Vailala Madness
Historical polytheism
Further information: Prehistoric religion and History of religion
Canaanite religion
Mesopotamian mythology
o Arabian mythology (pre-Islamic)
o Babylonian and Assyrian religion
Babylonian mythology
Chaldean mythology
o Sumerian mythology
Indo-European
Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion
Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
o Historical Vedic religion
o Iranian mythology
Armenian mythology
Baltic polytheism
Celtic polytheism
o Brythonic mythology
o Gaelic mythology
Germanic polytheism
o Anglo-Saxon religion
o Continental Germanic religion
o Norse religion
Greek polytheism
Hittite mythology
Persian mythology
Roman polytheism
Slavic polytheism
Hellenistic
Main article: Hellenistic religion
Mystery religions
o Eleusinian Mysteries
o Mithraism
o Orphism
Pythagoreanism
Gallo-Roman religion
Uralic
Estonian polytheism
Finnish polytheism
Hungarian polytheism
Hindu mysticism
o Tantra
o Vaastu Shastra
Kabbalah
Neoplatonism
Pythagoreanism
o Neopythagoreanism
Sufism
Theosophy
Hermeticism
Fraternitas Saturni
Rosicrucian
o Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis[16]
o Rosicrucian Fellowship
Thelema
AA
Typhonian Order
Anthroposophy
Archeosophical Society
Behmenism
Christian Kabbalah
Martinism
Alchemy
Ceremonial magic
o Enochian magic
o Goetic magic
Chaos magic
o Illuminates of Thanateros
o Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth
Hoodoo (Rootwork)
o New Orleans Voodoo
Pow-wow
Magick (Thelema)
Witchcraft
Modern Paganism
Main article: Paganism (contemporary)
See also: List of Modern pagan movements
Syncretic
Adonism
Church of Aphrodite
Feraferia
Neo-Druidism
o Reformed Druids of North America
Neoshamanism
Neo-vlkisch movements
Technopaganism
Wicca
o British Traditional Wicca
Gardnerian Wicca
Alexandrian Wicca
Algard Wicca
o Eclectic Wicca
o Celtic Wicca
o Saxon Wicca
o Dianic Wicca
o McFarland Dianic Wicca
o Faery Wicca
o Correllian Nativist Tradition
o Georgian Wicca
o Odyssean Wicca
o Wiccan church
Ethnic
Baltic Neopaganism
Celtic Neopaganism
Finnish Neopaganism
Germanic Neopaganism
Hellenismos
Kemetism
Roman Neopaganism
Semitic Neopaganism
Slavic Neopaganism
Taaraism
Zalmoxianism
Creativity
Huna
Ralism
Scientology
Unitarian Universalist
New Thought
Main article: New Thought
Christian Science
Divine Science
Religious Science
Unity Church
Jewish Science
Seicho-no-Ie
Shinshukyo
Main article: Japanese new religions
Happy Science
Konkokyo
Oomoto
PL Kyodan
Seicho-No-Ie
Tenrikyo
Satanism
o LaVeyan Satanism
o Theistic Satanism
Demonolatry
Luciferianism
Discordianism
Ethical Culture
Jesusism
Secular Humanism
Yoism
Fictional religions
Main article: List of fictional religions
Church of Euthanasia
Dudeism
Iglesia Maradoniana
Jediism
Kibology
Last Thursdayism
Others
Deism
Eckankar
Fourth Way
Goddess movement
Humanism
Nuwaubian Nation
Open-source religion
Plurationalism
Spiritism (Spiritualism)
Subud
Other categorisations
By demographics
Main article: Religious demographics
By area
Further information: Religion geography
Religion in Africa
Religion in Asia
Religion in Australia
Religion in Europe
Oceania / Pacific
Religion by country
o List of state-established religions
o Buddhism by country
o Christianity by country
Protestantism by country
o Hinduism by country
o Islam by country
o Judaism by country, Jewish population
o Sikhism by country
Contents
1 Christian organizations
o 1.1 Christian denominations
1.2.4 Dioceses
2 Islamic organizations
o 2.1 China
2.1.2 Macau
o 2.2 Indonesia
o 2.3 Iran
o 2.4 Singapore
o 2.5 Taiwan
3 Jewish organizations
o 3.1 Jewish organizations by purpose
4 Buddhist organizations
5 Hindu organizations
6 Pagan organizations
7 Rosicrucian organizations
8 Sikhist organizations
9 Theosophical organizations
12 Interreligious organizations
o 12.1 Inter-Abrahamic organizations
13 See also
Christian organizations
See also: Category:Christian organizations
See also: Category:Lists of Christian buildings and structures
Christian denominations
Christian denominations
in English-speaking countries
Australia[show]
Canada[show]
United Kingdom[show]
United States[show]
International Associations[show]
Adventist
Anabaptist
Baptist
Catholic
Dioceses
o List of Roman Catholic dioceses (alphabetical)
o List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view)
o List of Roman Catholic archdioceses
o List of French dioceses in the 19th and 20th century
Congregations
o List of Roman Catholic churches in the Diocese of Charleston
o List of parishes in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fresno
Knights of Columbus
Schools
o List of Roman Catholic seminaries
o List of Eastern Catholic seminaries
o List of Catholic Schools in the Philippines
o Roman Catholic universities and colleges in the United States
o List of independent Catholic schools in the United States
Etc.
o American Catholic Philosophical Association
o Wethersfield Institute
o Catholic Biblical Federation
Congregations
o Orthodox parishes in the United States
Lutheran
Methodist
Oriental Orthodox
[show]
List of Dioceses
Pentecostal
Protestant
Quaker
Reformed (Calvinist)
Stone-Campbell movement
List of universities and colleges affiliated with the Christian churches and churches of
Christ
Samaritan's Purse
o List of Christian mission hospitals
o List of SVD missions
o List of Spanish missions
[show]
Monasteries, abbeys, priories, and friaries by country
Christian orders and societies
See also: Category:Christian orders
Christian political organizations
See also: Category:Christian political organizations
Christian relief organizations
See also: Category:Christian charities
International
o Association of Gospel Rescue Missions
o Samaritan's Purse
o World Relief
o World Vision
o The Salvation Army
o Cross International
o World Vision in Progress
Hospitals
o List of Christian mission hospitals
o List of Christian hospitals in China
List of schools accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States
and Canada
Islamic organizations
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
See also: Category:Islam-related lists
See also: Category:Lists of Islamic buildings and structures
China
Hong Kong
Macau
Indonesia
Nahdlatul Ulama
Iran
Singapore
Taiwan
Jewish organizations
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
See also: Category:Judaism-related lists
See also: Category:Lists of Judaism-related buildings and structures
Buddhist organizations
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
See also: Category:Buddhism-related lists
See also: Category:Lists of Buddhist buildings and structures
Hindu organizations
Main article: List of Hindu organisations
Pagan organizations
See also: Category:Germanic paganism and mythology lists
Ar nDraiocht Fein
Asatru
Circle Sanctuary
Odinic Rite
Rosicrucian organizations
Rosicrucian Fellowship
Sikhist organizations
Theosophical organizations
New Acropolis
Church of Satan
Creativity
Temple of Set
Interreligious organizations
Sea of Faith
Inter-Abrahamic organizations
Christianity
Islam
Unaffiliated
Percent
31.5%
23.2%
16.3%
Hinduism
Buddhism
Folk religions
Other
Judaism
15.0%
7.1%
5.9%
0.8%
0.2%
Contents
2 Classification
3 Religious demographics
o 3.1 Largest religions
o 3.2 Medium-sized religions
4 By region
5 Trends in adherence
o 5.1 World Christian Encyclopedia
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Sources
11 External links
An 1821 map of the world, where "Christians, Mahometans, and Pagans" correspond to levels of
civilization (The map makes no distinction between Buddhism and Hinduism).
An 1883 map of the world divided into colors representing "Christians, Buddhists, Hindus,
Mohammedans and Pagans".
In world cultures, there have traditionally been many different groupings of religious belief. In
Indian culture, different religious philosophies were traditionally respected as academic
differences in pursuit of the same truth. In Islam, the Quran mentions three different categories:
Muslims, the People of the Book, and idol worshipers. Initially, Christians had a simple
dichotomy of world beliefs: Christian civility versus foreign heresy or barbarity. In the 18th
century, "heresy" was clarified to mean Judaism and Islam;[citation needed] along with paganism, this
created a fourfold classification which spawned such works as John Toland's Nazarenus, or
Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, which represented the three Abrahamic religions
as different "nations" or sects within religion itself, the "true monotheism."
Daniel Defoe described the original definition as follows: "Religion is properly the Worship
given to God, but 'tis also applied to the Worship of Idols and false Deities." At the turn of the
19th century, in between 1780 and 1810, the language dramatically changed: instead of
"religion" being synonymous with spirituality, authors began using the plural, "religions", to
refer to both Christianity and other forms of worship. Therefore, Hannah Adams's early
encyclopedia, for example, had its name changed from An Alphabetical Compendium of the
Various Sects... to A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations.[3]
Classification
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (May 2014)
Further information: Comparative religion and Sociological classifications of religious
movements
Religious traditions fall into super-groups in comparative religion, arranged by historical origin
and mutual influence. Abrahamic religions originate in the Middle East, Indian religions in the
Indian subcontinent and East Asian religions in East Asia. Another group with supra-regional
influence are Afro-American religion, which have their origins in Central and West Africa.
Iranian religions (not listed below due to overlaps), partly of Indo-European origins,[10][11]
includes Zoroastrianism, Yazdnism, Ahl-e Haqq and historical traditions of Gnosticism
(Mandaeism, Manichaeism). It has significant overlaps with Abrahamic traditions, e.g. in
Sufism and in recent movements such as Bbism and the Bah' Faith.
Indian religions, originated in Greater India and partly of Indo-European origins, they
tend to share a number of key concepts, such as dharma, karma, reincarnation among
others. They are of the most influence across the Indian subcontinent, East Asia,
Southeast Asia, as well as isolated parts of Russia. The main Indian religions are
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
East Asian religions consist of several East Asian religions which make use of the
concept of Tao (in Chinese) or D (in Japanese or Korean). They include many Chinese
folk religions, Taoism and Confucianism, as well as Korean and Japanese religion
influenced by Chinese thought.
African religions:[8]
o The religions of the tribal peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa, but excluding ancient
Egyptian religion, which is considered to belong to the ancient Middle East;[8]
o African diasporic religions practiced in the Americas, imported as a result of the
Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 18th centuries, building on traditional religions
of Central and West Africa.
Indigenous ethnic religions, formerly found on every continent, now marginalized by the
major organized faiths in many parts of the world or persisting as undercurrents (folk
religions) of major religions. Includes traditional African religions, Asian shamanism,
Native American religions, Austronesian and Australian Aboriginal traditions, Chinese
folk religions, and postwar Shinto. Under more traditional listings, this has been referred
to as "paganism" along with historical polytheism.
New religious movement is the term applied to any religious faith which has emerged
since the 19th century, often syncretizing, re-interpreting or reviving aspects of older
traditions such as Ayyavazhi, Mormonism, Ahmadiyya, Pentecostalism, polytheistic
reconstructionism, and so forth.
Religious demographics
Further information: List of religious populations
Main category: Religious demographics
One way to define a major religion is by the number of current adherents. The population
numbers by religion are computed by a combination of census reports and population surveys (in
countries where religion data is not collected in census, for example the United States or France),
but results can vary widely depending on the way questions are phrased, the definitions of
religion used and the bias of the agencies or organizations conducting the survey. Informal or
unorganized religions are especially difficult to count.
There is no consensus among researchers as to the best methodology for determining the
religiosity profile of the world's population. A number of fundamental aspects are unresolved:
Whether to count only those who expressly self-identify with a particular denomination[15]
Largest religions
The table below lists religions classified by philosophy; however, religious philosophy is not
always the determining factor in local practice. Please note that this table includes heterodox
movements as adherents to their larger philosophical category, although this may be disputed by
others within that category. For example Christianity and Islam include those are culturally
Christian and Muslim as well as indigenous people combining folk religions or shamanism with
either.
The population numbers below are computed by a combination of census reports, random
surveys (in countries where religion data is not collected in census, for example the United States
or France), and self-reported attendance numbers, but results can vary widely depending on the
way questions are phrased, the definitions of religion used and the bias of the agencies or
organizations conducting the survey. Informal or unorganized religions are especially difficult to
count. Some organizations may wildly inflate their numbers.
Religion
Christianity
Islam
Hinduism
Buddhism
Number of followers
Cultural tradition
(in millions)
2,200 Abrahamic religions
1,800 Abrahamic religions
1,100 Indian religions
488 Indian religions
Medium-sized religions
Founded
Levant region
Arabian Peninsula
Indian subcontinent
Indian subcontinent
References
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
Number of
followers
(in millions)
Cultural
tradition
Founded
Japanese
Japan
religions
28 Indian religions Indian subcontinent
Abrahamic
14
Levant region
religions
100[nb 1]
Shinto
Sikhism
Judaism
Korean
shamanism
Caodaism
Vietnamese
religions
Abrahamic
5-7.3
religions
5-9
Bah' Faith
Jainism
Hoahaoism
Tenriism
Religion in Africa
Religion in Antarctica
Religion in Asia
[20]
[22][23][nb 2]
[1]
[19]
[21]
By region
[17][18]
Cheondoism
References
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
Religion in Oceania
Trends in adherence
Further information: Growth of religion
Since the late 19th century, the demographics of religion have changed a great deal. On the one
hand, since the 19th century, large areas of Sub-Saharan Africa have been converted to
Christianity, and this area of the world has the highest population growth rate. On the other hand,
some countries with a historically large Christian population have experienced a significant
decline in the numbers of professed active Christians: see demographics of atheism. Symptoms
of the decline in active participation in Christian religious life include declining recruitment for
the priesthood and monastic life, as well as diminishing attendance at church. In the realm of
Western culture, there has been an increase in the number of people who identify themselves as
secular humanists. In many countries, such as the People's Republic of China, communist
governments have discouraged religion, making it difficult to count the actual number of
believers. However, after the collapse of communism in numerous countries of Eastern Europe
and the former Soviet Union, religious life has been experiencing resurgence there, both in the
form of traditional Eastern Christianity and particularly in the forms of Neopaganism and East
Asian religions.[citation needed]
[29]
19701985
3.65%: Bah'
Faith
2.74%: Islam
2.34%:
Hinduism
1.67%:
Buddhism
1.64%:
Christianity
2.13%: Islam
1.57%:
Hinduism
1.32%:
1.69%: Hinduism
Christianity
1.36%:
1.09%: Judaism
Christianity
1.09%: Buddhism
1.87%: Sikhism
3.08%: Sikhism
2.76%: Buddhism
2.62%: Hinduism
2.60%: Jainism
2.50%: Zoroastrianism
across 40 yrs, world total 2.16%
2.10%: Christianity
0.83%: Confucianism
0.37%: unaffiliated (inc. atheists, agnostics,
religious but not affiliated)
-0.03%: Judaism
-0.83%: Shintoism
Contents
1 Buddhism
2 Christianity
o 2.1 Catholicism
o 2.2 Eastern Orthodoxy
o 2.3 Oriental Orthodoxy
o 2.4 Protestantism
2.4.1 Baptist
2.4.2 Holiness
2.4.3 Lutheranism
2.4.4 Methodism
2.4.5 Pentecostalism
2.4.6 Presbyterianism
o 2.5 Anglicanism
3 Islam
o 3.1 Ismaili
o 3.2 Ahmadiyya
o 3.3 Nation of Islam
5 Other
o 5.1 Unitarian Universalism
o 5.2 Bah'
6 See also
7 References
Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism
Thai Buddhism
Christianity
Catholicism
Eastern Orthodoxy
Church of Constantinople (complete list), the first among equals in Eastern Orthodoxy
Church of Jerusalem
Oriental Orthodoxy
Baselios Mar Thoma Paulose II, Catholicos of the East and Malankara
Metropolitan (2010present)
Protestantism
Baptist
General Secretaries
Presidents
Africa
President
Asia
India
Europe, regional
Europe, national
United Kingdom
North America
Canada
United States
Alliance of Baptists
American National Baptist Convention, since 1895 known as the National Baptist
Convention, USA, Inc.
President
Holiness
Senior Bishop
President
Salvation Army
Lutheranism
International
Chairman
Executive Secretary
Europe
Church of Norway
Swedish Church
North America
Methodism
President
General Secretary
Pentecostalism
Church of God (Full Gospel) in India registered with the Government of India on 9
December 1949
Grace Communion International (until 2009, called the Worldwide Church of God from
19682009)
Presbyterianism
Other protestant
S. Vasanthakumar, Moderator
President
General Secretary
Anglicanism
Provinces of the Anglican Communion
Church of England
Formal leadership
Presiding Bishop
Continuing Anglicanism
Iglesia ni Cristo
Islam
Ismaili
Dawoodi Bohras
Nizari Ismailism
Ahmadiyya
Nation of Islam
Nation of Islam
Asia
Ashkenazi
Sephardic
Eliyahu BakshiDoron,
Sephardic Chief
Rabbi (1993
2003)
Yona Metzger,
Military
Rabbinate
Israel Weiss,
Chief Rabbi
(20002006)
Avichai Rontzki,
Ashkenazi Chief
Rabbi (2003
2013)
David Lau,
Ashkenazi Chief
Rabbi (2013
present)
Shlomo Amar,
Sephardic Chief
Rabbi (2003
2013)
Yitzhak Yosef,
Sephardic Chief
Rabbi (2013
present)
Chief Rabbi
(20062010)
Rafi Peretz,
Chief Rabbi
(2010present)
Turkey
Europe
Ireland
North America
Other
Unitarian Universalism
Bah'
Dalai Lama
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dalai Lama
Reign
Tibetan
Wylie transliteration
Pronunciation
Conventional Romanisation
House
Dalai Lama
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
Simplified Chinese
Tibetan name
Tibetan
The Dalai Lama /dla lm/[1][2] is a reincarnated lama of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school
of Tibetan Buddhism, founded by Tsongkhapa (13571419). The 14th and current Dalai Lama is
Tenzin Gyatso, recognized since 1950.
The Dalai Lama is traditionally thought to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are considered
to be metaphorical manifestations of Avalokitevara. The name is a combination of the Mongolic
word dalai meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning "guru, teacher,
mentor". The Tibetan word "lama" corresponds to the better known Sanskrit word "guru".[3]
For certain periods between the 17th century and 1962, the Gelug school managed the Tibetan
government, which administered portions of Tibet from Lhasa.
Contents
1 History
o 1.1 Unification of Tibet
2 Residence
5 See also
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 External links
History
Main article: History of Tibet
Part of a series on
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History and overview[show]
Kublai Khan
Gshi Khan
During 1252, Kublai Khan granted an audience to Drogn Chgyal Phagpa and Karma Pakshi,
the 2nd Karmapa. Karma Pakshi, however, sought the patronage of Mngke Khan. Before his
death in 1283, Karma Pakshi wrote a will to protect the established interests of his lineage, the
Karma Kagyu, by advising his disciples to locate a boy to inherit the black hat. His instruction
was based on the premise that the Buddhist Dharma is eternal, and that the Buddha would send
emanations to complete the missions he had initiated. Karma Pakshi's disciples acted in
accordance with the will and located the reincarnated boy of their master. The event was the
beginning of the teacher reincarnation (Tulku) system for the Karma Kagyu Lineage of Tibetan
Buddhism. During the Ming Dynasty, the Yongle Emperor bestowed the title Great Treasure
Prince of Dharma, the first of the three Princes of Dharma, upon the Karmapa. Other Tibetan
Buddhist lineages responded to the teacher reincarnation system by creating similar systems.
Unification of Tibet
In the 1630s, Tibet became entangled in power struggles between the rising Manchu and various
Mongol and Oirat factions. Ligden Khan of the Chakhar, retreating from the Manchu, set out to
Tibet to destroy the Yellow Hat sect. He died on the way to Qinghai (Koko Nur) in 1634.[4] His
vassal Tsogt Taij continued the fight, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed
sides. Tsogt Taij was defeated and killed by Gshi Khan of the Khoshud in 1637, who would in
turn become the overlord of Tibet, and act as a "Protector of the Yellow Church."[5] Gshi helped
the Fifth Dalai Lama to establish himself as the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet
and destroyed any potential rivals. The time of the Fifth Dalai Lama was, however, also a period
of rich cultural development.[citation needed]
The Fifth Dalai Lama's death was kept secret for fifteen years by the regent (Tibetan:
, Wylie: sde-srid), Sanggye Gyatso. This was apparently done so that the Potala Palace could
be finished, and to prevent Tibet's neighbors taking advantage of an interregnum in the
succession of the Dalai Lamas.[6]
Tsangyang Gyatso, the Sixth Dalai Lama, was not enthroned until 1697. Tsangyang Gyatso
enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing love songs.[7] In
1705, Lobzang Khan of the Khoshud used the sixth Dalai Lama's escapades as excuse to take
control of Tibet. The regent was murdered, and the Dalai Lama sent to Beijing. He died on the
way, near Koko Nur, ostensibly from illness. Lobzang Khan appointed a new Dalai Lama who,
however was not accepted by the Gelugpa school. Kelzang Gyatso was discovered near Koko
Nur and became a rival candidate.
The Dzungars invaded Tibet in 1717, and deposed and killed Lobzang Khan's pretender to the
position of Dalai Lama. This was widely approved. However, they soon began to loot the holy
places of Lhasa, which brought a swift response from the Kangxi Emperor in 1718; but his
military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River, not far
from Lhasa.[8][9]
A second, larger, expedition sent by the Kangxi Emperor expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in
1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from
Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.[10]
After him [Jamphel Gyatso the eighth Dalai Lama (17581804)], the 9th and 10th Dalai
Lamas died before attaining their majority: one of them is credibly stated to have been
murdered and strong suspicion attaches to the other. The 11th and 12th were each
enthroned but died soon after being invested with power. For 113 years, therefore,
supreme authority in Tibet was in the hands of a Lama Regent, except for about two years
when a lay noble held office and for short periods of nominal rule by the 11th and 12th
Dalai Lamas.
It has sometimes been suggested that this state of affairs was brought about by the
Ambansthe Imperial Residents in Tibetbecause it would be easier to control the
Tibet through a Regent than when a Dalai Lama, with his absolute power, was at the head
of the government. That is not true. The regular ebb and flow of events followed its set
course. The Imperial Residents in Tibet, after the first flush of zeal in 1750, grew less and
less interested and efficient. Tibet was, to them, exile from the urbanity and culture of
Peking; and so far from dominating the Regents, the Ambans allowed themselves to be
dominated. It was the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans that led to five successive
Dalai Lamas being subjected to continuous tutelage.[11]
Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama, described these unfortunate
events as follows:
It is perhaps more than a coincidence that between the seventh and the thirteenth holders
of that office, only one reached his majority. The eighth, Gyampal Gyatso, died when he
was in his thirties, Lungtog Gyatso when he was eleven, Tsultrim Gyatso at eighteen,
Khadrup Gyatso when he was eighteen also, and Krinla Gyatso at about the same age.
The circumstances are such that it is very likely that some, if not all, were poisoned,
either by loyal Tibetans for being Chinese-appointed impostors, or by the Chinese for not
being properly manageable.[12]
Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 14th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.
Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, assumed ruling power from the monasteries, which
previously had great influence on the Regent, during 1895. Due to his two periods of exile in
19041909, to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 19101912 to escape a Chinese
invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first
Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations. After his return from exile in
India and Sikkim during January 1913, he assumed control of foreign relations and dealt directly
with the Maharaja and the British Political officer in Sikkim and the king of Nepal rather than
letting the Kashag or parliament do it.[13]
Thubten Gyatso issued a Declaration of Independence for his kingdom in Central Tibet from
China during the summer of 1912 and standardised a Tibetan flag, though no other sovereign
state recognized the independence.[14] He expelled the Ambans and all Chinese civilians in the
country, and instituted many measures to modernise Tibet. These included provisions to curb
excessive demands on peasants for provisions by the monasteries and tax evasion by the nobles,
setting up an independent police force, the abolition of the death penalty, extension of secular
education, and the provision of electricity throughout the city of Lhasa in the 1920s.[15] Thubten
Gyatso died in 1933.
The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the People's
Republic of China invasion of the kingdom. In 1951, he and the Tibetan government formally
accepted the Seventeen Point Agreement by which Tibet was formally incorporated into the
People's Republic of China. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th
Dalai Lama fled to India, from where he led a government in exile.[16][17] With the aim of
launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the CIA funded the Dalai Lama with US$1.7
million a year in the 1960s.[18] In 2001 the 14th Dalai Lama ceded his absolute power over the
government to an elected parliament of selected Tibetan exiles. His original goal was full
independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s he was seeking high-level autonomy instead.[19] He
continued to seek greater autonomy from China, but Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the
parliament-in-exile said "If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for
complete independence or self-determination as per the UN charter".[20]
Residence
Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile during 1959,
the Dalai Lamas spent winters at the Potala Palace and summers at the Norbulingka palace and
park. Both are in Lhasa and approximately 3 km apart.
Following the failed 1959 Tibetan uprising, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge in India. The then
Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, allowed in the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government
officials. The Dalai Lama has since lived in exile in Dharamshala, in the state of Himachal
Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration is also established. Tibetan
refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamshala.[21]
Potala Palace
Norbulingka
The search for the 14th Dalai Lama took the High Lamas to Taktser in Amdo
Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, who promised
Gendun Drup the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions that "she would protect the reincarnation
lineage of the Dalai Lamas"
By the Himalayan tradition, phowa is the discipline that transfers the mindstream to the intended
body. Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for
the Lama's yangsi, or reincarnation, is conducted. Traditionally, it has been the responsibility of
the High Lamas of the Gelugpa tradition and the Tibetan government to find his reincarnation.
The process can take around two or three years to identify the Dalai Lama, and for the 14th,
Tenzin Gyatso, it was four years before he was found. Historically, the search for the Dalai Lama
has usually been limited to Tibet, though the third tulku was born in Mongolia. Tenzin Gyatso,
however, has stated that he will not be reborn in the People's Republic of China, though he has
also suggested he may not be reborn at all, suggesting the function of the Dalai Lama may be
outdated.[22] The government of the People's Republic of China has stated its intention to be the
ultimate authority on the selection of the next Dalai Lama.[citation needed]
The High Lamas used several ways in which they can increase the chances of finding the
reincarnation. High Lamas often visit Lhamo La-tso, a lake in central Tibet, and watch for a sign
from the lake itself. This may be either a vision or some indication of the direction in which to
search, and this was how Tenzin Gyatso was found. It is said that Palden Lhamo, the female
guardian spirit of the sacred lake Lhamo La-tso promised Gendun Drup, the 1st Dalai Lama, in
one of his visions "that she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas."[citation
needed]
Ever since the time of Gendun Gyatso, the 2nd Dalai Lama, who formalised the system, the
Regents and other monks have gone to the lake to seek guidance on choosing the next
reincarnation through visions while meditating there.[23]
The particular form of Palden Lhamo at Lhamo La-tso is Gyelmo Maksorma, "The Victorious
One who Turns Back Enemies". The lake is sometimes referred to as "Pelden Lhamo Kalideva",
which indicates that Palden Lhamo is an emanation of the goddess Kali, the shakti of the Hindu
God Shiva.[24]
Lhamo Latso ... [is] a brilliant azure jewel set in a ring of grey mountains. The elevation and the
surrounding peaks combine to give it a highly changeable climate, and the continuous passage of
cloud and wind creates a constantly moving pattern on the surface of the waters. On that surface
visions appear to those who seek them in the right frame of mind.[25]
It was here that in 1935, the Regent Reting Rinpoche received a clear vision of three Tibetan
letters and of a monastery with a jade-green and gold roof, and a house with turquoise roof tiles,
which led to the discovery of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.[26][27][28]
High Lamas may also have a vision by a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will
often monitor the direction of the smoke as an indication of the direction of the rebirth.[22]
Once the High Lamas have found the home and the boy they believe to be the reincarnation, the
boy undergoes a battery of tests to affirm the rebirth. They present a number of artifacts, only
some of which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, and if the boy chooses the items which
belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, this is seen as a sign, in conjunction with all of the other
indications, that the boy is the reincarnation.[29]
If there is only one boy found, the High Lamas will invite Living Buddhas of the three great
monasteries, together with secular clergy and monk officials, to confirm their findings and then
report to the Central Government through the Minister of Tibet. Later, a group consisting of the
three major servants of Dalai Lama, eminent officials,[who?] and troops[which?] will collect the boy
and his family and travel to Lhasa, where the boy would be taken, usually to Drepung
Monastery, to study the Buddhist sutra in preparation for assuming the role of spiritual leader of
Tibet.[22]
If there are several possible reincarnations, however, regents, eminent officials, monks at the
Jokhang in Lhasa, and the Minister to Tibet have historically decided on the individual by putting
the boys' names inside an urn and drawing one lot in public if it was too difficult to judge the
reincarnation initially.[30]
Picture
Tibetan
Lifespa Recognise Enthronemen
Alternative
Tibetan/Wylie pinyin/Chines
n
d
t
spellings
e
Gendun
1
Drup
1391
1474
Gendun
2
Gyatso
1475
1542
N/A[31]
N/A
[31]
Gdn Chub
Gedun
Drub
Gedn
Drup
Gedn
Gdn Gyaco Gyatso
Gendn
dge 'dun rgya
Gyatso
mtsho
Sonam
Gyatso
1543
1588
1578
Gyatso
bsod nams
rgya mtsho
Yonten
4
Gyatso
1589
1617
1603
Yoindain
Gyaco
Yontan
Gyatso,
Ynden
Gyatso
Ngawang
5 Lobsang
Gyatso
1617
1682
1618
1622
Lobsang
Gyaco
blo bzang rgya
mtsho
Lobzang
Gyatso
Lopsang
Gyatso
Tsangyan
g Gyatso
1683
1706
1688
1697
tshang
dbyangs rgya
mtsho
Kelzang
Gyatso
1707
1757
1720
bskal bzang
rgya mtsho
Cangyang
Gyaco
Kelsang
Gaisang Gyaco Gyatso
Kalsang
Gyatso
Jamphel
8
Gyatso
1758
1804
1760
1762
Qamb Gyaco
Lungtok
Gyatso
1805
1815
1807
1808
Lungdog
byams spel
rgya mtsho
Tsayang
Gyatso
Gyaco
lung rtogs rgya
mtsho
Jampel
Gyatso
Jampal
Gyatso
Lungtog
Gyatso
10
Tsultrim
Gyatso
1816
1837
1822
1822
Gyatso
tshul khrim
rgya mtsho
Khendrup
11
Gyatso
1838
1856
1841
1842
Kaichub
Trinley
Gyatso
1857
1875
1858
1860
Chinlai Gyaco
1879
12
Thubten
13
Gyatso
1876
1933
1878
mkhas grub
rgya mtsho
Gyaco
thub bstan
rgya mtsho
Kedrub
Gyatso
Trinle
Gyatso
Thubtan
Tubdain Gyaco Gyatso
Thupten
Gyatso
14
Tenzin
Gyatso
born
1935
1937
1950
(currently in
exile)
Gyatso
bstan 'dzin
rgya mtsho
There has also been one nonrecognised Dalai Lama, Ngawang Yeshey Gyatso, declared 28 June
1707, when he was 25 years old, by Lha-bzang Khan as the "true" 6th Dalai Lama however, he
was never accepted as such by the majority of the population.[9][32][33]
Lama and the Panchen Lama by a lottery that used a golden urn with names wrapped in clumps
of barley. This method was used a few times for both positions during the 19th century, but
eventually fell into disuse.[citation needed] In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection
of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the
Chinese government insisted that it must be used.[citation needed] This has led to two rival Panchen
Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi
Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama.
During September 2007 the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the
government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin
Gyatso.[citation needed] Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the
Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control.[citation needed]
In response to this scenario, Tashi Wangdi, the representative of the 14th Dalai Lama, replied that
the Chinese government's selection would be meaningless. "You can't impose an Imam, an
Archbishop, saints, any religion...you can't politically impose these things on people," said
Wangdi. "It has to be a decision of the followers of that tradition. The Chinese can use their
political power: force. Again, it's meaningless. Like their Panchen Lama. And they can't keep
their Panchen Lama in Tibet. They tried to bring him to his monastery many times but people
would not see him. How can you have a religious leader like that?"[36]
The 14th Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the
institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not".[37] He has given reference to a possible
vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize
his rebirth.[38] In response to the possibility that the PRC might attempt to choose his successor,
the Dalai Lama said he would not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of
China or any other country which is not free.[22][39] According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could
mean that "the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across
northern India, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and antiChinese".[40]
The 14th Dalai Lama supported the possibility that his next incarnation could be a woman.[41]
"Despite the complex historical, religious and political factors surrounding the selection of
incarnate masters in the exiled Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is open to change," author
Michaela Haas writes.[42] "Why not? What's the big deal?"[43]
List of popes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Roman Catholic Church. For popes of the Coptic Orthodox Church, see
List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria. For a graphical representation of this list, see List
of popes (graphical).
Plaque commemorating the popes buried in St Peter's (their names in Latin and the year of their
burial)
This chronological list of popes corresponds to that given in the Annuario Pontificio under the
heading "I Sommi Pontefici Romani" (The Supreme Pontiffs of Rome), excluding those that are
explicitly indicated as antipopes. Published every year by the Roman Curia, the Annuario
Pontificio attaches no consecutive numbers to the popes, stating that it is impossible to decide
which side represented at various times the legitimate succession, in particular regarding Pope
Leo VIII, Pope Benedict V and some mid-11th-century popes.[1]
The 2001 edition of the Annuario Pontificio introduced "almost 200 corrections to its existing
biographies of the popes, from St Peter to St John Paul II". The corrections concerned dates,
especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope.[2]
The term pope (Latin: papa "father") is used in several Churches to denote their high spiritual
leaders (for example Coptic Pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the
Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, including Summus Pontifex,
Pontifex Maximus, and Servus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical
events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification.[3]
Hermannus Contractus may have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His
list ends in 1049 with Pope Leo IX as number 154. Several changes were made to the list during
the 20th century. Antipope Christopher was considered legitimate for a long time. Pope-elect
Stephen was considered legitimate under the name Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his
name was erased. Although these changes are no longer controversial, a number of modern lists
still include this "first Pope Stephen II". It is probable that this is because they are based on the
1913 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia, which is in the public domain.
A significant number of these popes have been recognized as saints, including 48 out of the first
50 consecutive popes and others are in the sainthood process.
Contents
3 See also
4 References
o 4.1 Specific
o 4.2 General
5 External links
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
St Peter
PETRUS
Personal Place of
Notes
name
birth
Bethsaida, Apostle of Jesus Christ
Simon
Galilea,
from whom he
Peter
Syria,
Roman
Empire
64/67(?)
76/79(?)
St Linus
76/79(?)
92
St Anacletus
(Cletus)
Linus
Tuscia
LINUS
Anacletus Rome
Clement Rome
Feast day 23
November. Issued 1
Clement which is said
to be the basis of
apostolic authority for
the clergy. Also
revered as a saint in
Eastern Christianity,
with a feast day of 25
November.
ANACLETUS
92 99
St Clement I
CLEMENS
February. Although
there is no evidence
that Peter ever served
as the Bishop of Rome,
and while there is
historical evidence that
the Church of Rome
was founded before
Peter ever journeyed
outside of Judea,
Samaria, or Galilee, he
is nevertheless
recognized by the
Roman Catholic
Church as the first
Bishop of Rome
appointed by Christ.
Also revered as saint in
Eastern Christianity,
with a feast day of 29
June.[4]
Feast day 23
September. Also
revered as a saint in
Eastern Christianity,
with a feast day of 7
June.
99 107
St Evaristus
Aristus
EVARISTUS
2nd century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
6
107 115
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
St Alexander I
Personal Place of
Notes
name
birth
Inaugurated the
Alexander Rome
custom of blessing
houses with holy
water. Also revered
as a saint in
Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 16
March.
ALEXANDER
115/116
125
St Sixtus I
125
136/138
St Telesphorus
Xystus
Rome
XYSTUS
TELESPHORUS
Telesphorus Terranova
da Sibari,
Calabria
Feast day of 6
April. Also revered
as a saint in
Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 10
August.
10
11
12
136/138
140/142
St Hyginus
140/142
155
St Pius I
155 20
April 168
St Anicetus
168 174
St Soter
Hyginus
Athens,
Greece
Pius
Aquileia, Martyred by
Friuli
sword; feast day 11
July. Decreed that
Easter should only
be celebrated on a
Sunday.
Anicitus
Emesa,
Syria
Soter
Fondi,
Latium
HYGINUS
PIUS
ANICETUS
SOTERIUS
13
14
174 24
May 189
St Eleuterus
189
198/199
St Victor I
Eleuther
ELEUTHERIUS
VICTOR
Victor
Traditionally
martyred; feast day
11 January
Traditionally
martyred; feast day
17 April. Decreed
that priests are not
allowed to have
long hair.
Traditionally
martyred; feast day
22 April. Declared
that marriage was
valid as a
sacrament blessed
by a priest;
formally
inaugurated Easter
as an annual
festival in Rome.
Nicopoli, Traditionally
Epirus
martyred; feast day
Greece
6 May
Roman
Africa
Known for
excommunicating
Theodotus of
Byzantium.
Quartodecimanism
controversy.
15
19920
December
217
St Zephyrinus
Zephyrinus Rome
ZEPHYRINUS
(18 years+)
3rd century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
16
c. 217
222
17
18
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
St Callixtus I
Personal Place of
Notes
name
birth
Iberian Martyred; feast
Callistus
CALLISTUS
222 23
May 230
St Urban I
21 July 230
28
September
235
St Pontian
Urban
Rome
Pontianus
Rome
URBANUS
PONTIANUS
(5 years,
69 days)
19
21
November
235
3 January
236
(0 years,
43 days)
St Anterus
ANTERUS
Anterus
Also revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 25
May.
First to abdicate
after exile to
Sardinia by
Emperor
Maximinus Thrax.
The Liberian
Catalogue records
his death on 28
September 235,
the earliest exact
date in papal
history.[6][7]
Petilia
Feast day 3
Policastro January. Also
- Calabria revered as a saint
in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 5
August.
20
10 January
236
20
January
250
St Fabian
Fabianus
Rome
Cornelius
Rome
Lucius
Rome
Feast day 5
March.
Stephanus
Rome
Martyred by
beheading; feast
day 2 August.
Also revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with
the same feast
day.
Sixtus
Greece
Martyred by
beheading. Also
revered as a saint
in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 10
August.
FABIANUS
(14 years,
10 days)
21
6/11 March
251
June 253
St Cornelius
CORNELIUS
(2 years+)
22
25 June
253
5 March
254
St Lucius I
LUCIUS
Divided the
communities of
Rome into seven
districts, each
supervised by a
deacon. Feast day
20 January. Also
revered as a saint
in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 5
August.
Died a martyr
through extreme
hardship; feast
day 16 September.
(256 days)
23
12 May
254
2 August
257
St Stephen I
STEPHANUS
(3 years,
82 days)
24
31 August
257
6 August
258
(341 days)
St Sixtus II
XYSTUS Secundus
25
22 July 259
26
December
268
St Dionysius
Dionysius
Greece
Felix
Rome
DIONYSIUS
Feast day 26
December
(9 years,
157 days)
26
5 January
269
30
December
274
St Felix I
FELIX
(5 years,
890 days)
27
4 January
275
7
December
283
St Eutychian
Eutychianus Tuscany
EUTYCHIANUS
(8 years,
337 days)
28
17
December
283
22 April
296
St Caius
Gaius
CAIUS
(12 years,
127 days)
29
30 June
296
1 April
304
(7 years,
276 days)
4th century
St Marcellinus
MARCELLINUS
Marcellinus
Salona, Martyred
Dalmatia (according to
legend) Feast day
22 April. Also
revered as a saint
in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 11
August.
Rome
Feast day 26
April. Also
revered as a saint
in Eastern
Christianity, with
a feast day of 7
June.
Numerical
Pontificate
order
30
308309
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
St Marcellus I
Personal Place of
name
birth
Italia
Sardinia
Banished by the
emperor Maxentius,
and died in exile.
Africa
MARCELLUS
31
32
18 April
17 August
309 or 310
St Eusebius
2 July 311
10
January
314
St Miltiades
(Melchiades)
EUSEBIUS
MILTIADES
(2 years,
192 days)
33
31 January
314
31
December
335
St Sylvester I
SILVESTER
(21 years,
334 days)
34
18 January
336
7 October
336
(263 days)
St Mark
MARCUS
Notes
35
6 February
337
12 April
352
St Julius I
Rome
IULIUS
(15 years,
66 days)
36
17 May
352
24
September
366
Liberius
Rome
LIBERIUS
(14 years,
130 days)
37
1 October
366
11
December
384
DAMASUS
Idanha-aVelha,
Portugal
St Siricius
Rome
St Damasus I
Arian controversy.
Credited with splitting
the birth of Christ into
two distinct
celebrations: The
Epiphany stayed on
the traditional date,
and the Nativity was
added on 25
December.
Earliest pope not yet
canonized by the
Roman Catholic
Church. Revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 27
August.[8]
Patron of Jerome,
commissioned the
Vulgate translation of
the Bible. Council of
Rome (382).
(18 years,
71 days)
38
11
December
384
26
November
399
Papa SIRICIUS
(14 years,
350 days)
39
27
November
399
19
December
401
St Anastasius I
Papa
ANASTASIUS
Rome
Instructed priests to
stand and bow their
heads as they read
from the Gospels.
(2 years,
22 days)
5th century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
Personal Place of
name
birth
Notes
40
22
December
401
12 March
417
St Innocent I
Papa
INNOCENTIUS
Albano,
Latium
Visigoth Sack of
Rome (410) under
Alaric
(15 years,
80 days)
41
18 March
417
26
December
418
Papa ZOSIMUS
Mesoraca,
Calabria
St Boniface I
Rome
St Zosimus
(1 year,
283 days)
42
28
December
418
4
September
422
Papa BONIFATIUS
(3 years,
250 days)
43
10
September
422
27 July
432
Papa
COELESTINUS
Rome,
Western
Roman
Empire
St Sixtus III
Rome
St Celestine I
(9 years,
321 days)
44
31 July 432
18
August 440
(8 years,
18 days)
Also revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 8 April.
45
29
September
440
10
November
461
Rome
St Leo I
(Leo the Great)
Papa LEO MAGNUS
(21 years,
43 days)
46
19
November
461
29
February
468
St Hilarius
Hilarius
Convinced Attila
the Hun to turn
back his invasion of
Italy. Wrote the
Tome which was
instrumental in the
Council of
Chalcedon and in
defining the
hypostatic union.
Feast day 10
November. Also
revered as a saint in
Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 18
February.
Sardinia
Papa HILARIUS
(6 years,
102 days)
47
3 March
468
10 March
483
St Simplicius
Simplicius Tivoli
Papa SIMPLICIUS
(15 years,
7 days)
48
13 March
483
1 March
492
Rome
Sometimes called
Felix II
Africa
(8 years,
354 days)
49
1 March
492
21
November
496
(4 years,
265 days)
St Gelasius I
Papa GELASIUS
Gelasius
50
24
November
496
19
November
498
Anastasius Rome
Anastasius II
Papa ANASTASIUS
Secundus
(1 year,
360 days)
51
22
November
498
19 July
514
Simmaco Sardinia
St Symmachus
Papa SYMMACHUS
(15 years,
239 days)
6th15th centuries
6th century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
52
20 July 514
19 July
523
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
St Hormisdas
Personal Place of
Notes
name
birth
Hormisdas Frosinone, Father of Pope
Southern
Latium
Papa
HORMISDAS
Silverius. Acacian
schism.
(8 years,
364 days)
53
13 August
523
18 May
526
St John I
Giovanni Toscana
Papa IOANNES
(2 years,
278 days)
54
13 July 526
22
September
530
(4 years,
71 days)
St Felix IV
(Felix III)
Papa FELIX
Quartus (Tertius)
Felice
Samnium
Sometimes called
Felix III. Built Santi
Cosma e Damiano.
55
22
September
530
17
October
532
Boniface II
Bonifacio Rome to
Ostrogoth
parents
Papa
BONIFATIUS
Secundus
(2 years,
25 days)
56
2 January
533
8 May
535
John II
Mercurio Rome
Papa IOHANNES
Secundus
(2 years,
126 days)
57
13 May
535
22 April
536
St Agapetus I
Agapito
Rome,
Feast days 22 April
Ostrogothic and 20 September.
Kingdom Also revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 17 April.
Silverius
Italia
Papa AGAPITUS
(346 days)
58
1 June 536
11
November
537
St Silverius
Papa SILVERIUS
(1 year,
163 days)
59
29 March
537
7 June
555
(18 years,
70 days)
Vigilius
Papa VIGILIUS
Rome
60
16 April
556
4 March
561
Pelagius I
Rome
Papa PELAGIUS
(4 years,
322 days)
61
17 July 561
13 July
574
John III
Eastern
Roman
Empire
Benedict I
Italia
(12 years,
361 days)
62
2 June 575
30 July
579
Catelinus Rome,
Papa IOANNES
Tertius
Papa
BENEDICTUS
(4 years,
58 days)
63
26
November
579
7
February
590
Pelagius II
Rome
Papa PELAGIUS
Secundus
Ordered the
construction of the
Basilica di San
Lorenzo fuori le
Mura.
(10 years,
73 days)
64
3
September
590
12 March
604
(13 years,
191 days)
St Gregory I
(Gregory the
Great)
Papa
GREGORIUS
MAGNUS
Gregorio Rome
O.S.B.
Dialogist" in Eastern
Orthodoxy.
7th Century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
65
13
September
604
22
February
606
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
Sabinian
Personal Place of
name
birth
Notes
Blera
Papa SABINIANUS
(1 year,
162 days)
66
19
February
607
12
November
607
Boniface III
Bonifacio Rome
Papa BONIFATIUS
Tertius
(267 days)
67
25 August
608
8 May
615
St Boniface IV
Papa BONIFATIUS
Quartus
Bonifacio Marsi
O.S.B.
(6 years,
256 days)
68
19 October
615
8
November
618
(3 years,
20 days)
St Adeodatus I
(Deusdedit)
Papa ADEODATUS
sive DEUSDEDIT
Rome
Sometimes called
Deusdedit, as a
result Pope
Adeodatus II is
sometimes called
Pope Adeodatus
without a number.
The first pope to
use lead seals on
papal documents,
which in time came
to be called Papal
bulls.
69
23
December
619
25
October
625
Boniface V
Bonifacio Naples
Papa BONIFATIUS
Quintus
(5 years,
306 days)
70
27 October
625
12
October
638
Honorius I
Papa HONORIUS
Onorio
(12 years,
350 days)
71
28 May
640
2 August
640
Severinus
Severino Rome
Papa SEVERINUS
(0 years,
66 days)
72
24
December
640
12
October
642
John IV
Papa IOANNES
Quartus
Zadar,
Dalmatia,
Byzantine
Empire
(1 year,
292 days)
73
24
November
642
14 May
649
(6 years,
171 days)
Theodore I
Papa THEODORUS
74
21 July 649
16
September
655
St Martin I
Martino
Near Todi,
Umbria,
Byzantine
Empire
Eugenio
Rome
Papa MARTINUS
(6 years,
57 days)
75
10 August
654
1 June
657
St Eugene I
Last pope
recognized as a
martyr. Feast day of
12 November. Also
revered as a saint in
Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 14
April.
Papa EUGENIUS
(2 years,
295 days)
76
30 July 657
27
January
672
St Vitalian
Papa VITALIANUS
Segni,
Byzantine
Empire
(14 years,
181 days)
77
11 April
672
17 June
676
Sometimes called
unknown Rome,
Byzantine
Pope Adeodatus
Papa ADEODATUS O.S.B.
Adeodatus II
Secundus
Empire
Donus
Rome,
Byzantine
Empire
(4 years,
67 days)
78
2
November
676
11 April
678
(1 year,
160 days)
Papa DONUS
(without a number)
in reference to Pope
Adeodatus I
sometimes being
called Pope
Deusdedit.
Member of the
Order of Saint
Benedict.
79
27 June
678
10
January
681
Sicily
Also revered as a
saint in Eastern
Christianity, with a
feast day of 20
February.
Sicily
Benedetto Rome,
St Agatho
Papa AGATHO
(2 years,
197 days)
80
17 August
682
28 June
683
St Leo II
Leo
(315 days)
81
26 June
684
8 May
685
St Benedict II
Papa BENEDICTUS
Secundus
Byzantine
Empire
John V
Syria
(317 days)
82
12 July 685
2 August
686
Papa IOANNES
Quintus
(1 year,
21 days)
83
21 October
686
22
September
687
(335 days)
Conon
Papa CONON
Sicily
84
15
December
687
8
September
701
St Sergius I
Sicily
Papa SERGIUS
Introduced the
singing of the Lamb
of God at mass.[9]
(13 years,
267 days)
8th century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
85
30 October
701
11
January
705
Portrait
Name
English Regnal
John VI
Personal Place of
name
birth
Notes
Greece
Papa IOANNES
Sextus
(3 years,
73 days)
86
1 March
705
18
October
707
Papa IOANNES
Septimus
Sisinnius
Syria
John VII
(2 years,
231 days)
87
15 January
708
4
February
708
Papa SISINNIUS
(21 days)
88
25 March
708
9 April
715
(7 years,
15 days)
Constantine
Papa
COSTANTINUS
sive
CONSTANTINUS
Syria
89
19 May
715
11
February
731
Papa GREGORIUS
Secundus
Feast day 11
Byzantine February. Held the
Empire Synod of Rome
(721).
St Gregory III
Syria
St Gregory II
Gregorio Rome,
(15 years,
268 days)
90
18 March
731
28
November
741
Papa GREGORIUS
Tertius
(10 years,
255 days)
91
3
December
741
22 March
752
St Zachary
Papa ZACHARIAS
Santa
Feast day 15
Severina - March. Built the
Calabria church of Santa
Maria sopra
Minerva.
(10 years,
110 days)
(never
23 March
consecrated) 752
25 March
752
Pope-elect
Stephen
Papa Electus
STEPHANUS
(Never took
office as
pope)
92
26 March
752
26 April
757
(5 years,
31 days)
Stephen II
(Stephen III)
Papa STEPHANUS
Secundus (Tertius)
Rome
Sometimes known
as Stephen II. Died
three days after his
election; never
receiving episcopal
consecration. Some
lists still include
him. The Vatican
sanctioned his
addition in the
sixteenth century;
removed in 1961.
He is no longer
considered a pope
by the Catholic
Church.
Sometimes called
Stephen III. The
Donation of Pepin.
93
29 May
757
28 June
767
St Paul I
Paolo
Rome
Stefano
Sicily
Adriano
Rome
Leo
Rome
Papa PAULUS
(10 years,
30 days)
94
7 August
768
24
January
772
Stephen III
(Stephen IV)
Papa STEPHANUS
Tertius (Quartus)
Sometimes called
Stephen IV. The
Lateran Council
(769).
(3 years,
170 days)
95
1 February
772
26
December
795
Adrian I
Papa HADRIANUS
(23 years,
328 days)
96
26
December
795
12 June
816
St Leo III
Papa LEO Tertius
(20 years,
169 days)
Crowned
Charlemagne
Imperator Augustus
on Christmas Day,
800, thereby
initiating what
would become the
office of Holy
Roman Emperor
requiring the
imprimatur of the
pope for its
legitimacy.
9th century
Numerical
Pontificate
order
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Age at
Place election #
Personal
years
of / death as
name
or
birth
pope
resigned
Notes
97
12 June
816
24
January
817
(0 years,
226 days)
98
25 January
817
11
February
824
<1
Sometimes
called
Stephen V.
Credited with
finding the
body of Saint
Cecilia in the
Catacomb of
Callixtus,
building the
basilica of
Santa Cecilia
in Trastevere
and the
church of
Santa Maria
in Domnica.
Papa
STEPHANUS
Quartus
(Quintus)
(7 years,
17 days)
99
8 May 824
August
27 827
(3 years,
111 days)
100
31 August
827
10
October
827
Eugenio Rome
Valentino Rome
<1
17
Eugene II
Papa
EUGENIUS
Secundus
Valentine
Papa
VALENTINUS
(0 years,
40 days)
101
December
827
25
January
844
(17 years+)
Papa
GREGORIUS
Quartus
Rebuilt the
atrium of St.
Peters
Basilica and
in the newly
decorated
chapel
transferred the
body of
Gregory I.
102
25 January
844
7 January
847
Sergius II
Rome
Rome
Member of
the Order of
Saint
Benedict.
Rome
Encouraged
missionary
activity.
Rome
Papa SERGIUS
Secundus
(2 years,
347 days)
103
27 January
847
17 July
855
St Leo IV
Papa LEO
Quartus
Leo
O.S.B.
(8 years,
171 days)
104
29 July
855
7 April
858
(2 years,
252 days)
105
24 April
858
13
November
867
(9 years,
203 days)
106
14
December
867
14
December
872
St Nicholas I Niccol
(Nicholas the
Great)
Papa
NICOLAUS
MAGNUS
Adrian II
Adriano
Papa
HADRIANUS
Secundus
(5 years,
0 days)
107
14
December
872
16
December
882
(10 years, 2
days)
John VIII
Papa
IOANNES
Octavus
Giovanni Rome
10
108
16
December
882
15 May
884
Marino
Gallese,
Rome
Adriano
Rome
Stephen V Stefano
(Stephen VI)
Rome
Marinus I
Papa
MARINUS
(1 year,
151 days)
109
17 May
884
July 885
(1 year+)
110
September
885
14
September
891
(4 years+)
111
19
September
891
4 April
896
St Adrian
III
Papa
HADRIANUS
Tertius
Sometimes
called
Stephen VI.
Papa
STEPHANUS
Quintus
(Sextus)
Formosus
Formoso Ostia
Papa
FORMOSUS
(4 years,
198 days)
112
4 April 896
19 April
896
(15 days)
<1
Posthumously
ritually
executed
following the
Cadaver
Synod.
113
22 May
896
14
August 897
Stephen VI Stefano
(Stephen
VII)
115
116
Papa
STEPHANUS
Sextus
(Septimus)
(1 year,
84 days)
114
Rome
Romano Gallese,
August 897
November
897
Romanus
December
897 - 20
December
897
January
898
January
900
John IX
Papa
ROMANUS
Sometimes
called
Stephen VII.
Held the
infamous
Cadaver
Synod.
<1
Rome
<1
Papa
THEODORUS
Secundus
Papa
IOANNES
Nonus
Giovanni Tivoli
O.S.B.
Member of
the Order of
Saint
Benedict.
(2 years+)
117
1 February
900
July 903
Papa
BENEDICTUS
Quartus
(3 years+)
10th century
Numerica Pontificate
l order
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
#
year
s as
pope
Notes
resigne
d
118
119
120
July 903
September 903
Leo V
Leo
29 January 904
14 April 911
Ardea
<1
Rome
Rome
Sabina
<1
Papa LEO
Quintus
(7 years, 75 days)
Papa
SERGIUS
Tertius
April 911
June 913
Anastasius
III
Papa
ANASTASIU
S Tertius
121
122
July/August
913 25
February 914
Lando
March 914
May 928
John X
Lando
Papa
LANDUS
Papa
IOANNES
Decimus
Giovanni Romagna
14
"Saeculum
obscurum"
begins.
The first
pope to be
depicted
with the
Papal
Tiara.
123
124
June 928
February 929
Leo VI
February 929
15 March 931
Stephen
VII
(Stephen
VIII)
Leo
Rome
<1
Stefano
Rome
Giovanni Rome
Leo
O.S.B.
Rome
Member of
the Order
of Saint
Benedict.
Stephan
Rome
Sometimes
called
Stephen
IX.
Rome
Papa LEO
Sextus
Sometimes
called
Stephen
VIII.
Papa
STEPHANUS
Septimus
(Octavus)
125
126
February/Marc
h 931
December 935
John XI
3 January 936
13 July 939
Leo VII
(3 years,
191 days)
127
14 July 939
October 942
Papa
IOANNES
Undecimus
Papa LEO
Septimus
Stephen
VIII
(Stephen
IX)
Papa
STEPHANUS
Octavus
(Nonus)
128
30 October
942
10 May 946
(3 years,
192 days)
Marinus II Marino
Papa
MARINUS
Secundus
129
10 May 946
8 December
955
(9 years,
212 days)
130
16 December
955
14 May 964
(8 years,
150 days)
131
22 May 964
23 June 964
(0 years, 32 days)
132
July 964 1
March 965
Rome
Octavian Rome
Agapetus II Agapito
Papa
AGAPITUS
Secundus
John XII
Papa
IOANNES
Duodecimus
Benedict V
Rome
<1
Rome
<1
Papa
BENEDICTU
S Quintus
Leo VIII
Papa LEO
Octavus
Deposed in
963 by
Emperor
Otto
invalidly;
end of the
"Saeculum
obscurum"
.
Elected by
the people
of Rome,
in
opposition
to the
Antipope
Leo VIII
who was
appointed
by
Emperor
Otto; he
accepted
his own
deposition
in 964
leaving
Leo VIII
as the sole
pope.
Appointed
antipope
by
Emperor
Otto in
963 in
opposition
to John
XII and
Benedict
V. He
became the
true pope
after
Benedict V
was
133
134
135
1 October 965
6 September
972
(6 years,
341 days)
John XIII
19 January 973
June 974
Benedict VI
Rome
Rome,
Papal
States
Rome
Papa
IOANNES
Tertius
Decimus
(1 year+)
Papa
BENEDICTU
S Sextus
October 974
10 July 983
Benedict
VII
deposed.
Chronicled
after his
death as
"the
Good".
Deposed
and
murdered.
Papa
BENEDICTU
S Septimus
136
137
December 983
20 August
984
John XIV
August 985
March 996
John XV
(8 years+)
Papa
IOANNES
Quartus
Decimus
Papa
IOANNES
Quintus
Decimus
Pavia
Pietro
Campanor
a
<1
Rome
10
John
The first
pope to
formally
canonize a
saint.
138
3 May 996
18 February
999
(2 years,
291 days)
139
2 April 999
12 May 1003
(4 years, 40 days)
First
German
Pope
The first
French
pope.
Roman
Empire
GREGORIUS
Quintus
of France
SILVESTER
Secundus
11th century
Numerical
Pontificate Portraitjaleel
order
140
141
Name
English
Regnal
Personal
name
June 1003
6
December
1003
John XVII
Siccone
25
December
1003
July 1009
Papa IOANNES
Septimus
Decimus
Place of
birth
Rome, Papal
States
Rapagnano,
Papal States
(5 years+)
142
31 July
1009
12 May
1012
(2 years, 286
days)
Notes
143
18 May
1012
9 April
1024
(11 years,
327 days)
144
April/May
1024
20
October
1032
Benedict
VIII
Papa
Tusculum
BENEDICTUS
Octavus
Roman
Empire
John XIX
Rome, Papal
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
Romanus,
(8 years+)
145
20 October
1032 31
December
1044
Roman
Empire
(12 years, 72
days)
146
1 January
1045 - 31
March
1045
Sabina
(0 years, 89
days)
147
1 April
1045 10
November
1045
(0 years, 223
days)
Roman
Empire
Sutri
148
10
November
1045 23
December
1046
Gregory VI Johannes
Papa
Gratianus
Clement II
Hornburg, Appointed by
Duchy of
Henry III at the
Saxony,
Council of Sutri;
Holy Roman crowned Henry III
Empire
as Holy Roman
Emperor.
GREGORIUS
Sextus,
(1 year, 43
days)
149
24
December
1046
9
October
1047
Suidger
Papa
CLEMENS
Secundus
(0 years, 289
days)
150
151
November
1047 17
July 1048
Roman
Empire
17 July
1048
9 August
1048
Damasus II Poppo
Pildenau,
Duchy of
Bavaria,
Holy Roman
Empire
Papa
DAMASUS
Secundus
(0 years, 23
days)
152
12
February
1049
19 April
1054
(5 years, 66
days)
excommunicated
St Leo IX
Papa LEO
Nonus
Dagsbourg
Swabia,
excommunications
Holy Roman of Leo IX and
Empire
Patriarch of
Constantinople
Michael I
Cerularius began
the EastWest
Schism. The
anathematizations
were rescinded by
Pope Paul VI and
Patriarch
Athenagoras in
1965.[10]
153
13 April
1055
28 July
1057
Victor II
Germany,
Papa VICTOR of Calw,
Secundus
Tollenstein, and Holy Roman
Empire
Hirschberg
(2 years, 106
days)
154
2 August
1057
29 March
1058
(0 years, 241
days)
155
6
December
1058
27 July
1061
Stephen IX Frdric de
(Stephen X) Lorraine,
Papa
O.S.B.
Duchy of
Sometimes called
Lorraine,
Stephen X.
Holy Roman Member of the
Empire
Order of Saint
Benedict.
Nicholas II
Chteau de
Chevron,
Kingdom of
Arles
STEPHANUS
Nonus
(Decimus)
Papa
NICOLAUS
Secundus
Grard de
Bourgogne
(2 years,
233 days)
156
30
September
1061
21 April
1073
Alexander II Anselmo da
Papa
Baggio
ALEXANDER
Secundus
In 1059 the
College of
Cardinals was
designated the sole
body of pope
electors in the
document In
nomine Domini.
(Papal conclave).
Milan, Italy, Authorised the
Holy Roman Norman conquest
Empire
of England in
1066.
(11 years,
203 days)
157
22 April
1073
25 May
1085
(12 years,
33 days)
St Gregory
VII
Papa
GREGORIUS
Septimus
Hildebrand
O.S.B.
Sovana,
Italy, Holy
Roman
Empire
Initiated the
Gregorian
Reforms.
Restricted the use
of the title "Papa"
to the Bishop of
Rome.[4] Member
of the Order of
Saint Benedict.
Political struggle
with German
Emperor Henry
IV, who had to go
to Canossa (1077).
158
24 May
1086
16
September
1087
(1 year,
115 days)
159
Lagery,
Bl. Urban II Odo of
Papa
Lagery, O.S.B. County of
12 March
1088
29 July
1099
Preached and
started the First
Champagne, Crusade. Member
France
of the Order of
Saint Benedict.
URBANUS
Secundus
(11 years,
139 days)
160
13 August
1099
21
January
1118
Paschal II
Papa
PASCHALIS
Secundus
Raniero
O.S.B.
(18 years,
161 days)
12th century
Numerical
order
161
Pontificat
e
24 January
1118
28
January
1119
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Gelasius II
Papa
GELASIUS
Secundus
Personal
name
Giovanni
Coniulo,
O.S.B.
Place of
birth
Notes
Gaeta,
Member of the
Principality Order of Saint
of Capua
Benedict.
(1 year,
4 days)
162
2 February
1119
13
December
1124
(5 years,
315 days)
de Bourgogne
163
15
December
1124
13
February
1130
Fiagnano,
Honorius II Lamberto
Papa
Scannabecchi Papal States,
Holy Roman
HONORIUS
, Can.Reg. Empire
Secundus
(5 years,
60 days)
164
14
February
1130
24
September
1143
Gregorio
Papa
Papareschi,
INNOCENTIU Can.Reg.
Rome, Papal
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
Celestine II Guido
Citt di
Castello,
Papal States,
Holy Roman
Empire
Innocent II
S Secundus
Canon Regular
of S. Maria di
San Reno.
Approved the
new military
order of the
Knights Templar
in 1128.
Canon Regular
of Lateran;
Convened the
Second Council
of the Lateran,
1139
(13 years,
222 days)
165
26
September
1143
8 March
1144
Papa
COELESTINU
S Secundus
(0 years,
164 days)
166
12 March
1144
15
February
1145
Papa LUCIUS
Secundus
Bologna,
Canon Regular
Gerardo
Papal
States,
of S. Frediano di
Caccianemici
Holy Roman Lucca
dal Orso,
Empire
Can.Reg.
Bl. Eugene
III
Member of the
Bernardo da Pisa,
Republic
of
Order of
Pisa, O.Cist.
Lucius II
(0 years,
340 days)
167
15
February
1145
8 July
1153
Papa
EUGENIUS
Tertius
Pisa, Holy
Roman
Empire
(8 years,
143 days)
168
8 July
1153
3
December
1154
(1 year,
148 days)
Anastasius
IV
Papa
ANASTASIUS
Quartus
Rome, Papal
Corrado
Demetri della States, Holy
Roman
Suburra
Empire
Cistercians.
Announced the
Second Crusade.
169
4
December
1154
1
September
1159
Adrian IV
Papa
HADRIANUS
Quartus
Nicholas
Breakspear,
Can.Reg.
Abbots
First and only
Langley,
English pope;
Hertfordshire purportedly
, Kingdom of granted Ireland
England
to Henry II, King
of England.
Canon Regular
of St. Rufus
Monastery .
Rolando
Ubaldo
Lucca, Italy,
Holy Roman
Empire
Uberto
Crivelli
Cuggiono,
Italy, Holy
Roman
Empire
Alberto di
Morra,
Can.Reg.
Benevento,
Papal States,
Holy Roman
Empire
(4 years,
271 days)
170
7
September
1159
30
August
1181
Alexander
III
Papa
ALEXANDER
Tertius
(21 years,
357 days)
171
1
September
1181
25
November
1185
Lucius III
Papa LUCIUS
Tertius
(4 years,
85 days)
172
25
November
1185
19
October
1187
Urban III
Papa
URBANUS
Tertius
(1 year,
328 days)
173
21
October
1187
17
December
1187
(0 years,
57 days)
Gregory
VIII
Papa
GREGORIUS
Octavus
Canon Regular
Premostratense.
Proposed the
Third Crusade
174
19
December
1187
20
March
1191[11]
Papa
CLEMENS
Tertius
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
Rome, Papal
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
Gavignano,
Papal States,
Holy Roman
Empire
(3 years,
91 days)
175
21 March
1191
8
January
1198
(6 years,
293 days)
176
8 January
1198
16 July
1216
S Tertius
(18 years,
190 days)
Convened the
Fourth Council
of the Lateran,
1215. Initiated
the Fourth
Crusade but later
distanced
himself from it
and threatened
participants with
excommunicatio
n when it
became clear
that the
leadership
abandoned a
focus on
conquest of the
Holy Land and
instead intended
to sack Christian
cities.[12]
13th century
Numerical
order
177
Pontificate
18 July
1216
18 March
1227
(10 years,
243 days)
Portrait
Personal Place of
Notes
English Regnal
name
birth
Rome, Papal Initiated the
Honorius III Cencio
States, Holy Fifth Crusade.
Papa
Savelli
Name
HONORIUS
Tertius
Roman
Empire
Approved
several religious
and tertiary
orders.
178
19 March
1227
22
August
1241
Gregory IX
Papa
GREGORIUS
Nonus
Ugolino
dei Conti
di Segni,
O.F.S
(14 years,
156 days)
179
25 October
1241
10
November
1241
Celestine IV Goffredo
Papa
Castiglioni
COELESTINUS
Quartus
Anagni,
Canonized
Papal States, Elisabeth of
Holy Roman Hungary (1235).
Empire
Initiated the
Inquisition in
France and
endorsed the
Northern
Crusades.
Milan, Italy, Died before
Holy Roman coronation.
Empire
(0 years,
16 days)
180
25 June
1243
7
December
1254
Innocent IV
Papa
INNOCENTIUS
Quartus
(11 years,
165 days)
181
12
December
1254
25 May
1261
Convened the
Sinibaldo Genoa,
Republic
of
First Council of
Fieschi
Genoa, Holy Lyons (1245).
Roman
Issued the bull
Empire
Ad extirpanda
that permitted
the torture of
heretics (1252).
(6 years,
164 days)
182
29 August
1261
2 October
1264
Urban IV
Papa URBANUS
Quartus
Troyes,
Jacques
Pantalon County of
Instituted the
feast of Corpus
Champagne, Christi (1264).
France
(3 years,
34 days)
183
5 February
1265
29
November
1268
(3 years,
298 days)
Clement IV
Papa CLEMENS
Quartus
N/A
29
November
1268
1
September
1271
Interregnum
184
1
September
1271
10
January
1276
(4 years,
131 days)
185
21 January
1276
22 June
1276
(0 years,
153 days)
186
11 July
1276
18
August
1276
Adrian V
Papa
HADRIANUS
Quintus
Almost 3 year
period without a
valid pope
elected. This
was due to a
deadlock among
cardinals voting
for the pope.
Piacenza,
Convened the
Italy, Holy Second Council
Roman
of Lyons (1274).
Empire
Responsible for
regulation all
papal conclaves
until the 20th
century.
County of Member of the
Savoy, Holy Dominican
Roman
Order.
Empire
Annulled
Ottobuono Genoa,
Republic
of
Gregory X's
Fieschi
(0 years,
38 days)
187
8
September
1276
20 May
1277
(0 years,
254 days)
John XXI
Pedro
Petrus
Hispanus
and Pedro
Hispano)
Lisbon,
Portugal
Due to a
confusion over
the numbering
of popes named
John in the 13th
century, there
was no John
XX. There has
never been a
John XX,
because the 20th
pope of this
name formerly
when elected,
decided to skip
the number XX
and be counted
as John XXI
instead. He
wanted to
correct what in
his time was
believed to be an
error in the
counting of his
predecessors
John XV to XIX
188
25
November
1277
22
August
1280
Nicholas III
Papa
NICOLAUS
Tertius
Giovanni
Gaetano
Orsini
Rome, Papal
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
(2 years,
271 days)
189
22
February
1281
28 March
1285
Martin IV
Papa
MARTINUS
Quartus
Simon de Meinpicien,
Touraine,
Brion
France
(4 years,
34 days)
190
2 April
1285
3 April
1287
Honorius IV Giacomo
Papa
Savelli
Rome, Papal
States, Holy
Roman
Empire
Nicholas IV
Lisciano,
Member of the
Papal States, Franciscan
Holy Roman Order.
Empire
HONORIUS
Quartus
(2 years,
1 day)
191
22
February
1288
4 April
1292
Papa
NICOLAUS
Quartus
Girolamo
Masci,
O.F.M.
(4 years,
42 days)
N/A
4 April
1292
5 July
1294
Interregnum
2 year period
without a valid
pope elected.
This was due to
a deadlock
among cardinals
voting for the
pope.
192
5 July 1294
13
December
1294
St Celestine V Pietro
Papa
Angelerio,
COELESTINUS O.S.B.
Quintus
Sant'Angelo
Limosano,
Kingdom of
Sicily
(0 years,
161 days)
193
Formalized the
Boniface VIII Benedetto Anagni,
Papal
States,
Jubilee in 1300.
Papa
Caetani
24
December
1294
11
October
1303
BONIFATIUS
Octavus
(8 years,
291 days)
14th century
Numerical
order
194
Pontificate
22 October
1303
7 July
1304
(0 years,
259 days)
195
5 June
1305
20 April
1314
Portrait
Personal Place of
name
birth
Treviso
Bl. Benedict Niccol
XI
Boccasini,
Papa
O.P.
Name
English Regnal
BENEDICTUS
Undecimus
Clement V
N/A
20 April
1314
Interregnum
Member of the
Dominican
Order. Reverted
Boniface VIII's
Unam Sanctam.
(8 years,
319 days)
Notes
Gascony,
France
Avignon.
Convened the
Council of
Vienne (1311
1312). Initiated
the persecution
of the Knights
Templar with
the bull
Pastoralis
Praeeminentiae
under pressure
from King
Philip IV of
France.
2 year period
without a valid
pope elected.
7 August
1316
196
7 August
1316
4
December
1334
John XXII
Papa IOANNES
Vicesimus
Secundus
Jacques
d'Euse;
Jacques
Duse
Cahors,
Quercy,
France
(18 years,
119 days)
197
20
December
1334
25 April
1342
(7 years,
126 days)
198
7 May
1342
6
December
1352
Clement VI
Pierre
(10 years,
213 days)
199
18
December
1352
12
September
1362
(9 years,
268 days)
200
28
September
1362
19
December
1370
(8 years,
82 days)
Innocent VI
Papa
INNOCENTIUS
Sextus
tienne
Aubert
Saverdun,
County of
Foix,
France
Pope at
Avignon.
Member of the
Order of
Cistercians.
Known for
issuing the
Apostolic
constitution
Benedictus
Deus (1336).
Maumont, Pope at
Limousin, Avignon.
France
Reigned during
the Black Death
and absolved
those who died
of it of their
sins.
Les Monts, Pope at
Limousin, Avignon.
France
Through his
exertions the
Treaty of
Brtigny (1360)
was brought
about.
Pope at
Avignon.
Member of the
Order of Saint
Benedict.
Reformed ares
of education and
sent missionary
movements
across Europe
and Asia. His
pontificate
witnessed the
201
30
December
1370
27 March
1378
Gregory XI
Papa
GREGORIUS
Undecimus
Pierre
Roger de
Beaufort
Alexandrian and
Savoyard
crusades.
Maumont, Pope at
Limousin, Avignon; returns
France
to Rome. The
last French
pope.
(7 years,
87 days)
202
8 April
1378
15
October
1389
Urban VI
Papa URBANUS
Sextus
Western Schism.
Bartolomeo Naples,
Kingdom
of
Last pontiff to
Prignano
Naples
be elected
outside the
College of
Cardinals.
(11 years,
190 days)
203
2
November
1389
1 October
1404
Boniface IX
Papa
BONIFATIUS
Nonus
Naples,
Western Schism.
Pietro
Kingdom
of
Tomacelli
Naples
(14 years,
334 days)
15th century
The exact birth date of Innocent VIII and almost all popes prior to Eugene IV is
unknown, therefore the lowest probable age has been assumed for this table.
Numerical Pontificat
order
e
204
17
October
1404
6
November
1406
(2 years,
20 days)
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Innocent
VII
Papa
INNOCENTIU
S Septimus
Age at
Notes
papacy
Sulmona, 65 / 67 Western
Kingdom [B]
Schism
of Naples
205
30
November
1406
4 July
1415
Venice,
Republic
of Venice
[R]
(8 years,
216 days)
N/A
206
4 July
1415
11
November
1417
11
November
1417
20
February
1431
Interregnum
Martin V
Papa
MARTINUS
Quintus
Oddone
Colonna,
O.F.S
Genazzano 48 / 62
, Papal
States
Western
Schism;
abdicated
during the
Council of
Constance,
which had
been called by
his opponent
John XXIII.
Two-year
period without
a valid pope
elected.
Convened the
Council of
Basel (1431).
Initiated the
Hussite Wars.
(13 years,
101 days)
207
3 March
1431
23
February
1447
Eugene IV
Papa
EUGENIUS
Quartus
/ 63
Gabriele Venice, 47
[B]
Republic
Condulmer
of Venice
, O.S.A.
(15 years,
357 days)
208
6 March
1447
24
March
1455
(8 years,
18 days)
Member of
the
Augustinian
Order.
Crowned
Sigismund
emperor at
Rome in
1433.
Transferred
the Council of
Basel to
Ferrara. It was
later
transferred
again, to
Florence,
because of the
Bubonic
plague.
Member of
the Dominican
Order. Held
the Jubilee of
1450.
Crowned
Frederick III
emperor at
Rome (1452).
Created a
209
8 April
1455
6
August
1458
76 / 79
Callixtus III Alfonso de Xtiva,
Kingdom
Papa
Borja
of
Valencia,
Crown of
Aragon
CALLISTUS
Tertius
(3 years,
120 days)
210
19 August
1458
15
August
1464
Pius II
Papa PIUS
Secundus
(5 years,
362 days)
211
30 August
1464
26 July
1471
(6 years,
330 days)
Paul II
Papa PAULUS
Secundus
Pietro
Barbo
Venice,
47 / 54
Republic
of Venice
library in the
Vatican which
would
eventually
become the
Bibliotheca
Apostolica
Vaticana.
The first
Spanish pope.
Ordered the
Feast of the
Transfiguratio
n to be
celebrated on
6 August.
Ordered the
retrial of Joan
of Arc, in
which she was
vindicated.
Displayed a
great interest
in urban
planning.
Founded
Pienza near
Siena as the
ideal city in
1462. Known
for his work
on the
Commentarie
s.
The nephew
of Eugene IV.
Built the
Palazzo San
Marco (now
Palazzo
Venezia).
Approved the
introduction
of printing in
the Papal
States.
212
9 August
1471
12
August
1484
Sixtus IV
Papa XYSTUS
Quartus
Francesco
della
Rovere,
O.F.M.
Celle
Ligure,
Republic
of Genoa
57 / 70
Giovanni
Battista
Cybo
Genoa,
Republic
of Genoa
51 / 59
Roderic
Llanol i
de Borja
Xtiva,
61 / 72
Kingdom
of
Valencia,
Crown of
Aragon
(13 years,
3 days)
213
29 August
1484
25 July
1492
Innocent
VIII
Papa
INNOCENTIU
S Octavus
(7 years,
331 days)
214
11 August
1492
18
August
1503
Alexander
VI
Papa
ALEXANDER
Sextus
[B]
(11 years,
7 days)
Member of
the Franciscan
Order.
Commissione
d the Sistine
Chapel.
Authorized an
Inquisition
targeting
converted
Jewish
Christians in
Spain at the
request of
Queen
Isabella and
King
Ferdinand.
Appointed
Toms de
Torquemada.
Endorsed the
prosecution of
witchcraft in
the bull
Summis
desiderantes
affectibus
(1484).
Nephew of
Callixtus III;
father to
Cesare Borgia
and Lucrezia
Borgia.
Divided the
extraEuropean
world
between Spain
and Portugal
in the bull
Inter caetera
(1493). No
Alexander V
due to the
antipope.
16th20th centuries
16th century
Numerical Pontifica
order
te
Portrait
Name
English
Personal
name
Place of Age at
birth start/en
Notes
Regnal
215
22
Septembe
r 1503
18
October
1503
Pius III
Papa PIUS
Tertius
Francesco
Todeschini
Piccolomini
d of
papacy
Siena,
64 / 64 Nephew of Pius
Republic of
II. Founded the
Siena
Piccolomini
Library
adjourning the
Siena Cathedral.
(0 years,
26 days)
216
31
October
1503
21
February
1513
Julius II
Papa IULIUS
Secundus
Giuliano
della
Rovere,
O.F.M.
(9 years,
113 days)
217
9 March
1513
1
December
1521
Leo X
Papa LEO
Decimus
Giovanni di
Lorenzo de'
Medici
(8 years,
267 days)
218
9 January
1522
14
Septembe
r 1523
(1 year,
248 days)
Adrian VI Adriaan
Papa
Floriszoon
HADRIANUS Boeyens
Sextus
Patere et
sustine
("Respect and
Albisola,
59 / 69 Nephew of
Republic of
Sixtus IV;
Genoa
convened the
Fifth Council of
the Lateran
(1512). Took
control of all the
Papal States for
the first time.
Commissioned
Michelangelo to
paint the Sistine
Chapel ceiling.
Proposed plans
for rebuilding St
Peter's Basilica.
Florence, 37 / 45 Son of Lorenzo
Republic of
the Magnificent.
Florence
Closed the Fifth
Council of the
Lateran.
Remembered
for granting
indulgences to
those who
donated to
rebuild St.
Peter's Basilica;
excommunicate
d Martin Luther
(1521).
Extended the
Spanish
Inquisition into
Portugal.
Utrecht,
62 / 64 The only Dutch
Bishopric of
pope; last nonUtrecht,
Italian to be
Holy
elected pope
Roman
until John Paul
Empire
II in 1978. Tutor
(now
of Emperor
Netherlands
Charles V.
)
Retained his
wait")
219
26
Novembe
r 1523
25
Septembe
r 1534
(10 years,
303 days)
220
13
October
1534
10
Novembe
r 1549
baptismal name
as his regnal
name.
[13]
Clement
VII
Papa
CLEMENS
Septimus
Florence, 45 / 56
Giulio di
Giuliano de' Republic of
Florence
Medici
Candor
illsus
("He without
injury")[14]
Paul III
Alessandro
(15 years,
28 days)
221
7
February
1550
29
March
1555
(5 years,
50 days)
Julius III
Papa IULIUS
Tertius
Giovanni
Maria
Ciocchi del
Monte
Cousin of Leo
X. Rome
plundered by
imperial troops
(1527). Forbade
the divorce of
Henry VIII;
crowned
Charles V as
emperor at
Bologna (1530).
His niece was
married to the
future Henry II
of France.
Ordered
Michelangelo's
painting of The
Last Judgment
in the Sistine
Chapel.
Canino,
66 / 81 Opened the
Lazio,
Council of Trent
Papal States
(1545). His
illegitimate son
became the first
Duke of Parma.
Decreed the
second and final
excommunicati
on of Henry
VIII. Appointed
Michelangelo to
supervise
construction of
St. Peter's
Basilica (1546).
Rome,
62 / 67 Established the
Lazio,
Collegium
Papal States
Germanicum
(1552).
Reconvened the
Council of
Trent. The
Innocenzo
Scandal.
222
223
9 April
1555
1 May
1555
(0 years, 22
days)
S Secundus
23 May
1555
18
August
1559
Paul IV
(4 years,
87 days)
224
Montefano, 53 / 53
Marcello
Marche,
Cervini
Papal States
Papa
degli
MARCELLU Spannochi
Marcellus
II
26
December
1559
9
December
1565
Giovanni
Dominus
mihi adjutor
C.R.
("The Lord is
my helper")[15]
Pius IV
Papa PIUS
Quartus
Giovanni
Angelo
Medici
(5 years,
348 days)
225
7 January
1566
1 May
1572
(6 years,
115 days)
St Pius V
Papa PIUS
Quintus
Utinam
dirigantur
vi me ad
custodienda
s
("It binds us to
keep")[16]
Antonio
Ghislieri,
O.P.
226
13 May
1572
10 April
1585
(12 years,
332 days)
Gregory
XIII
Papa
GREGORIUS
Tertius
Decimus
Bologna,
70 / 83
Ugo
EmiliaBoncompag
Romagna,
ni
Papal States
Aperuit et
clausit
("Opened and
closed")[17]
227
24 April
1585
27
August
1590
Sixtus V
Felice
O.F.M.
Conv.
(5 years,
125 days)
228
15
Septembe
r 1590
27
Septembe
r 1590
Reformed the
calendar (1582);
built the
Gregorian
Chapel in the
Vatican. The
first pope to
bestow the
Immaculate
Conception as
Patroness to the
Philippine
Islands through
the bull Ilius
Fulti Prsido
(1579).
Strengthened
diplomatic ties
with Asian
nations.
Grottammar 63 / 68 Member of the
e, Marche,
Conventual
Papal States
Franciscan
Order. Known
for fixing and
completing
building works
to major
basilicas in
Rome. Limited
the College of
Cardinals to 70
in number;
doubled the
number of
curial
congregations.
Rome,
69 / 69 ShortestLazio,
reigning pope;
Papal States
died before
coronation. Set
the worldwide
smoking ban.
(0 years,
12 days)
229
5
December
1590
16
October
1591
(0 years,
315 days)
Gregory
XIV
Papa
GREGORIUS
Quartus
Decimus
Niccol
Sfondrati
Somma
55 / 56
Lombardo,
Lombardy,
Duchy of
Milan
Modified the
constitution
Effraenatam of
Sixtus V so that
the penalty for
abortion did not
apply until the
foetus became
animated
230
29
October
1591
30
December
1591
Innocent IX Giovanni
Papa
Antonio
INNOCENTI Facchinetti
US Nonus
(0 years,
62 days)
231
30
January
1592
3
March
1605
Clement
VIII
Papa
CLEMENS
Octavus
(13 years,
32 days)
Ippolito
Aldobrandi
ni
(1591). Made
gambling on
papal elections
punishable by
excommunicati
on.
Bologna,
72 / 72 Supported the
Emiliacause of Philip
Romagna,
II and the
Papal States
Catholic League
against Henry
IV in the French
Wars of
Religion.
Prohibited the
alienation of
church property.
Fano,
55 / 69 Initiated an
Marche,
alliance of
Papal States
European
Christian
powers to
partake in the
war with the
Ottoman
Empire known
as The Long
War (1595).
Convened the
Congregatio de
Auxiliis which
addressed
doctrinal
disputes
between the
Dominicans and
Jesuits
regarding free
will and divine
grace.[18]
17th century
Numerical Pontificat
order
e
232
1 April
1605
27 April
1605
(0 years,
26 days)
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Leo XI
Papa LEO
Undecimus
Age at
Notes
papacy
Florence, 69 / 69 The nephew of
Duchy of
Leo X. Called
Florence
"Papa Lampo"
(Lightning Pope)
for his brief
pontificate.
233
16 May
1605
28
January
1621
(15 years,
257 days)
234
9
February
1621
8 July
1623
Paul V
Papa PAULUS
Quintus
Camillo
Borghese
Rome,
Lazio,
Papal
States
Absit nisi in
te gloriari
("Far, but in
your glory")[19]
Romagna,
Papal
States
Florence,
Grand
Duchy of
Tuscany
Innocent X Giovanni
Papa
Battista
INNOCENTI Pamphilj
Rome,
Lazio,
Papal
States
(2 years,
149 days)
235
6 August
1623
29 July
1644
(20 years,
358 days)
236
15
Septembe
r 1644
7
January
1655
(10 years,
114 days)
US Decimus
Alleviat
sunt aqu
super terram
("Water on
earth")[20]
52 / 68 Known for
various building
projects which
included the
facade of St
Peter's Basilica.
Established the
Bank of the
Holy Spirit
(1605); restored
the Aqua
Traiana.
67 / 69 Established the
Congregation for
the Propagation
of the Faith
(1622). Issued
the bull Aeterni
Patris (1621)
which imposed
conclaves to be
by secret ballot.
Issued the
constitution
Omnipotentis
Dei against
magicians and
witches (1623).
55 / 76 Trial against
Galileo Galilei.
The last pope to
expand papal
territory by force
of arms. Issued a
1624 bull that
made the use of
tobacco in holy
places
punishable by
excommunicatio
n.
70 / 80 The great-greatgreat-grandson
of Alexander VI.
Erected the
Fontana dei
Quattro Fiumi in
Piazza Navona.
Promulgated the
apostolic
constitution
Cum occasione
(1653) which
condemned five
doctrines of
237
7 April
1655
22 May
1667
(12 years,
45 days)
Alexander
VII
Fabio
Chigi
Papa
ALEXANDER
Septimus
Montium
custos
("Mountain
guardian")[21]
238
20 June
1667
9
December
1669
(2 years,
172 days)
Clement IX Giulio
Papa
Rospigliosi
CLEMENS
Nonus
Aliis non
sibi Clemens
Jansenism as
heresy.
Siena,
56 / 68 Great-nephew of
Grand
Paul V.
Duchy of
Commissioned
Tuscany
St. Peter's
Square. Issued
the constitution
Sollicitudo
Omnium
Ecclesiarum that
set the doctrine
of the
Immaculate
Conception
almost identical
to that of Pius
IX centuries
later.
Pistoia, 67 / 69 Commissioned
Grand
the colonnade of
Duchy of
St. Peter's
Tuscany
Square.
Mediated in the
peace of Aachen
(1668).
("For others,
not Clement")
[22]
239
29 April
1670
22 July
1676
(6 years,
84 days)
Rome,
Clement X Emilio
Papa
Bonaventur Lazio,
Papal
CLEMENS
a Altieri
States
Decimus
Bonum
auget malum
minuit
("It measures
the lesser evil")
[23]
79 / 86 Canonized the
first saint from
the Americas:
Saint Rose of
Lima (1671).
Decorated the
bridge of Sant'
Angelo with the
ten statues of
angels and the
two fountains
that adorn the
piazza of St.
Peter's.
Established
regulations for
the removal of
relics of saints
from cemeteries.
240
21
Septembe
r 1676
12
August
1689
Avarus non
Implebitur
(12 years,
325 days)
241
, Duchy of
Milan
Papa
INNOCENTI
US Undecimus
("The covetous
man is not
(never)
satisfied [with
money]")[24]
6 October
1689
1
February
1691
Alexander
VIII
Pietro Vito
Ottoboni
Papa
ALEXANDER
Octavus
William III's
Glorious
Revolution to
overthrow James
II. Condemned
the doctrine of
mental
reservation
(1679) and
initiated the
Holy League.
Extended the
Holy Name of
Mary as a
universal feast
(1684). Admired
for positive
contributions to
catechesis.
Venice, 79 / 80 Condemned the
Republic
so-called
of Venice
philosophical sin
(1690).
(1 year,
118 days)
242
12 July
1691
27
Septembe
r 1700
Innocent
XII
Papa
INNOCENTI
US
Duodecimus
(9 years,
77 days)
Antonio
Pignatelli,
O.F.S
Spinazzol 76 / 85
a, Apulia,
Kingdom
of Naples
18th century
Numerical Pontificat
order
e
243
23
Novembe
r 1700
19
March
1721
(20 years,
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Personal
name
Clement XI Giovanni
Papa
Francesco
CLEMENS
Albani
Undecimus
Age at
Place of start/en
d of
birth
Notes
papacy
Urbino,
51 / 71 The "Chinese
Marche,
Rites"
Papal States
controversy.
The last pope
with
Albanian
origin.
Patronized
the first
116 days)
244
8 May
1721
7 March
1724
(2 years,
304 days)
245
29 May
1724
21
February
1730
(5 years,
268 days)
246
12 July
1730
6
February
1740
(9 years,
209 days)
Innocent
XIII
Michelange
lo dei Conti
Papa
INNOCENTI
US Tertius
Decimus
Servant of
God
Benedict
XIII
Pietro
Francesco
Orsini, O.P.
Papa
BENEDICTU
S Tertius
Decimus
Clement
XII
Papa
CLEMENS
Duodecimus
Dabis
discernere
inter malum
Lorenzo
Corsini,
O.F.S
archaeologic
al
excavations
in the Roman
catacombs
and made the
feast of the
Immaculate
Conception
universal.[9]
Poli, Lazio, 65 / 68 Prohibited
Papal States
the Jesuits
from
prosecuting
their mission
in China
ordering that
no new
members
should be
received into
the order.
Gravina in 75 / 81 Member of
Puglia, Bari,
the
Kingdom of
Dominican
Naples
Order; third
and last
member of
the Orsini
family to be
pope.
Originally
called
Benedict
XIV due to
the antipope
but reverted
to XIII.
Repealed the
worldwide
tobacco
smoking ban
set by Urban
VII and
Urban VIII.
Florence,
78 / 87 Completed
Grand Duchy
the new
of Tuscany
faade of the
Archbasilica
of St. John
Lateran
(1735).
Commissione
d the Trevi
Fountain in
et bonum
("Distinguish
between good
and evil")[25]
247
17 August
1740
3 May
1758
(17 years,
259 days)
Benedict
XIV
Papa
BENEDICTU
S Quartus
Decimus
Prospero
Lorenzo
Lambertini
Curabuntor
omnes
("Will heal
all")[26]
248
6 July
1758
2
February
1769
(10 years,
211 days)
Clement
XIII
Papa
CLEMENS
Tertius
Decimus
Carlo della
Torre di
Rezzonico
Rosa
umbri
("Umbrian
rose")[27]
249
19 May
1769
22
Septembe
r 1774
(5 years,
126 days)
Clement
XIV
Papa
CLEMENS
Quartus
Decimus
Ursus velox
("Quick bear")
[28]
Giovanni
Vincenzo
Antonio
Ganganelli,
O.F.M.
Conv.
Rome
(1732).
Condemned
Freemasonry
in In
Eminenti
(1738).
Bologna,
65 / 83 Reformed the
Papal States
education of
priests and
the calendar
of feasts.
Completed
the Trevi
Fountain and
affirmed the
teachings of
Thomas
Aquinas;
founded
academies of
art, religion
and science.
Venice,
65 / 75 Provided the
Republic of
famous fig
Venice
leaves on
nude male
statues in the
Vatican.
Defended the
Society of
Jesus in
"Apostolicum
pascendi"
(1765).
Sant'Arcange 63 / 68
lo di
Romagna,
Papal States
Member of
the
Conventual
Franciscan
Order.
Suppressed
the Society
of Jesus in
the brief
"Dominus ac
Redemptor"
(1773).
250
15
February
1775
29
August
1799
Pius VI
Papa PIUS
Sextus
Floret in
domo
domini
(24 years,
195 days)
N/A
Count
Giovanni
Angelo
Braschi
Cesena,
57 / 81
EmiliaRomagna,
Papal States
("It blossoms in
the house of
God")[29]
29 August
1799
14
March
1800
Interregnum
Condemned
the French
Revolution;
expelled
from the
Papal States
by French
troops from
1798 until his
death. The
last pope to
be a patron of
Renaissance
art.
Six-month
period
without a
valid pope
elected. This
was due to
unique
logistical
problems (the
old pope died
a prisoner
and the
conclave was
in Venice)
and a
deadlock
among
cardinals
voting.
19th century
Numerical
order
251
Pontificat
e
14 March
1800
20
August
1823
(23 years,
159 days)
Portrait
Name
English
Regnal
Age at
Cesena, 57 / 81
Servant of Count
EmiliaGod Pius Barnaba
Romagna,
VII
Niccol
Papal
Papa PIUS
Maria Luigi States
Septimus
Chiaramonti
, O.S.B.
Aquila
Rapax
("Rapacious
eagle")[30]
Notes
Member of
the Order of
Saint
Benedict.
Present at
Napoleon's
coronation as
Emperor of
the French.
Briefly
expelled
from the
Papal States
by the
French
252
28
September
1823
10
February
1829
Leo XII
Papa LEO
Duodecimus
(5 years,
135 days)
253
31 March
1829
30
November
1830
Pius VIII
Papa PIUS
Octavus
Count
Annibale
Francesco
Clemente
Melchiore
Girolamo
Nicola
Sermattei
della Genga
Genga,
Marche,
Papal
States
63 / 68
Francesco
Saverio
Castiglioni
Cingoli,
Marche,
Papal
States
67 / 69
(1 year,
244 days)
254
2 February
1831
1 June
1846
(15 years,
119 days)
Bartolomeo Belluno, 65 / 80
Veneto,
Alberto
Republic
Papa
Cappellari, of Venice
GREGORIU O.S.B. Cam.
Gregory
XVI
S Sextus
Decimus
between
1809 and
1814.
Placed the
Catholic
educational
system under
the control of
the Jesuits
through
Quod divina
sapientia
(1824).
Condemned
the Bible
societies.
Accepted
Louis
Philippe I as
King of the
French.
Condemned
the masonic
secret
societies and
modernist
biblical
translations
in the brief
Litteris
altero
(1830).
Member of
the
Camaldolese
Order; last
non-bishop
to be elected
to the
papacy.
Opposed
democratic
and
modernising
reforms in
the Papal
States.
255
16 June
1846
7
February
1878
(31 years,
236 days)
256
20
February
1878
20 July
1903
Senigallia 54 / 85
, Marche,
Papal
States
Leo XIII
Carpineto 67 / 93
Romano,
Lazio,
Papal
States
Papa LEO
Tertius
Decimus
Gioacchino
Vincenzo
Raffaele
Luigi Pecci,
O.F.S.
(25 years,
150 days)
Opened the
First Vatican
Council; lost
the Papal
States to
Italy.
Defined the
dogma of the
Immaculate
Conception
and defined
papal
infallibility.
Issued the
controversial
Syllabus of
Errors.
Longest
serving pope
in history.
Issued the
encyclical
Rerum
Novarum;
supported
Christian
democracy
against
Communism
. Had the
fourthlongest reign
after Pius IX,
Saint Peter
and John
Paul II.
Promoted the
rosary and
the scapular
and
approved
two new
Marian
scapulars;
first pope to
fully
embrace the
concept of
Mary as
mediatrix.
20th century
Numerical Pontificat
Portrait
Name
English
start/en
Notes
Regnal
order
257
e
4 August
1903
20
August
1914
(11 years,
16 days)
Motto
Latin
(English)
name
birth
d of
papacy
Riese,
68 / 79
Treviso,
Lombardy
-Venetia,
Austrian
Empire
Encouraged and
expanded
reception of the
Eucharist.
Combatted
Modernism;
issued the oath
against it.
Advocated the
Gregorian Chant
and reformed the
Roman Breviary.
Genoa,
59 / 67
Pegli,
Kingdom
of
PiedmontSardinia
Credited for
intervening for
peace during
World War I.
Issued the 1917
Code of Canon
Law; supported
the missionaries
in Maximum
Illud.
Remembered by
Benedict XVI as
a "prophet of
peace".
64 / 81
Achille Desio,
Lombardy
Papa PIUS
Ambrogio
-Venetia,
Undecimus
Damiano Austrian
Ratti,
Empire
Pax Christi O.F.S.
in Regno
Christi
Signed the
Lateran Treaty
with Italy (1929)
establishing
Vatican City as a
sovereign state.
Inaugurated
Vatican Radio;
created the feast
of Christ the
King. Opposed
Communism,
Nazism and
Fascism.
St Pius X
Papa PIUS
Decimus
Instaurare
Omnia in
Christo
Giuseppe
Melchiorr
e Sarto,
O.F.S.
("Restore all
things in
Christ")
258
3
September
1914
22
January
1922
(7 years,
141 days)
Benedict
XV
Giacomo
Paolo
Papa
Giovanni
BENEDICTU Battista
S Quintus
Della
Decimus
Chiesa,
O.F.S.
In te,
Domine,
speravi:
non
confundar
in
aeternum.
("In thee, o
Lord, have I
trusted: let me
not be
confounded for
evermore.")
259
6 February
1922
10
February
1939
(17 years,
4 days)
Pius XI
("The Peace of
Christ in the
Kingdom of
Christ")
260
2 March
1939
9
October
1958
(19 years,
221 days)
Eugenio
Maria
Giuseppe
Giovanni
Pacelli,
O.F.S.
Rome,
63 / 82
Lazio,
Kingdom
of Italy
Angelo
Giuseppe
Roncalli,
O.F.S.
Sotto il
76 / 81
Monte,
Bergamo,
Kingdom
of Italy
Concesio, 65 / 80
Brescia,
Kingdom
of Italy
Servant of
God John
Paul I
Forno di 65 / 65
Canale,
Belluno,
Veneto,
Kingdom
of Italy
Ven. Pius
XII
Papa PIUS
Duodecimus
Opus
Justitiae
Pax
("The work of
justice [shall
be] peace")
261
28
October
1958
3 June
1963
(4 years,
218 days)
St John
XXIII
Papa
IOANNES
Vicesimus
Tertius
Obedientia
et Pax
("Obedience
and peace")
262
21 June
1963
6 August
1978
(15 years,
46 days)
("With Him on
the mount")
263
26 August
1978
28
September
1978
(0 years,
33 days)
Papa
IOANNES
PAULUS
Primus
Albino
Luciani
Invoked papal
infallibility in
the encyclical
Munificentissim
us Deus; defined
the dogma of the
Assumption.
Eliminated the
Italian majority
of cardinals.
Credited with
intervening for
peace during
World War II;
controversial for
his role in the
Holocaust.
Opened the
Second Vatican
Council; called
"Good Pope
John". Issued the
encyclical
Pacem in Terris
(1963) on peace
and nuclear
disarmament;
intervened for
peace during the
Cuban Missile
Crisis (1962).
Last pope to be
crowned in a
coronation with
the tiara. First
pope to travel to
the USA and
Australia; first
pope since 1809
to travel outside
Italy. Closed the
Second Vatican
Council. Issued
the encyclical
Humanae Vitae
(1968) banning
contraception.
Abolished the
coronation
opting for the
Papal
Inauguration.
First pope to use
'the First' in
papal name; first
Humilitas
("Humility")
264
16
October
1978
2 April
2005
St John
Paul II
Karol
Jzef
Wojtya
Papa
IOANNES
PAULUS
Secundus
(26 years,
168 days)
Wadowice 58 / 84
, 2nd
Polish
Republic
Totus Tuus
("Totally
yours")
21st century
Name
Numerical
order
Pontificate
Portrait
English
Regnal
Motto
Age at
Latin (English)
265
19 April
2005
28
February
2013
(7 years,
315 days)
Benedict
XVI
Papa
BENEDICTUS
Sextus Decimus
Cooperatore
s Veritatis
("Cooperators
of the truth")
Notes
Joseph
Aloisius
Ratzinger
Marktl
78 / 85
am Inn,
Bavaria,
Germany
Oldest to
become
pope since
Clement XII
(1730).
Elevated the
Tridentine
Mass to a
more
prominent
position and
promoted
the use of
Latin; reintroduced
several
disused
266
13 March
2013
present
(1 year,
290 days)
Flores, 76 / Jorge
Buenos
Papa
Mario
FRANCISCUS Bergoglio, Aires,
Argentina
S.J.
Miserando
atque
Eligendo
Francis
("By having
mercy, by
choosing")
Religious orders
38 popes have been members of religious orders. These have included:
Benedictines (18):
papal
garments.
Established
the Anglican
Ordinariate.
First pope to
renounce the
papacy on
his own
initiative
since
Celestine V
(1294),[31]
retaining
regnal name
with title of
Pope
Emeritus.[32]
First pope to
be born
outside
Europe since
Gregory III
(731741)
and the first
from the
Americas;
first pope
from the
Southern
Hemisphere.
First
religious
pope since
Gregory
XVI (18311846); first
Jesuit pope.
First to use a
new and
noncomposed
regnal name
since Lando
(913914).
o Gregory I, Boniface IV, Adeodatus II, Leo IV, John IX, Leo VII, Sergius IV,
Stephen IX, Gregory VII, Victor III, Urban II, Paschal II, Gelasius II, Celestine V,
Clement VI, Urban V, Pius VII
and including Camaldolese (1):
Gregory XVI
Augustinians (6):
o Eugene IV
and including Canons Regulars (5):
Honorius II, Innocent II, Lucius II, Gregory VIII, Adrian IV
Dominicans (5):
o Innocent V, Benedict XI, Nicholas V, Pius V, Benedict XIII
Franciscans (5):
o Nicholas IV, Sixtus IV, Julius II
and including Conventual Franciscans (2):
Sixtus V, Clement XIV
Cistercians (2):
o Eugene III, Benedict XII
Theatines (1):
o Paul IV
Jesuits (1):
o Francis
12 popes have been members of third orders, also called "tertiaries" or "Third Order Secular,"
and all of them of the Secular Franciscans:
Gregory IX, Gregory X, Martin V, Innocent XII, Clement XII, Pius IX, Leo XIII, Pius X,
Benedict XV, Pius XI, Pius XII, John XXIII
Felix II (356357), Boniface VII (974, 984985), John XVI (997998), Benedict X
(10581059) and Alexander V (14091410) are not listed because all of them are
considered antipopes.[33]
The numbering of popes named Felix has been amended to omit antipope Felix II;
however, most lists still call the last two Felixes Felix III and Felix IV. Additionally, there
was an antipope Felix V.[33]
There has never been a pope John XX as a result of confusion of the numbering system in
the 11th century.[34]
Pope-elect Stephen, who died before being consecrated, has not been on the Vatican's
official list of popes since 1961, but appears on lists dating from before 1960.[34] The
numbering of following popes called Stephen are nowadays given as Pope Stephen II
(752757) to Pope Stephen IX (10571058), rather than Stephen III to Stephen X.
When Simon de Brion became pope in 1281, he chose to be called Martin. At that time,
Marinus I and Marinus II were mistakenly considered to be Martin II and Martin III
respectively, and so, erroneously, Simon de Brion became Pope Martin IV.[35]
Pope Donus II, said to have reigned about 974, never existed. The belief resulted from the
confusion of the title dominus (lord) with a proper name.
Pope Joan also never existed; however, legends about her may have originated from
stories about the pornocracy.[36]
The status of Antipope John XXIII was uncertain for hundreds of years, and was finally
settled in 1958 when Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli announced his own name as John XXIII.
Baldassare Cossa, who was Antipope John XXIII, served as a Cardinal of the reunited
church before his death in 1419 and his remains are found in the Florence Baptistery.
Those who believe in Sedevacantism say that there have been no legitimate popes since
Pius XII. This is because they consider all popes since the Second Vatican Council to be
heretics.[37][38]
Christianity in India
Background[hide]
Synod of Diamper
Malankara (historical)
People[hide]
Marthoma Metrans
St. Alphonsa
St. Francis Xavier
Thomas of Cana
Devasahayam Pillai
Mother Teresa
Abraham Malpan
William Carey
Denominations[hide]
Jacobite Syrian
Syro-Malabar Catholic
Syro-Malankara Catholic
Latin Church
Protestant
Garo Baptist
Seventh-day Adventist
Presbyterian
True Jesus
Contents
1 Roman Catholic
o 1.1 Latin Catholic Provinces
2 Anglican
o 2.1 Church of South India
o 2.2 Church of North India
3 Oriental Orthodox
3.2.1 In Kerala
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Roman Catholic
Province of Changanassery
Province of Tellicherry
Province of Thrissur
Province of Tiruvalla
St. Joseph's Cathedral in Imphal
Anglican
Oriental Orthodox
Jacobite Syrian Christian Church
Cathedrals of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church:
Angamaly Diocese
Mor Saboor Afroth Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Akaparambu, Kerala of Aluva Region
Kandanad Diocese
Kochi Diocese
Kottayam Diocese
Simhasa Churches
Knanaya Diocese
Evangalical Association
Outside Kerala
Timeline of religion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The timeline of religion is a chronological catalog of important and note-worthy religious events
in pre-historic and modern times. This article reaches extensively into pre-historic times, as the
bulk of the human religious experience is not relegated to written history. Written history is only,
approximately, 5000 years old (the age of formal writing). A lack of written records results in the
fact that most of the knowledge about pre-historic religion is derived from archaeological records
and other indirect sources, and suppositions. Much pre-historic religion is subject to continued
debate.
Contents
5 21st century
o 5.1 2000s
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
9 Footnotes
is made. The sculpture has also been interpreted as anthropomorphic, giving human
characteristics to an animal, although it may have represented a deity.[12]
33,000-25,000 BCE
Tsodilo, a 30,000 years old worshiping place found in northwestern Botswana.[13] All
convincing evidence for Neanderthal burials ceases. Roughly coinciding with the time
period of the Homo sapiens introduction to Europe and decline of the Neanderthals.[3]
Individual skulls and/or long bones begin appearing heavily stained with red ochre and
are separately buried. This practice may be the origins of sacred relics.[3] The oldest
discovered "Venus figurines" appear in graves. Some are deliberately broken or
repeatedly stabbed. Possibly representing murders of the men they are buried with[3] or
some other unknown social dynamic.
25,00021,000 BCE
Clear examples of burials are present in Iberia, Wales, and Eastern Europe. All of these,
also, incorporate the heavy use of red ochre. Additionally, various objects are being
included in the graves (i.e. periwinkle shells, weighted clothing, dolls, possible
drumsticks, mammoth ivory beads, fox teeth pendants, panoply of ivory artifacts, "baton"
antlers, flint blades, etc.).[3]
13,0008,000 BCE
Noticeable burial activity resumes. Prior mortuary activity had either taken a less obvious
form or contemporaries retained some of their burial knowledge in the absence of such
activity; dozens of men, women, and children were being buried in the same caves which
were used for burials 10,000 years beforehand. All these graves are delineated by the
cave walls and large limestone blocks. The burials are very similar to each other and
share a number of characteristicsochre, shell and mammoth ivory jewellerythat go
back thousands of years. Some burials are double, comprising an adult male with a
juvenile male buried by his side. They are now appearing to take on the form of modern
cemeteries. Old burials are commonly being redug and moved to make way for the new
ones, with the older bones often being gathered and cached together. Large stones may
have acted as grave markers. Pairs of ochred antlers are sometimes poles within the cave;
this is compared to the modern practice of leaving flowers at one's grave.[3]
Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The shaded area does not include
recent excavations.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (33001300 BCE;
mature period 26001900 BCE) in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent,
noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses as
well as for containing artifacts which could be linked to pre-vedic religions.
3102 BCE
Beginning of Kaliyuga, a new age among the followers of Indian religions.[15][16][17][18][19]
3100 BCE
The initial form of Stonehenge is completed. The circular bank and ditch enclosure, about
110 metres (360 ft) across, may be complete with a timber circle.
31002900 BCE
Newgrange, the 250,000 ton (226,796.2 tonne) passage tomb aligned to the winter
solstice in Ireland, is built.[20]
3000 BCE
Sumerian Cuneiform emerges from the proto-literate Uruk period, allowing the
codification of beliefs and creation of detailed historical religious records.
The second phase of Stonehenge is completed and appears to function as the first
enclosed cremation cemetery in the British Isles.
26352610 BCE
The oldest surviving Egyptian Pyramid is commissioned by pharaoh Djoser.
2600 BCE
Stonehenge begins to take on the form of its final phase. The wooden posts are replaced
with that of bluestone. It begins taking on an increasingly complex setupincluding
altar, portal, station stones, etc.and shows consideration of solar alignments.
2560 BCE
The approximate time accepted as the completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza, the
oldest pyramid of the Giza Plateau.
24942345 BCE
The first of the oldest surviving religious texts, the Pyramid Texts, are composed in
Ancient Egypt.
2200 BCE
Minoan Civilization in Crete develops. Citizens worship a variety of Goddesses.
21502000 BCE
The earliest surviving versions of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (originally titled "He
who Saw the Deep" (Sha naqba muru) or "Surpassing All Other Kings" (Shtur eli
sharr)) were written.
20001850 BCE
The traditionally accepted period in which the Judeochristian/Islamic patriarchal figure
Abraham lived. Likely born in Ur Kadim or Haran and died in Machpelah, Canaan.
17001100 BCE
Rig Veda gets composed, the oldest of all Vedas (scriptures in Hinduism)
1600 BCE
The ancient development of Stonehenge comes to an end.
1500 BCE
The Vedic Age starts in India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation
The Upanishads (Vedic texts) get composed which contain the earliest emergence of
some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
1200 BCE
The Greek Dark Age begins.
1200 BCE
Olmecs build earliest pyramids and temples in Central America.[21]
950 BCE
The Torah, the core texts of Judaism and foundation of later Abrahamic religions, is
believed to be given by God to Moses
877777 BCE
Parshva, 23rd Tirthankar of Jainism.[22][23][24][25][26][27]
The approximate time-frame for the life of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure of
Christianity.
5062
Council of Jerusalem is held.
70
Siege of Jerusalem and the Destruction of the Temple.
220
Manichaean Gnosticism is formed by prophet Mani
250
Some of the oldest parts of the Ginza Rba, a core text of Mandaean Gnosticism, are
written.
250900
Classic Mayan civilization, Stepped pyramids are constructed.
300
The oldest known version of the Tao Te Ching is written on bamboo tablets.
313
The Edict of Milan decrees religious toleration in the Roman empire.
325
The first Ecumenical Council, the Council of Nicaea, is convened to attain a consensus
on doctrine through an assembly representing all of Christendom. It establishes the
original Nicene Creed, fixes Easter date, confirms primacy of the sees of Rome,
Alexandria, and Antioch, and grants the See of Jerusalem a position of honor.
350
The oldest record of the complete biblical texts survives in a Greek translation called the
Septuagint, dating to the (appx. placement here) 4th century CE (Codex Sinaiticus).
380
Theodosius I declares Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire.
381
The second Ecumenical Council, the Council of Constantinople, reaffirms/revises the
Nicene Creed repudiating Arianism and Macedonianism.
381391
Theodosius proscripted Paganism within the Roman Empire.
393
The Synod of Hippo, the first time a council of bishops of early Christianity listed and
approved a biblical canon.
424
The Assyrian Church of the East formally separates from the See of Antioch and the
western Syrian Church
431
The third Ecumenical Council, the Council of Ephesus, is held as a result of the
controversial teachings of Nestorius, of Constantinople. It repudiates Nestorianism,
proclaims the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos ("Birth-giver to God", "God-bearer",
"Mother of God"), repudiates Pelagianism, and again reaffirmes the Nicene Creed.
449
The Second Council of Ephesus declares support of Eutyches and attacked his opponents.
Originally convened as an Ecumenical council, its ecumenicality is rejected and is
denounced as a latrocinium by the Chalcedonian.
451
The fourth Ecumenical Council, the Council of Chalcedon rejects the Eutychian doctrine
of monophysitism, adopts the Chalcedonian Creed, reinstated those deposed in 449 and
deposed Dioscorus of Alexandria, and elevates of the bishoprics of Constantinople and
Jerusalem to the status of patriarchates.
451
The Oriental Orthodox Church rejects the christological view put forth by the Council of
Chalcedon and is excommunicated.
480547
The Rule of Saint Benedict is written by Benedict of Nursia, the founder of Western
Christian monasticism.
553
The fifth Ecumenical Council, Second Council of Constantinople, repudiates the Three
Chapters as Nestorian and condemns Origen of Alexandria.
570632
Life-time of Muhammad ibn 'Abdullh, the founder of Islam.
632661
The Rashidun Caliphate brings Arab conquest of Persia, Egypt, Iraq, bringing Islam into
those regions.
650
The verses of the Qur'an are compliled in the form of a book in the era of Uthman, the
third Caliph of Islam.
661750
The Umayyad Caliphate brings Arab conquest of North Africa, Spain, Central Asia.
Marking the greatest extent of the Arab conquests bringing Islam into those regions.
680681
The sixth Ecumenical Council, the Third Council of Constantinople, rejects
Monothelitism and Monoenergism.
Circa 680 the split between Sunni and Shiites starts to grow.
692
The Quinisext Council (aka "Council in Trullo"), an amendment to the 5th and 6th
Ecumenical Councils, establishes the Pentarchy.
712
Kojiki, the oldest Shinto text is written[21]
716936
The beginning of migrations of Zoroastrian communities (Parsi) from Persia to India
caused by Muslim conquest of their lands and persecution.
754
The latrocinium Council of Hieria supports iconoclasm.
787
The seventh Ecumenical Council, Second Council of Nicaea, restores the veneration of
icons and denounces iconoclasm.
788820
Lifetime of Adi Shankara, a Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita
Vednta.
850
The oldest extant manuscripts of the vocalized Masoretic text upon which modern
editions are based date to the (appx.) 9th century CE.
In France the law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is passed, officially
establishing it a state secularism and putting an end to the funding of religious groups by
the state.[33]
Becoming a place of pilgrimage for neo-druids and other pagans, the Ancient Order of
Druids organized the first recorded reconstructionist ceremony in Stonehenge.
1908
The establishment of the Khalifatul Masih after Prophethood in the Ahmadiyya Muslim
Community, the Second Manifestation of God's Power.
1917
The October Revolution, in Russia, leads to the annexation of all church properties and
subsequent religious suppression.
the 1917 Constitution of Mexico is written making Mexico a secular state.
1926
Cao Dai founded.
The Cristero War is fought in Mexico between the secular government and religious
christian rebels ends 1929.
1930s
Rastafari movement begins.
The Nation of Islam is founded in Detroit, Michigan.
1932
A neo-Hindu religious movement, the Brahma Kumaris or "Daughters of Brahma"
started. Its origin can be traced to the group "Om Mandali", founded by Lekhraj
Kripalani(18841969).
1938
The first event of the Holocaust, the Kristallnacht, takes place.
19391945
Millions of Jews are relocated and killed by the Nazi government during Holocaust.
1947
British India is partitioned on religious lines; into an Islamic country of Pakistan and the
secular nation of India with a Hindu majority.
1948
The Jews return to their ancient biblical homeland and the state of Israel is created.
1952
Scientology is created.
1954
Wicca is publicized by Gerald Gardner.[34]
1960s
Various Neopagan and New Age movements gain momentum.
1961
Unitarian Universalism formed from merger of Unitarianism and Universalism.[35]
1962
The Church of All Worlds, the first American neo-pagan church, is formed by a group
including Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory Zell-Ravenheart, and Richard Lance
Christie.
19621965
The Second Vatican Council takes place.[36][37][38][39]
1965
Srila Prabhupada establishes the International Society for Krishna Consciousness and
introduces translations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Vedic Scriptures in mass production all
over the world.
1966
Anton Szandor LaVey's Satanism begins, with Anton Szandor LaVey's founding of the
Church of Satan.[40]
19721984
The Stonehenge free festivals are held.[41]
1973
Claude Vorilhon established the Ralian Movement and changed his name to Ral
following a purported extraterrestrial encounter in December 1973.
1984
Operation Blue Star occurs at holiest site of the Sikhs, the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
1984 Anti-Sikh riots follow.
19722004
Germanic Neopaganism (aka Heathenism, Heathenry, satr, Odinism, Forn Sir, Vor
Sir, and Theodism) begins to experience a second wave of revival.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]
[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63]
1979
The Iranian Revolution results in the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran.
1981
The Stregherian revival continues. "The Book of the Holy Strega" and "The Book of
Ways" Volume I & II are published.
1985
The Battle of the Beanfield forces an end to the Stonehenge free festivals.[41][64][65]
1989
The revolutions of 1989, the overthrow of many Soviet-style states,[66] allows a
resurgence in open religious practice in many Eastern European countries.[citation needed]
1990s
European pagan reconstructive movements (Celtic, Hellenic, Roman, Slavic, Baltic,
Finnish, etc.) organize.
1993
The European Council convened in Copenhagen, Denmark, agrees to criteria requiring
religious freedom within any and all prospective members of the European Union.
1998
The Strega Arician Tradition is founded.[67]
21st century
See also: History of religion
2000s
2001
Osama bin Laden's declaration of al-Qaeda's "holy" war on America, reaches a climax
with 2,993 dead, through al-Qaeda's actions on 11 September.[68][69][70][71][72][73]
2008
The only Hindu Kingdom in the world, Nepal, is declared to be secular by its Constituent
Assembly after declaring the state a Republic on 28 May 2008.
2009
The Church of Scientology in France is fined 600,000 and several of its leaders are fined
and sentenced to jail for defrauding new recruits out of their savings.[74][75][76] The state
fails to disband the church due to legal changes occurring over the same time period.[76][77]
Neolithic "Potnia Theron" type goddess, seated on a throne flanked by two lionesses, from
atalhyk.
The evolutionary origin of religions theorizes about the emergence of religious behavior during
the course of human evolution.
Contents
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
correlates with the level of social complexity of the particular species. The neocortex size
correlates with a number of social variables that include social group size and complexity of
mating behaviors. In chimpanzees the neocortex occupies 50% of the brain, whereas in modern
humans it occupies 80% of the brain.
Robin Dunbar argues that the critical event in the evolution of the neocortex took place at the
speciation of archaic homo sapiens about 500,000 years ago. His study indicates that only after
the speciation event is the neocortex large enough to process complex social phenomena such as
language and religion. The study is based on a regression analysis of neocortex size plotted
against a number of social behaviors of living and extinct hominids.[7]
Stephen Jay Gould suggests that religion may have grown out of evolutionary changes which
favored larger brains as a means of cementing group coherence among savannah hunters, after
that larger brain enabled reflection on the inevitability of personal mortality.[8]
Tool use
Lewis Wolpert argues that causal beliefs that emerged from tool use played a major role in the
evolution of belief. The manufacture of complex tools requires creating a mental image of an
object which does not exist naturally before actually making the artifact. Furthermore, one must
understand how the tool would be used, that requires an understanding of causality.[9]
Accordingly, the level of sophistication of stone tools is a useful indicator of causal beliefs.[10]
Wolpert contends use of tools composed of more than one component, such as hand axes,
represents an ability to understand cause and effect. However, recent studies of other primates
indicate that causality may not be a uniquely human trait. For example, chimpanzees have been
known to escape from pens closed with multiple latches, which was previously thought could
only have been figured out by humans who understood causality. Chimpanzees are also known to
mourn the dead, and notice things that have only aesthetic value, like sunsets, both of which may
be considered to be components of religion or spirituality.[11] The difference between the
comprehension of causality by humans and chimpanzees is one of degree. The degree of
comprehension in an animal depends upon the size of the prefrontal cortex: the greater the size of
the prefrontal cortex the deeper the comprehension.[12]
Development of language
See also: Origin of language and Myth and religion
Religion requires a system of symbolic communication, such as language, to be transmitted from
one individual to another. Philip Lieberman states "human religious thought and moral sense
clearly rest on a cognitive-linguistic base".[13] From this premise science writer Nicholas Wade
states:
"Like most behaviors that are found in societies throughout the world, religion must have
been present in the ancestral human population before the dispersal from Africa 50,000
years ago. Although religious rituals usually involve dance and music, they are also very
verbal, since the sacred truths have to be stated. If so, religion, at least in its modern form,
cannot pre-date the emergence of language. It has been argued earlier that language
attained its modern state shortly before the exodus from Africa. If religion had to await
the evolution of modern, articulate language, then it too would have emerged shortly
before 50,000 years ago."[14]
Another view distinguishes individual religious belief from collective religious belief. While the
former does not require prior development of language, the latter does. The individual human
brain has to explain a phenomenon in order to comprehend and relate to it. This activity predates
by far the emergence of language and may have caused it. The theory is, belief in the
supernatural emerges from hypotheses arbitrarily assumed by individuals to explain natural
phenomena that cannot be explained otherwise. The resulting need to share individual
hypotheses with others leads eventually to collective religious belief. A socially accepted
hypothesis becomes dogmatic backed by social sanction.
Chimpanzees live in fission-fusion groups that average 50 individuals. It is likely that early
ancestors of humans lived in groups of similar size. Based on the size of extant hunter-gatherer
societies, recent Paleolithic hominids lived in bands of a few hundred individuals. As community
size increased over the course of human evolution, greater enforcement to achieve group
cohesion would have been required. Morality may have evolved in these bands of 100 to 200
people as a means of social control, conflict resolution and group solidarity. According to Dr. de
Waal, human morality has two extra levels of sophistication that are not found in primate
societies. Humans enforce their societys moral codes much more rigorously with rewards,
punishments and reputation building. Humans also apply a degree of judgment and reason not
otherwise seen in the animal kingdom.
Psychologist Matt J. Rossano argues that religion emerged after morality and built upon morality
by expanding the social scrutiny of individual behavior to include supernatural agents. By
including ever-watchful ancestors, spirits and gods in the social realm, humans discovered an
effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[17] The
adaptive value of religion would have enhanced group survival.[18] [19] Rossano is referring here to
collective religious belief and the social sanction that institutionalized morality. According to
Rossano's teaching, individual religious belief is thus initially epistemological, not ethical, in
nature.
emotions of love, fear, and gregariousness and is deeply embedded in the limbic system through
sociobiological conditioning and social sanction. Individual religious belief utilizes reason based
in the neocortex and often varies from collective religion. The limbic system is much older in
evolutionary terms than the neocortex and is, therefore, stronger than it much in the same way as
the reptilian is stronger than both the limbic system and the neocortex. Reason is pre-empted by
emotional drives. The religious feeling in a congregation is emotionally different from individual
spirituality even though the congregation is composed of individuals. Belonging to a collective
religion is culturally more important than individual spirituality though the two often go hand in
hand. This is one of the reasons why religious debates are likely to be inconclusive.[citation needed]
Yet another view is that the behaviour of people who participate in a religion makes them feel
better and this improves their fitness, so that there is a genetic selection in favor of people who
are willing to believe in religion. Specifically, rituals, beliefs, and the social contact typical of
religious groups may serve to calm the mind (for example by reducing ambiguity and the
uncertainty due to complexity) and allow it to function better when under stress.[26] This would
allow religion to be used as a powerful survival mechanism, particularly in facilitating the
evolution of hierarchies of warriors, which if true, may be why many modern religions tend to
promote fertility and kinship.
Still another view is that human religion was a product of an increase in dopaminergic functions
in the human brain and a general intellectual expansion beginning around 80 kya.[27][28] Dopamine
promotes an emphasis on distant space and time, which is critical for the establishment of
religious experience.[29] While the earliest shamanic cave paintings date back around 40 kya, the
use of ochre for rock art predates this and there is clear evidence for abstract thinking along the
coast of South Africa by 80 kya.
Paleolithic burials
The earliest evidence of religious thought is based on the ritual treatment of the dead. Most
animals display only a casual interest in the dead of their own species.[30] Ritual burial thus
represents a significant change in human behavior. Ritual burials represent an awareness of life
and death and a possible belief in the afterlife. Philip Lieberman states "burials with grave goods
clearly signify religious practices and concern for the dead that transcends daily life."[13]
The earliest evidence for treatment of the dead comes from Atapuerca in Spain. At this location
the bones of 30 individuals believed to be Homo heidelbergensis have been found in a pit.[31]
Neanderthals are also contenders for the first hominids to intentionally bury the dead. They may
have placed corpses into shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. The presence
of these grave goods may indicate an emotional connection with the deceased and possibly a
belief in the afterlife. Neanderthal burial sites include Shanidar in Iraq and Krapina in Croatia
and Kebara Cave in Israel.[32][33][33][34]
The earliest known burial of modern humans is from a cave in Israel located at Qafzeh. Human
remains have been dated to 100,000 years ago. Human skeletons were found stained with red
ochre. A variety of grave goods were found at the burial site. The mandible of a wild boar was
found placed in the arms of one of the skeletons.[35] Philip Lieberman states:
"Burial rituals incorporating grave goods may have been invented by the anatomically
modern hominids who emigrated from Africa to the Middle East roughly 100,000 years
ago".[35]
Matt Rossano suggests that the period in between 80,00060,000 years after humans retreated
from the Levant to Africa was a crucial period in the evolution of religion.[36]
Justifying the central authority, which in turn possessed the right to collect taxes in return
for providing social and security services.
Bands and tribes consist of small number of related individuals. However, states and
nations are composed of many thousands of unrelated individuals. Jared Diamond argues
that organized religion served to provide a bond between unrelated individuals who
would otherwise be more prone to enmity. In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel he argues
that the leading cause of death among hunter-gatherer societies is murder.[40]
Religions that revolved around moralizing gods may have facilitated the rise of large,
cooperative groups of unrelated individuals.[41]
The states born out of the Neolithic revolution, such as those of Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia, were theocracies with chiefs, kings and emperors playing dual roles of political
and spiritual leaders.[15] Anthropologists have found that virtually all state societies and
chiefdoms from around the world have been found to justify political power through divine
authority. This suggests that political authority co-opts collective religious belief to bolster itself.
[15]
Invention of writing
See also: History of writing
Following the neolithic revolution, the pace of technological development (cultural evolution)
intensified due to the invention of writing 5000 years ago. Symbols that became words later on
made effective communication of ideas possible. Printing invented only over a thousand years
ago increased the speed of communication exponentially and became the main spring of cultural
evolution. Writing is thought to have been first invented in either Sumeria or Ancient Egypt and
was initially used for accounting. Soon after, writing was used to record myth. The first religious
texts mark the beginning of religious history. The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt are one of
the oldest known religious texts in the world, dating to between 24002300 BCE.[42][43][44] Writing
played a major role in sustaining and spreading organized religion. In pre-literate societies,
religious ideas were based on an oral tradition, the contents of which were articulated by
shamans and remained limited to the collective memories of the society's inhabitants. With the
advent of writing, information that was not easy to remember could easily be stored in sacred
texts that were maintained by a select group (clergy). Humans could store and process large
amounts of information with writing that otherwise would have been forgotten. Writing therefore
enabled religions to develop coherent and comprehensive doctrinal systems that remained
independent of time and place.[45] Writing also brought a measure of objectivity to human
knowledge. Formulation of thoughts in words and the requirement for validation made mutual
exchange of ideas and the sifting of generally acceptable from not acceptable ideas possible. The
generally acceptable ideas became objective knowledge reflecting the continuously evolving
framework of human awareness of reality that Karl Popper calls 'verisimilitude' a stage on the
human journey to truth.[46]
History of religions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the journal of that name, see History of Religions (journal). For the academic study of
religion in general, see Religious studies.
History of religions
founding figures
Anthropology
Comparative religion
Development
Neurotheology / God gene
Origins
Psychology
Prehistoric
Ancient Near East
Ancient Egypt
Semitic
Indo-European
Vedic Hinduism
Greco-Roman
Celtic Germanic
Axial Age
Vedanta Shramana
Dharma Tao
Hellenism
Monism Dualism
Monotheism
Christianization
Islamization
Renaissance Reformation
Age of Reason
New religious movements
Great Awakening
Fundamentalism
New Age
Postmodernism
Abrahamic
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Bah' Faith
Indic
Hinduism
Buddhism
Jainism
Sikhism
Ayyavazhi
Taoism
Neopagan
Wicca
The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious experiences and ideas.
This period of religious history begins with the invention of writing about 5,200 years ago (3200
BCE). The prehistory of religion relates to a study of religious beliefs that existed prior to the
advent of written records. The timeline of religion is a comparative chronology of religion.
The word "religion" as it is used today does not have an obvious pre-colonial translation into
non-European languages. Anthropologist, Daniel Dubuisson writes that "what the West and the
history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion' is ... something quite
unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history".[1] The history of other
cultures' interaction with the religious category is therefore their interaction with an idea that first
developed in Europe under the influence of Christianity.[2]
Contents
1 History of study
2 Overview
3 Origin
5 Axial age
6 Middle Ages
7 Modern period
9 See also
o 9.1 Shamanism and ancestor worship
o 9.2 Polytheism
o 9.3 Monotheism
o 9.4 Monism
o 9.5 Dualism
o 9.6 New religious movements
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History of study
The school of religious history called the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule was a 19th-century
German school of thought which was the first to systematically study religion as a socio-cultural
phenomenon. It depicted religion as evolving with human culture, from primitive Polytheism to
ethical monotheism.
The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule appeared at a time when scholarly study of the Bible and
church history was flourishing in Germany and elsewhere (see higher criticism, also called the
historical-critical method). The study of religion is important because it has often shaped
civilizations' law and moral codes, social structure, art and music.
Overview
The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in knowledge about other cultures and religions, and
also the establishment of economic and social histories of progress. The "history of religions"
school sought to account for this religious diversity by connecting it with the social and
economic situation of a particular group.
Typically, religions were divided into stages of progression from simple to complex societies,
especially from polytheistic to monotheistic and from extempore to organized. Religions can be
classified as circumcising and non-circumcising, proselytizing (attempting to convert people of
other religion) and non-proselytizing. Many religions share common beliefs.
Origin
See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Timeline of religion
The earliest evidence of religious ideas dates back several hundred thousand years to the Middle
and Lower Paleolithic periods. Archaeologists refer to apparent intentional burials of early homo
sapiens from as early as 300,000 years ago as evidence of religious ideas. Other evidence of
religious ideas include symbolic artifacts from Middle Stone Age sites in Africa. However, the
interpretation of early paleolithic artifacts, with regard to how they relate to religious ideas,
remains controversial. Archeological evidence from more recent periods is less controversial. A
number of artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000-13,000) are generally interpreted by
scientists as representing religious ideas. Examples of Upper Paleolithic remains associated with
religious beliefs include the lion man, the Venus figurines, cave paintings from Chauvet Cave
and the elaborate ritual burial from Sungir.
In the 19th century, various theories were proposed regarding the origin of religion, supplanting
the earlier claims of Christianity of urreligion. Early theorists Edward Burnett Tylor and Herbert
Spencer proposed the concept of animism, while archaeologist John Lubbock used the term
"fetishism". Meanwhile, religious scholar Max Mller theorized that religion began in hedonism
and folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt suggested that religion began in "naturalism", by which he
meant mythological explanation of natural events.[3] All of these theories have since been widely
criticized; there is no broad consensus regarding the origin of religion.
Neolithic religions
The religions of the Neolithic peoples provide evidence of some of the earliest known forms of
organized religions. The Neolithic settlement of atalhyk, in what is now Turkey, was home to
about 8,000 people and remains the largest known settlement from the Neolithic period. James
Mellaart, who excavated the site, believed that atalhyk was the spiritual center of central
Anatolia.[4] A striking feature of atalhyk are its female figurines. Mellaart, the original
excavator, argued that these well-formed, carefully made figurines, carved and molded from
marble, blue and brown limestone, schist, calcite, basalt, alabaster, and clay, represented a female
deity of the Great Goddess type. Although a male deity existed as well, statues of a female
deity far outnumber those of the male deity, who moreover, does not appear to be represented at
all after Level VI.[5] To date, eighteen levels have been identified. These careful figurines were
found primarily in areas Mellaart believed to be shrines. One, however a stately goddess seated
on a throne flanked by two female lions was found in a grain bin, which Mellaart suggests
might have been a means of ensuring the harvest or protecting the food supply.[6]
The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt are one of the oldest known religious texts in the world
dating to between 2400-2300 BCE.[7][8] Writing played a major role in sustaining organized
religion by standardizing religious ideas regardless of time or location.
Value of religion
Organized religion emerged as a means of providing social and economic stability to large
populations through the following ways:
Organized religion served to justify the central authority, which in turn possessed the
right to collect taxes in return for providing social and security services to the state. The
empires of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia were theocracies, with chiefs, kings and
emperors playing dual roles of political and spiritual leaders.[9] Virtually all state societies
and chiefdoms around the world have similar political structures where political authority
is justified by divine sanction.
Axial age
See also: Axial Age
The period from 900 to 200 BCE has been described by historians as the axial age, a term coined
by German philosopher Karl Jaspers. According to Jaspers, this is the era of history when "the
spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently... And these are
the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today". Intellectual historian Peter Watson has
summarized this period as the foundation of many of humanity's most influential philosophical
traditions, including monotheism in Persia and Canaan, Platonism in Greece, Buddhism, Jainism
in India, and Confucianism and Taoism in China. These ideas would become institutionalized in
time, for example Ashoka's role in the spread of Buddhism, or the role of platonic philosophy in
Christianity at its foundation.
Middle Ages
Present-day world religions established themselves throughout Eurasia during the Middle Ages
by: Christianization of the Western world; Buddhist missions to East Asia; the decline of
Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent; and the spread of Islam throughout the Middle East,
Central Asia, North Africa and parts of Europe and India.
During the Middle Ages, Muslims were in conflict with Zoroastrians during the Islamic conquest
of Persia; Christians were in conflict with Muslims during the Byzantine-Arab Wars, Crusades,
Reconquista, Ottoman wars in Europe and Inquisition; Shamans were in conflict with Buddhists,
Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions; and Muslims were in conflict with
Hindus and Sikhs during Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.
Many medieval religious movements emphasized mysticism, such as the Cathars and related
movements in the West, the Jews in Spain (see Zohar), the Bhakti movement in India and Sufism
in Islam. Monotheism reached definite forms in Christian Christology and in Islamic Tawhid.
Hindu monotheist notions of Brahman likewise reached their classical form with the teaching of
Adi Shankara.
Modern period
European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to
Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia and the Philippines. The invention of the printing
press in the 15th century played a major role in the rapid spread of the Protestant Reformation
under leaders such as Martin Luther and John Calvin. Wars of religion followed, culminating in
the Thirty Years War which ravaged central Europe, 1618-1648. The 18th century saw the
beginning of secularisation in Europe, gaining momentum after the French Revolution. By the
late 20th century religion had declined in most of Europe.
In the 20th century, the regimes of Communist Eastern Europe and Communist China were antireligious. A great variety of new religious movements originated in the 20th century, many
proposing syncretism of elements of established religions. Adherence to such new movements is
limited, however, remaining below 2% worldwide in the 2000s (decade). Adherents of the
classical world religions account for more than 75% of the world's population, while adherence
to indigenous tribal religions has fallen to 4%. As of 2005, an estimated 14% of the world's
population identifies as nonreligious.
Mahvkyas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on
Advaita Vedanta
Main articles[show]
Subschools[show]
Teachers[show]
Philosophy[show]
Practices[show]
Scriptures[show]
Influences[show]
Hindu philosophy
stika
Samkhya
Yoga
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Mmms
Tantra
Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Vishishtadvaita
Dvaita
Dvaitadvaita
Bhedabheda
Shaiva
Pratyabhija
Pashupata
Siddhanta
Nstika
Crvka
jvika
Jainism
Buddhism
People
Acharyas[show]
Poet-Saints[show]
Yogin[show]
Philosophers[show]
Contents
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 Sources
o 5.1 Published sources
o 5.2 Web-sources
6 External links
According to the Advaita Vedanta tradition the four Upanishadic statements indicate the ultimate
unity of the individual (Atman) with Supreme (Brahman).[citation needed]
The Mahavakyas are:
1. prajnam brahma - "Praja[note 1] is Brahman"[note 2], or "Brahman is Praja"[web 3]
(Aitareya Upanishad 3.3 of the Rig Veda)
2. ayam tm brahma - "I am this Self (Atman) that is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad
1.2 of the Atharva Veda)
3. tat tvam asi - "Thou art That" (Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 of the Sama Veda)
4. aham brahmsmi - "I am Brahman", or "I am Divine"[5] (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
1.4.10 of the Yajur Veda)
People who are initiated into sannyasa in Advaita Vedanta are being taught the four [principal]
mahavakyas as four mantras, "to attain this highest of states in which the individual self
dissolves inseparably in Brahman".[6]
Other Mahavakyas
Brahma satyam jagan mithya - Brahman is real; the world is unreal - Vivekachudamani
Prajnam Brahma
See also: Prajna
Several translations, and word-orders of these translations, are possible:
Prajnam:
, "prajJAna",[web 7]
o Adjective: prudent, easily known, wise[web 7]
o Noun: discrimination, knowledge, wisdom, intelligence. Also: distinctive mark,
monument, token of recognition, any mark or sign or characteristic, memorial[web 7]
"Consciousness"[2][web 2]
"Intelligence"[3][4]
"Wisdom"[web 3]
Related terms are jnana, prajna and prajnam, "pure consciousness".[10] Although the common
translation of jnanam[10] is "consciousness", the term has a broader meaning of "knowing";
"becoming acquainted with",[web 8] "knowledge about anything",[web 8] "awareness",[web 8] "higher
knowledge".[web 8]
Brahman:
"The Absolute"[2][web 2]
"Infinite"[web 2]
Most interpretations state: "Prajnam (noun) is Brahman (adjective)". Some translations give a
reverse order, stating "Brahman is Prajnam",[web 3] specifically "Brahman (noun) is Prajnam
(adjective)": "The Ultimate Reality is wisdom (or consciousness)".[web 3]
Sahu explains:
Prajnanam iti Brahman - wisdom is the soul/spirit. Prajnanam refers to the intuitive truth which
can be verified/tested by reason. It is a higher function of the intellect that ascertains the Sat or
Truth in the Sat-Chit-Ananda or truth-consciousness-bliss, i.e. the Brahman/Atman/Self/person
[...] A truly wise person [...] is known as Prajna - who has attained Brahmanhood itself; thus,
testifying to the Vedic Maha Vakya (great saying or words of wisdom): Prajnanam iti Brahman.
[11]