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CE- 2251 SOIL MECHANICS

(FOR IV SEMESTER)

Prepared by

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V. MUTHUKUMAR A/P. CIVIL DEPT

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CE 2251 SOIL MECHANICS

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UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION

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The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is
considered.

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To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within
which roots occur, and which are formed as the products of past surface processes. The rest of
the crust is grouped under the term "rock".
To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.

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To an engineer, it is a material that can be:

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built on: foundations of buildings, bridges

built in: basements, culverts, tunnels
built with: embankments, roads, dams
supported: retaining walls

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Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its behavior
and application as an engineering material.
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles,
which are produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of
whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.
Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental
composition gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description of its mechanical
behavior requires some of the most classic principles of engineering mechanics.

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Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and
strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water
content and unit weight.
Physical weathering reduces the size of the parent rock material, without any change in the
original composition of the parent rock. Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the
earth's surface include the actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause
disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.

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The main processes involved are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. The
principal cause is climatic change. In exfoliation, the outer shell separates from the main rock.
Heavy rain and wind cause erosion of the rock surface. Adverse temperature changes produce
fragments due to different thermal coefficients of rock minerals. The effect is more for freezethaw cycles.

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Chemical weathering not only breaks up the material into smaller particles but alters the
nature of the original parent rock itself. The main processes responsible are hydration, oxidation,
and carbonation. New compounds are formed due to the chemical alterations.

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Rain water that comes in contact with the rock surface reacts to form hydrated oxides,
carbonates and sulphates. If there is a volume increase, the disintegration continues. Due to
leaching, water-soluble materials are washed away and rocks lose their cementing properties.

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Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with
altered mineral grains.
The effects of weathering and transportation mainly determine the basic nature of the soil
(size, shape, composition and distribution of the particles).

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The environment into which deposition takes place, and the subsequent geological events
that take place there, determine the state of the soil (density, moisture content) and the structure
or fabric of the soil (bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures)

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Transportation agencies can be combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving
ice. In water or air, the grains become sub-rounded or rounded, and the grain sizes get sorted so
as to form poorly-graded deposits. In moving ice, grinding and crushing occur, size distribution
becomes wider forming well-graded deposits.
In running water, soil can be transported in the form of suspended particles, or by rolling and
sliding along the bottom. Coarser particles settle when a decrease in velocity occurs, whereas
finer particles are deposited further downstream. In still water, horizontal layers of successive
sediments are formed, which may change with time, even seasonally or daily.

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Wind can erode, transport and deposit fine-grained soils. Wind-blown soil is generally
uniformly-graded.
A glacier moves slowly but scours the bedrock surface over which it passes.
Gravity transports materials along slopes without causing much alteration.
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:
(1)Residualsoils
(2) Transported soils

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Residual Soils

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Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally, the
depth of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m.

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Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry regions
causing a faster breakdown of rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate of
rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or transportation of the weathered material. In
humid regions, the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility of soil transportation.

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As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there is a
corresponding decrease in the degree of chemical weathering from the ground surface
downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual soil formation with depth, until
unaltered rock is found.

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Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.
Transported Soils

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Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one
or more of the transportation agencies to form transported soils. Tranported soils are
classified based on the mode of transportation and the final deposition environment.

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(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.
(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are
called lacustrine deposits. Atlernate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow
rate.
(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits.
Marine deposits contain both particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic
remnants of marine life forms.

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(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to
formation of glacial deposits.
(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian
deposits.
Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material.
Soils, as they exist in nature, consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock fragments) with
water and air in the voids between the particles. The water and air contents are readily changed
by changes in ambient conditions and location.

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As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to
consider a soil model which will represent these phases distinctly and properly quantify the
amount of each phase. A schematic diagram of the three-phase system is shown in terms of
weight and volume symbols respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The weight of air can be
neglected.

The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

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Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully saturated (no
air content) or be perfectly dry (no water content).

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In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases only,
as shown.

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For the purpose of engineering analysis and design, it is necessary to express relations between
the weights and the volumes of the three phases.

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The various relations can be grouped into:

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Volume relations
Weight relations
Inter-relations
As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as the
reference quantity. Thus, several relational volumetric quantities may be defined. The
following are the basic volume relations:

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1. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (Vs),
and is expressed as a decimal.

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2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V ), and is
expressed as a percentage.

3.Void ratio (e) and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

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and

4. Degree of saturation The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a
dry soil) and the volume of voids. This can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S)
in percentage.

For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.

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5. Air content (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids.

6. Percentage air voids (na) is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.

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Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a
measure of the weight of a unit volume of material. Both can be used interchangeably.
The units of density are ton/m, kg/m or g/cm. The following are the basic weight
relations:

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The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water
content (w), or sometimes the moisture content.

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Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.

. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle unit weight

where

= Unit weight of water

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or specific gravity (Gs) of the soil grain solids .

is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume.

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Dry unit weight

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For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of organic
material reduces the value of Gs.

Bulk unit weight

unit volume.

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Saturated unit weight

with water.

is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per

is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is filled up

Buoyant unit weight

or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per unit
volume when the soil is submerged below standing water or below the ground water
table.

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It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately after receiving in the laboratory and prior to commencing
other tests. The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since they may change during
transportation and storage.

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Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others. For example, dry unit
weight can be determined from bulk unit weight and water content. The following are some inter-relations:

1.

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2.
3.

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4.

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5.
6.

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7.
PROBLEMS

Example 1: A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and Gs= 2.72. Determine its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c) Amount of water to be added per m3 to make it saturated.
Use

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Solution:

= 15.51 kN/m3

(a)

(b)

= 17.38 kN/m3

=
(c)

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= 19.62 kN/m3

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Water to be added per m3 to make the soil saturated

= 19.62 17.38 = 2.24 kN

of the soil and the specific gravity of the soil solids. [Take
n = 0.387

= 0.631

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Gs =

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(b)

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Solution:

(a) e =

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= 1600 kg/m3

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Example 2: The dry density of a sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void ratio

problems related to soils.

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Soils is, the ultimate foundation material which supports the structure the proper
functioning of the structure will, therefore, depend critically element resting on the
subsoil. Here the term foundation is used in the conventional sense. A substructure that
distributes the load to the ultimate foundation, namely, the soil.
From ancient times, man has used soil for the construction of tombs, monuments,
dwellings and barrages for storing water. In the design and construction of underground
structures such as tunnels, conduits, power houses, bracings for excavations and earth
retaining structure, the role of soil is again very crucial, since the soil is in direct contact
with the structure, it acts as a medium of load transfer and hence for any analysis of
forces acting on such structure, one has to consider the aspects of stress distribution
through the soil.

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The structure, two causes stresses and strain in the soils, while the stability of the
structure itself is affected by soil behavior. The class problems where the structure and
soil mutually interact are known as soil- structure interaction problems. There are a host
of other civil engineering problems related to soils. For designing foundations for
machines such as turbine, compressors, forges etc. which transmit vibrations to the
foundation soil, one has to understand the behavior of soil under vibratory loads.

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The effect of quarry blasts, earthquakes and nuclear explosions on structures is

greatly influenced by the soil medium through which the shock waves traverse. In these
parts of the world which experience freezing temperatures, problems arise because the
soil expand upon freezing and exert a force on the structure in the contact with them.

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Thawing (due to melting ice) of the soil results in a soil results in a loss of
strength in the soil. Structure resting on these soils will perform satisfactorily only if
measures are taken to prevent frost heave or designed to withstand the effects of the
freezing and thawing
PHASE RELATIONS
wG
Sr

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e=

Soil element in terms of ew and e

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From figure: ew -- volume of water

e -- Volume of voids
G - specific gravity

The volume of solids is equal to unity

Sr =

Vw
e
= w
Vv
e

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e w = e Sr

( 1)

ew = e, when fully saturated sample.

w = Ww/Wd =

ew

w
s.

G=

1
G

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w

ew
G

ew
G

w=

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ew = w.G (2 )
From equation (1) & (2)

wG
Sr

(3)

When fully saturated sample, Sr = 1 and w = w sat

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e = w sat. G

Va
V

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na =

e(1 S r )
1 e

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Prove that :
na =

s.

e=

Va = Vv - Vw = e - ew

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V = Vs + Vv = 1+e
n a=

ew = e Sr

e ew
1 e

from equ

-(1)

n a = e - e Sr / (1+e) = e (1- Sr) / ( 1+e)

n a = e (1- Sr) / ( 1+e)

(4)

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Prove that:

n a = n ac

ac =

na =

va
vv
va
vv

:;; n =

= n ac

vv
v
( 5)

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Prove that:

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wd v
V
s

vs

s.

G w
1 e

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Vs = 1(refer soil element in terms of e figure)

V = (1+e)

= G.

1 e

G w
1 e

(6)

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Note:
1+e =

e=

no

.1

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G w
1 e

G w
1 e

From figure (ii) soil element in terms of n

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Vs =

(1 n)
= (1-n) G
1

(7)

Prove that:
sat

=G

(1-n) +

sat

= wsat / V

.n

= ( Wd + W w ) / V

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s

Vs .

Vw

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From, fig (ii)

Vs = 1, Vw = e, and V = 1+e
s

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.e

1 e

sat

1 e

.1

(G e)

(8) From fig (ii)

1 e

(1 n)

.n

w.

(9)

Prove that:
(G

e Sr )
1 e

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5s
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sat

= W/ V=

no

Vs=1-n, V w= n, V=1

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sat

.Vs

Vw

Refer: figure

Vs = 1, Vw = e, and V = 1+e
s

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s =G

G.

.1

1 e

& ew = e Sr
w

eSr

1 e

(10)

if the soil is perfectly dry,Sr = 0

Become

sat

(G e)
1 e

When Sr =1

(11)

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(G 1)
1 e

'

Prove that :

sat

(G e)
1 e

(G 1)
1 e

(12)

1 w

Ww Wd
Wd

(13)

=Wd /V = W / (1+w) V

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= W/ Wd

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Wd= W / (1+w)

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Water content : w = Ww / Wd
1+ w =

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s.

'

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. Prove that:

1 w

(!4)

Prove that

'

- (1-n)

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(Wd) sub=1.

From fig

- 1.

(Wd)sub=(G-1)

V= 1+e
From equation
'

(12)

= (Wd) sub. /V

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(G 1)
1 e

G w
1 e

1 e

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From equation (6)

G w
1 e

'

- (1-n)

(15)

+ Sr(

sat

G.

1 e

G. w
eSr
+ w
1 e 1 e

+Sr

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eSr

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From equation (10)

=

te

Prove that
=

s.

1 / (1+e) =1-n

+ Sr ((

(G e)
1 e

sat

G. w
]
1 e

(16)

Prove that:

G. w
1 wsat .G

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From equation (6)

G. w
1 e

From equation (3)

w
1
Sr

(17)

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d

1 Wsat .G

(17.a)

When Sr= 1,

(1 n)G

From fig

1 w.G

s.

V= Va + Vw + Vs

Va
V

Va
V

1-

Va w. d
=
V
w.

1- na =

d
w.

w.

Wd
s .V
d
s

1
)
G

(1 na )G. w
(1 wG )

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5s
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(w

w.Wd
w.V
w. d

te

+ Wd /

ar

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= Va +Ww /

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Prove that

Soil Classification

Sedimentation Analysis or Hydrometer Analysis Testing objectives:

Distribution of soil particles having sizes less than 75 micron (Fine Grained soils) is often
determined by a sedimentation process using a hydrometer to obtain the necessary data such as
the borderline between clay and silt. Using this test the GSD or grain size distribution for soils
containing appreciable amount of fines is obtained.

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Need and Scope: Properties of fine soils are highly dependent upon the fractions of clay and
other components. HA test is carried out to obtain these fractions.
Particle sizes: Silts have sizes ranging between 2 and 75 micron and clays are finer than 2
microns.
Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles are
allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at
various time intervals. The procedure is based on the principle that in a suspension, the terminal

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velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter of the particle and the properties of
the suspension. In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled
water to which a deflocculating agent is added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down.
The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at a particular level can be determined
by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same level at different
time intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down and the mass
of soil remaining in solution. The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.

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Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Shrinkage limit

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Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state

Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic state
Stages of consistency:

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Liquid limit: Water content at which a groove, cut with a standard grooving tool, in soil taken in
the cup of standard liquid limit device classes for a diameter of 13 mm when the cup imparted 25
blows it is denoted by WL. It is the boundary between plastic and liquid state of consistency. It is
the minimum water content at which the soil mass still flows like a liquid.

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Plastic Limit: It is denoted by Wp. It is the boundary between semi solid state and plastic state
of consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass can still be deformed
without cracking. It is defined as the water content at which the soil mass can be rolled into a
Thread of 3 mm dia and the thread first show sign of cracking.
Shrinkage Limit: It is denoted by Ws. It is the boundary between solid state and semi solid state
of consistency. It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in
volume of soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.
Shrinkage limits determination: Ws = (Vd / Md) w - (1/G) Where Md = Mass of dry soil Vd =
Volume of dry soil G = specific gravity w = Unit weight of water

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SOIL PROPERTIES: Soil classification based on Atterberg Indices

1. Plasticity Index :
2. Flow Index
3. Toughness Index
4. Consistency Index
5. Liquidity Index

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Field compaction methods: There are three methods of compaction in field:

1. Rolling - rollers
2. Ramming Rammers
3. Vibration Vibrators

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Compaction: It is the process due to which rapid reduction in volume takes place due to sudden
application of loads causing ramming, tamping, rolling and vibration. Reduction in volume
occurs due to expulsion of pore air and rearrangement of particles.

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Rollers: Types (1) Smooth wheel rollers: Having three wheels with two large smooth faced
steel wheels in the rear and one smaller smooth faced drum in front weighing from 20 to 150 kN.
These are most suited for compacting coarse grained soils, but moderately used for cohesive
soils also.

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(2) Sheep foot rollers: It consists of hollow cylindrical steel drum on which a series of
projecting feet are mounted. The weight of the drum can be varied by filling it partly or fully
with water or sand and they are mounted either singly or in pairs on a steel frame which is towed
by pneumatic tractors. Sheep foot rollers are mostly suitable for compacting cohesive soils. The
kneading action produce better bond between compacted layers. These are net effective on
coarse grained soils.

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(3) Pneumatic tyred rollers: This roller size ranges from very small to very heavy rollers. The
tyre pressures are of the order 250 kN/m2 and tyre loads are about 7.5 kN per tyre. These are
suitable for both cohesive less and cohesive soils. The action of pneumatic tyred rollers is a
combination of passive and kneading.
(4) Vibratory rollers: When the vibrator is mounted on a drum, it is called a vibratory roller.
These rollers are suitable for compacting cohesion less soil.
(5) Rammers: These are used for compacting soils in places where use of rollers are not
feasible. Mechanically operated type comprise of pneumatic and internal combustion type.
Weight of rammer is from 300 to 1500 kN. Internal combustion type jumping rammers known as
frog rammers, weigh up to 10 kN.

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(6) Tampers: These are hand operated rammers consists of block of iron about 3 to 5 kN in
mass, attached to a wooden rod. It is lifted for about 0.3 m and dropped on the soil to be
compacted. Tampers are used to compact soils adjacent to existing structures or confined areas,
such as trenches, behind bridge abutments. It can be used for all types of soils.
Factors affecting compaction:
(1) Water content: At low water content, the soil is stiff and offer more resistance to
compaction. As the water content increases, the soil mass becomes more workable and the
particles have classes packing. The d increases with an increase in W till the optimum water
content is reached. At this stage the air voids attain approximately a constant volume.

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Further increase of W, the air voids do not decrease, but the total voids increases and the d
decreases. Thus the dry density is achieving up to the OMC due to forcing air out form the
soil voids. After OMC, it becomes more difficult to force air out and to further reduce air
voids.

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s.

(2) Amount of compaction: Increasing the amount of compactive effect is to increase the
maximum dry density and to become the OMC. The maximum dry density does not go on
increasing with an increase in the compactive effect. After certain increase in compactive effect,
the increase in dry density become smaller and smaller, final after a stage reached beyond which
there is no further increase in dry density with the increase in compact effect.

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UNIT II SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW

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The soil water is broadly classified into two categories:

1. Free water
2. Held water

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Held water: It moves in the pores of the soil under the influence of gravity. It is retained in the
pores of the soil. It can t move under influence of gravitational force.

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Free water: Free water flows one point to other point wherever there is a difference of total
head. The rate at which the head reduced along flow passage is called hydraulic gradient The
flow of free water in soil is just like laminar flow in pipes. Held water further classified into
(1) Structural water
(2) Adsorbed water
(3) Capillary water

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1. Structural water: It is chemically combined water in the crystal structure of the mineral
in the soil. This water can t be removal without breaking the structure of the mineral. A
temperature of more than 300 C is required for removing the structure water.

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2. Adsorbed water: The water held by electrochemical forces existing on the soil surface is
known as adsorbed water. The quantity of adsorbed water depends upon the colloidal
fraction in the soil. The adsorbed water in important only for clay soils. For coarse
grained soil its amount is negligible (or) zero. The adsorbed water is also same times
called hygroscopic water. The amount of water in an air- dried soil is defined as
hygroscopic water. Since air drying remains free and capillary water.

3. Capillary water: The water held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces is called
capillary water. Capillary water exists in soils so long as there is an air water interface.
As soon as the soil is submerged under water, the interface is destroyed, and the capillary
water becomes normal.

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Capillary rise in small diameter tubes: If a glass tube of small diameter open at both ends is
lowered into water, the water level rises in the tube. hc = 4 Ts cos / w d Where = angle of
contact between the water and wall of tube. Ts = Surface tension
Surface tension: The air interfaces behave like a stretched membrane (or) a skin. The surface
tension exists at the interface. It is defined as the force /unit length of a line drawn on the surface.
The surface tension of normal is 0.073 N/m @ 20 C. It decreases with an increase in
temperature. d = diameter of tube hc = height of capillary rise w = unit weight of water For clean
glass tube and pure water = 0; hc = 4 Ts / w d If w taken as = 9810 N/m3 Then hc = 4 x 0.073 /
9810 d = 0.3 / d cm.

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s.

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Capillary rise in soils: A soil mass consists of a number of interconnected pore spaces
(interstices) which act as capillary tubes of varying diameter. Capillary tubes in soils depend
upon the size and grading of the particles. As the capillary rise is inversely proportional to
diameter of capillary tube, capillary rise is small in coarse grained soils and it is very large in
fine grained soils. The space between water table and ground level is divided into two region : 1.
Zone of aeration 2. Zone of capillary saturation The height to which capillary water rises in soil
is known as capillary fringe. It includes zone of capillary saturation and part as zone of aeration.
Terzaghi and peak (1948) gave a relationship between maximum height of capillary fringe and
the effective size as (hc) max = C/ e D10 C = constant, depend on shape of grain and impurities e
= void ratio D10 = Effective size of particles If D10 is in mm, C varies between 10 to 50 mm2; (hc)
max is given in mm.

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Bulking of sand: If a damp sand in loosely deposited, its volume is much more than that when
the same sand deposited in a loose dry state. This phenomenon of increase in volume of sand due
to dampness is known as bulking of sand. The increase in volume due to bulking is between 20
to 30 % for most sands.
Permeability: A porous material which contain interconnected interstices are said to be
permeable.

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Permeability of Soils

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Definition of permeability: It is defined as the property of a soil due to that, the soil permits
water to flow through it. In other words, the permeability is the ease with which water can flow
through it. In highly pervious soil permeability is more. In an impervious soil, the permeability is
low.

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Pressure, Elevation and Total Heads

In soils, the interconnected pores provide passage for water. A large number of such flow paths
act together, and the average rate of flow is termed the coefficient of permeability, or just
permeability. It is a measure of the ease that the soil provides to the flow of water through its
pores.

At point A, the pore water pressure (u) can be measured from the height of water in a standpipe
located at that point.

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of

the

water

column

is

the

pressure

head

(hw).

The
height
hw = u/w

co

To identify any difference in pore water pressure at different points, it is necessary to eliminate
the effect of the points of measurement. With this in view, a datum is required from which
locations are measured.

s.

The elevation head (hz) of any point is its height above the datum line. The height of water level
in the standpipe above the datum is the piezometric head (h).
hz

hw

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Total head consists of three components: elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head. As
seepage velocity in soils is normally low, velocity head is ignored, and total head becomes equal
to the piezometric head. Due to the low seepage velocity and small size of pores, the flow of
water in the pores is steady and laminar in most cases. Water flow takes place between two
points in soil due to the difference in total heads.

ar

Uses of permeability: Permeability is very important in many Engineering applications such as;
Evaluation of settlement of buildings
Yield of wells
Seepage through and below water structures
Hydraulic stability of soil masses and
For design of filters used to prevent piping in hydraulic structures.

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Hydraulic head: The total head at any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the sum of the
elevation or datum head, the pressure head and velocity head.

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Datum head (z) = vertical distance of point above datum For flow problems in soils, the
down stream water level is taken as datum. For flow through soils, velocity (v) is extremely
small, the velocity head is neglected. The pressure head (p/w) is equal to the head indicated by a
piezometer. With its tip at that point therefore the total head of water in soil engineering
problems equal to datum head + pressure head alone. The line joining the piezometric levels at
various points is called a piezometric surface. It is also called hydraulic gradient line (HGL). The
sum of pressure head + Elevation head is known as piezometric head. Consider two vessels A
and B containing water at different levels and connected by small tube containing soil sample.
The total head at point 1 is h and at point 3 is zero. This total head at point 1 is known as
hydraulic head. It is equal to the difference in elevation of eater levels at the entry and exit points
in soil masses. It is also known as loss of head through the soil.Denoted by h The loss of head
/ unit / sec of soil through which the flow takes place is known as hydraulic gradient i., i = h/ L,
Where L = length of soil specimen.
Darcys Law: The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy s law He states that,
for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow V s given by V I, V = Ki Where K
= coefficient of permeability i = hydraulic gradient The discharge through the soil q is obtained
by q = VA = KiA A = cross sectional area of soil normal to the direction of flow The coefficient

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of permeability has the dimension of velocity (L/T). Unit : mm/sec or cm/sec. The coefficient of
permeability depends up on the particle size and many factors.

co

Typical values of co- efficient of permeability

s.

Determination of coefficient of permeability: (a) Laboratory method: 1. Constant head

permeability test 2. Variable head permeability test. (b) Field methods: 1. Pumping out test 2.
Pumping in test (c) Indirect methods: 1. Computation from particle size and its specific surface
2. Computation from the consolidation test data s

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Constant Head Flow

Constant head permeameter is recommended for coarse-grained soils only since for such soils, flow rate is
measurable with adequate precision. As water flows through a sample of cross-section area A, steady total head drop
h is measured across length L.

Permeability k is obtained from:

ww

Falling Head Flow

Falling head permeameter is recommended for fine-grained soils.

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co

Total head h in standpipe of area a is allowed to fall. Hydraulic gradient varies with time. Heads h1 and h2 are
measured at times t1 and t2. At any time t, flow through the soil sample of cross-sectional area A is

--------------------- (1)

s.

Flow in unit time through the standpipe of cross-sectional area a is

----------------- (2)

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Equating (1) and (2) ,

or

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Integrating between the limits,

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FACTORS AFFECTIONG PERMEABILITY OF SOIL

Factors affecting permeability of soil: Particle size: K is directly proportional to square of
particle size (b) K of coarse soil is more than that of fine soil. The K of coarse sand may be more
than one million times as much as that of clay.
Structure of soil size: The size of flow passage depends upon the structural arrangement of soil
particles. For same void ratio, the K is more in case of flocculated structure as compared to that
of dispersed structure. Stratified deposits have greater permeability for flow parallel to plane of
stratification than that of perpendicular to the plane

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Shape of particles: For same voids ratio, rounded particles has greater permeability than that of
angular particles because angular particle has greater specific surface. K 1/ S

co

Void ratio: For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the value of K K = 1.4 K 0.85
e2 Where K 0.85 = Permeability of soil with void ratio 0.85
Properties of mass: K w , K 1/ K T 1/

s.

Degree of saturation: K of particle saturation size 1 cm than that of fully saturated soil because
partially saturated soul, air is filled in voids that reduces K.
Impurities in water: Foreign matter plug the flow space reduces K.

no

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Seepage: It is defined as the flow of water through a soil under hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic
gradient exists only if there is a hydraulic head. It means datum head and pressure head of water.
By virtue of the viscous friction exerted on water flowing through soil pores; an energy transfer
is affected between the water and the soil. The force corresponding to this energy transfer is
called the seepage force (or) seepage pressure. Thus, seepage pressure is the pressure exerted by
water on the soil through which it percolates.

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Quick sand condition: The seepage pressure is the main factor for quick sand condition of flow
through soil. The seepage pressure always acts in the direction of flow. If i = hydraulic gradient,
Z = thickness of soil, then Ps = it w = seepage Therefore, force / unit volume = iZ w The
vertical effective pressure may be increased (or) decreased due to seepage pressure depending on
the direction of flow, when the soil under water is Submerged water = Z Ps = Z
- sign When the flow
iZ w When the flow is downward + sign When the flow is upward
takes place in an up ward direction, the seepage pressure also act in upward direction and
therefore effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure become equal to the pressure due
to sub of soil, the effective pressure become zero. In this condition, cohesive less soil losses its
full shear stress and soil practice have a tendency to move up in the direction of flow. This
phenomenon of lifting of soil particles is called quick condition or boiling condition or quick
sand condition. = Z Ps = 0 (Note: Ps = Z )

ww

Introduction to flow net: The mathematical equation governs the flow of water in soil is
02222
zhxh Called Laplace equation in two dimensions. It means sum of change of gradient
in x and z directions is zero. Graphical form of solutions to Laplace equation for twodimensional seepage can be presented as flow nets. Two orthogonal sets of curves form a flow
net:
Equipotential lines connecting points of equal total head h
Flow lines indicating the direction of seepage down a hydraulic gradient

Two flow lines can never meet and similarly, two equipotential lines can never meet. The space
between two adjacent flow lines is known as a flow channel, and the figure formed on the flow

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net between any two adjacent flow lines and two adjacent equipotential lines is referred to as a
field. Seepage through an embankment dam is shown.

s.

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The solution of this equation requires the determination of the potential form of h at any point
with the flow plane (xz) from the several quantities of in this several quantities of to engineers
can be determined. Ex hydraulic gradient, permeability, quantity of flow But it is very difficult to
solve hence there is a graphical method of solving this laplace equation called flow net. The flow
net can be plotted by observing following properties:

te

Properties of Flow net: Assumption made in the construction of flow net:

1. The flow is two dimensional
2. Water and soil are in compressible
3. Soil is isotropic and homogeneous
4. The soil id fully saturated
5. The flow is steady ie, flow condition do not change with time.
6. Darcy s law is valued.

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Characteristics of Flow net:

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1. Every intersection between a flow line and potential drop line should be at right angles.
2. Discharge between any two adjacent flow lines is constant and the drop of head between two
adjacent potential drop lines is constant.
3. The ratio of the length and width of each field x/l is constant
4. The ratio is generally taken as unity ie, the flow net consists of square flow grids.
5. Smaller the dimension of the flow grids, greater will be the hydraulic gradient at velocity of
velocity of flow through it.
6. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the curve is smooth, being either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.
Different methods of construction of flow net:
1. Graphical method
2. Soil models
3. Solution of laplace equation
4. Electrical analogy method
5. Plastic method

ww

Procedure for drawing flow nets: At every point (x,z) where there is flow, there will be a
value of head h(x,z). In order to represent these values, contours of equal head are drawn. A flow
net is to be drawn by trial and error. For a given set of boundary conditions, the flow net will
remain the same even if the direction of flow is reversed. Flow nets are constructed such that the
head lost between successive equipotential lines is the same, say h. It is useful in visualizing
the flow in a soil to plot the flow lines, as these are lines that are tangential to the flow at any
given point. The steps of construction are:
1. Mark all boundary conditions, and draw the flow cross section to some convenient scale.

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2. Draw a coarse net which is consistent with the boundary conditions and which has orthogonal
equipotential and flow lines. As it is usually easier to visualize the pattern of flow, start by
drawing the flow lines first.

co

3.Modify the mesh such that it meets the conditions outlined above and the fields between
adjacent flow lines and equipotential lines are 'square'.

te

s.

4. Refine the flow net by repeating step 3. The most common boundary conditions are: (a) A
submerged permeable soil boundary is an equipotential line. This could have been determined by
considering imaginary standpipes placed at the soil boundary, as for every point the water level
in the standpipe would be the same as the water level. (Such a boundary is marked as CD and EF
in the following figure.) (b) The boundary between permeable and impermeable soil materials is
a flow line (This is marked as AB in the same figure). (c) Equipotential lines intersecting a
phreatic surface do so at equal vertical intervals

no

Application of flow net: The graphical properties of a flow net can be used in obtaining
solutions for many seepage problems such as:
1. Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs: It is possible to use the flow net in the
transformed space to calculate the flow underneath the dam.

ar

2. Determination of uplift pressures below dams: From the flow net, the pressure head at
any point at the base of the dam can be determined. The uplift pressure distribution along
the base can be drawn and then summed up.

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3. Checking the possibility of piping beneath dams: At the toe of a dam when the upward
exit hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition can occur leading to erosion
in soil and consequent piping. Many dams on soil foundations have failed because of a
sudden formation of a piped shaped discharge channel. As the stored water rushes out,
the channel widens and catastrophic failure results. This is also often referred to as piping
failure.

Factors affecting suction :

ww

1. Particle size smaller size porehc w maximum

2. Water content: Smaller the water content, greater will be the suction
3. For a given water content, soil suction increases
4. Soil structure :
The size and volume of inter connected space depends upon the structure of soil. It changes due
to change in the structure.
5. Temperature:
Rise in temperature results in decrease of surface tension and hence decrease in soil suction. Fall
in temperature increases soil suction.
6. Denseness of soil:

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s.

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Increase in denseness of soil results in decrease in the size of the pores of soil and hence increase
in soil suction. At low density, the soil will be relatively loose with larger pores, resulting in
decrease in soil suction.
7. Angle of contact:
The mineralogical composition of soil governs the angle of contact between the soil particle and
water. Soil suction decreases with increase in the value of . Soils suction is maximum, when =
0 because P = hc w hc = 4Ts cos / w d
8. Dissolved salts in pore water:
Impurities such as dissolved salts etc increase the surface tension, resulting in increase in soil
suction.

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Total Stress

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Vertical total stress at depth z, v = .Z

no

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and the water in the pores. The
total vertical stress acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of everything
that lies above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress thus increases with depth
and with unit weight.

ww

Below a water body, the total stress is the sum of the weight of the soil up to the surface and the
weight of water above this. v = .Z+ w.Zw

The total stress may also be denoted by z or just . It varies with changes in water level and
with excavation.

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co

Pore Water Pressure

The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u). The magnitude
of pore water pressure depends on:

no

te

s.

the depth below the water table.

the conditions of seepage flow.

ar

Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes place, and the pore pressure at a given point is
given
by
u = w.h
where h = depth below water table or overlying water surface

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It is convenient to think of pore water pressure as the pressure exerted by a column of water in an
imaginary standpipe inserted at the given point.
The natural level of ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under
conditions of no seepage flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water
pressure at the water table is zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.

Effective stress The pressure transmitted through soil mass by soil particles and through their
points of contact is called total stress. It is decreased by Similarly the pressure transmission
through soil = - u
At any point = H u = wHw

ww

There is a change in pore water pressure in conditions of seepage flow within the ground.
Consider seepage occurring between two points P and Q. The potential driving the water flow is
the hydraulic gradient between the two points, which is equal to the head drop per unit length. In
steady state seepage, the gradient remains constant.

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s.

Hydraulic gradient from P to Q, i = h/s

A downward flow increases effective stress.

te

As water percolates through soil, it exerts a drag on soil particles it comes in contact with.
Depending on the flow direction, either downward of upward, the drag either increases or
decreases inter-particle contact forces.

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In contrast, an upward flow opposes the force of gravity and can even cause to counteract
completely the contact forces. In such a situation, effective stress is reduced to zero and the soil
behaves like a very viscous liquid. Such a state is known as quick sand condition. In nature, this
condition is usually observed in coarse silt or fine sand subject to artesian conditions.

At the bottom of the soil column,

ww

During quick sand condition, the effective stress is reduced to zero.

where icr = critical hydraulic gradient

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This shows that when water flows upward under a hydraulic gradient of about 1, it completely
neutralizes the force on account of the weight of particles, and thus leaves the particles
suspended in water.

co

Pore Water Pressure The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water
pressure (u). The magnitude of pore water pressure depends on:

te

s.

The depth below the water table.

The conditions of seepage flow. Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes place, and
the pore pressure at a given point is given by u = w.h where h = depth below water table or
overlying water surface It is convenient to think of pore water pressure as the pressure exerted by
a column of water in an imaginary standpipe inserted at the given point. The natural level of
ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under conditions of no seepage
flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water pressure at the water table is
zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.

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Principle of effective stress: The principle of effective stress was enunciated by Karl Terzaghi
in the year 1936. This principle is valid only for saturated soils, and consists of two parts: 1. At
any point in a soil mass, the effective stress (represented by ) is related to total stress ( ) and
pore water pressure (u) as = - u Both the total stress and pore water pressure can be
measured at any point. 2. All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression and a
change of shearing resistance are exclusively due to changes in effective stress. Compression = f1
( )
Shear strength = f2 ( ) In a saturated soil system, as the voids are completely filled with water,
the pore water pressure acts equally in all directions. The effective stress is not the exact contact
stress between particles but the distribution of load carried by the soil particles over the area
considered. It cannot be measured and can only be computed. If the total stress is increased due
to additional load applied to the soil, the pore water pressure initially increases to counteract the
additional stress. This increase in pressure within the pores might cause water to drain out of the
soil mass, and the load is transferred to the solid grains. This will lead to the increase of effective
stress.

ww

Effective stress in unsaturated zone: Above the water table, when the soil is saturated, pore
pressure will be negative (less than atmospheric). The height above the water table to which the
soil is saturated is called the capillary rise, and this depends on the grain size and the size of
pores. In coarse soils, the capillary rise is very small. Between the top of the saturated zone and
the ground surface, the soil is partially saturated, with a consequent reduction in unit weight. The
pore pressure in a partially saturated soil consists of two components:
Pore water pressure = uw Pore air pressure = ua Water is incompressible, whereas air is
compressible. The combined effect is a complex relationship involving partial pressures and the
degree of saturation of the soil.

Effective stress under Hydrodynamic condition: There is a change in pore water pressure in
conditions of seepage flow within the ground. Consider seepage occurring between two points P
and Q. The potential driving the water flow is the hydraulic gradient between the two points,

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s.

co

which is equal to the head drop per unit length. In steady state seepage, the gradient remains
constant. Hydraulic gradient from P to Q, i = h/ s As water percolates through soil, it exerts a
drag on soil particles it comes in contact with. Depending on the flow direction, either downward
of upward, the drag either increases or decreases inter-particle contact forces. A downward flow
increases effective stress. In contrast, an upward flow opposes the force of gravity and can even
cause to counteract completely the contact forces. In such a situation, effective stress is reduced
to zero and the soil behaves like a very viscous liquid. Such a state is known as quick sand
condition. In nature, this condition is usually observed in coarse silt or fine sand subject to
artesian conditions. At the bottom of the soil column,

ww

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During quick sand condition, effective stress is reduced to zero. Where icr = critical hydraulic
gradient This shows that when water flows upward under a hydraulic gradient of about 1, it
completely neutralizes the force on account of the weight of particles, and thus leaves the
particles suspended in water. The importance of effective stress: At any point within the soil
mass, the magnitudes of both total stress and pore water pressure are dependent on the ground
water position. With a shift in the water table due to seasonal fluctuations, there is a resulting
change in the distribution in pore water pressure with depth. Changes in water level below
ground result in changes in effective stresses below the water table. A rise increases the pore
water pressure at all elevations thus causing a decrease in effective stress. In contrast, a fall in the
water table produces an increase in the effective stress. Changes in water level above ground do
not cause changes in effective stresses in the ground below. A rise above ground surface
increases both the total stress and the pore water pressure by the same amount, and consequently
effective stress is not altered. In some analyses it is better to work with the changes of quantity,
rather than in absolute quantities. The effective stress expression then becomes: =
- u If
both total stress and pore water pressure change by the same amount, the effective stress remains
constant. Total and effective stresses must be distinguishable in all calculations. Ground
movements and instabilities can be caused by changes in total stress, such as caused by loading
by foundations and unloading due to excavations. They can also be caused by changes in pore
water pressures, such as failure of slopes after rainfall.

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UNIT IV SHEAR STRENGTH

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Shear strength of soils: Soils consist of individual particles that can slide and roll
relative to one another. Shear strength of a soil is equal to the maximum value of shear stress that
can be mobilized within a soil mass without failure taking place. The shear strength of a soil is a
function of the stresses applied to it as well as the manner in which these stresses are applied.
Knowledge of shear strength of soils is necessary to determine the bearing capacity of
foundations, the lateral pressure exerted on retaining walls, and the stability of slopes. The shear
strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the failure. Shear failure
of a soil mass occurs when the shear stresses induced due to applied compression. Load exceeds
the shear strength of soil. The shear strength in cohesion less soil results from inter granular
friction alone. In all other soil it results both from internal friction as well as cohesive soil.

no

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Principle planes: At every point in a stressed body there are three planes on which shear
stress is zero called principal planes. The plane with maximum compressive stress is called
major principal planes. The plane with minimum compressive stress is called minimum
principal planes. The principal plane subjected to intermediate stress is called intermediate
principal plane.

ar

Mohr Circle of Stresses

ww

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In soil testing, cylindrical samples are commonly used in which radial and axial stresses act on
principal planes. The vertical plane is usually the minor principal plane whereas the horizontal
plane is the major principal plane. The radial stress (r) is the minor principal stress (3), and
the axial stress (a) is the major principal stress (1).

To visualise the normal and shear stresses acting on any plane within the soil sample, a graphical
representation of stresses called the Mohr circle is obtained by plotting the principal stresses. The
sign convention in the construction is to consider compressive stresses as positive and angles
measured counter-clockwise also positive.

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te

Draw a line inclined at angle with the horizontal through the pole of the Mohr circle so as to
intersect the circle. The coordinates of the point of intersection are the normal and shear stresses
acting on the plane, which is inclined at angle within the soil sample.

Shear stress

to the horizontal has acting on it the maximum shear stress

ar

The plane inclined at an angle of

no

Normal stress

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.
, and the normal stress on this plane is equal to
equal to
The plane with the maximum ratio of shear stress to normal stress is inclined at an angle of

to the horizontal, where is the slope of the line tangent to the Mohr circle and passing
through the origin.
When the soil sample has failed, the shear stress on the failure plane defines the shear strength of
the soil. Thus, it is necessary to identify the failure plane. Is it the plane on which the maximum
shear stress acts, or is it the plane where the ratio of shear stress to normal stress is the
maximum?

ww

For the present, it can be assumed that a failure plane exists and it is possible to apply principal
stresses and measure them in the laboratory by conducting a triaxial test. Then, the Mohr circle
of stress at failure for the sample can be drawn using the known values of the principal stresses.
If data from several tests, carried out on different samples upto failure is available, a series of
Mohr circles can be plotted. It is convenient to show only the upper half of the Mohr circle. A
line tangential to the Mohr circles can be drawn, and is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope.

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If the stress condition for any other soil sample is represented by a Mohr circle that lies below
the failure envelope, every plane within the sample experiences a shear stress which is smaller
than the shear strength of the sample. Thus, the point of tangency of the envelope to the Mohr
circle at failure gives a clue to the determination of the inclination of the failure plane. The
orientation of the failure plane can be finally determined by the pole method.

The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion can be written as the equation for the line that represents the failure
envelope. The general equation is

Where
= shear stress on the failure plane
c = apparent cohesion

ww

normal stress on the failure plane

= angle of internal friction

The failure criterion can be expressed in terms of the relationship between the principal stresses.

From the geometry of the Mohr circle,

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s.

Rearranging,

te

where

Direct Shear Test

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no

The test is carried out on a soil sample confined in a metal box of square cross-section which is
split horizontally at mid-height. A small clearance is maintained between the two halves of the
box.The soil is sheared along a predetermined plane by moving the top half of the box relative to
the
bottom
half.
The
box
is
usually
square
in
plan
of
size
60
mm
x
60
mm.
A
typical
shear
box
is
shown.

ww

If the soil sample is fully or partially saturated, perforated metal plates and porous stones are
placed below and above the sample to allow free drainage. If the sample is dry, solid metal plates
are used. A load normal to the plane of shearing can be applied to the soil sample through the lid
of the box.
Tests on sands and gravels can be performed quickly, and are usually performed dry as it is
found that water does not significantly affect the drained strength. For clays, the rate of shearing
must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures building up.
As a vertical normal load is applied to the sample, shear stress is gradually applied horizontally,
by causing the two halves of the box to move relative to each other. The shear load is measured

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together with the corresponding shear displacement. The change of thickness of the sample is
also measured.

co

A number of samples of the soil are tested each under different vertical loads and the value of
shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. Provided there is no excess
pore water pressure in the soil, the total and effective stresses will be identical. From the stresses
at failure, the failure envelope can be obtained.

s.

The test has several advantages:

It is easy to test sands and gravels.

te

Large samples can be tested in large shear boxes, as small samples can give misleading results
due to imperfections such as fractures and fissures, or may not be truly representative.

The disadvantages of the test include:

no

Samples can be sheared along predetermined planes, when the shear strength along fissures or
other selected planes are needed.

The failure plane is always horizontal in the test, and this may not be the weakest plane in the sample.

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Failure of the soil occurs progressively from the edges towards the centre of the sample.

There is no provision for measuring pore water pressure in the shear box and so it is not
possible to determine effective stresses from undrained tests.

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The shear box apparatus cannot give reliable undrained strengths because it is impossible to
prevent localised drainage away from the shear plane.

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The triaxial test is carried out in a cell on a cylindrical soil sample having a length to diameter ratio of 2.
The usual sizes are 76 mm x 38 mm and 100 mm x 50 mm. Three principal stresses are applied to the
soil sample, out of which two are applied water pressure inside the confining cell and are equal.
The third principal stress is applied by a loading ram through the top of the cell and is different
to the other two principal stresses. A typical triaxial cell is shown.

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The soil sample is placed inside a rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and bottom pedestal
by rubber O-rings. For tests with pore pressure measurement, porous discs are placed at the
bottom, and sometimes at the top of the specimen. Filter paper drains may be provided around
the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the consolidation process. Pore pressure
generated inside the specimen during testing can be measured by means of pressure transducers.

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The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:

First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining pressure is then applied.
Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is applied which induces
shear stresses in the sample. The axial stress is continuously increased until the sample fails.
During both the stages, the applied stresses, axial strain, and pore water pressure or change in
sample volume can be measured.

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Test
There are several test variations, and those used mostly in practice are:

Types

UU (unconsolidated undrained) test: In this, cell pressure is applied without allowing drainage.
Then keeping cell pressure constant, deviator stress is increased to failure without drainage.
CU (consolidated undrained) test: In this, drainage is allowed during cell pressure application.
Then without allowing further drainage, deviator stress is increased keeping cell pressure
constant.

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CD (consolidated drained) test: This is similar to CU test except that as deviator stress is
increased, drainage is permitted. The rate of loading must be slow enough to ensure no excess
pore water pressure develops.

In the UU test, if pore water pressure is measured, the test is designated by

.
In the CU test, if pore water pressure is measured in the second stage, the test is symbolized as

s.

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Significance
of
Triaxial
Testing
The first stage simulates in the laboratory the in-situ condition that soil at different depths is
subjected to different effective stresses. Consolidation will occur if the pore water pressure
which develops upon application of confining pressure is allowed to dissipate. Otherwise the
effective stress on the soil is the confining pressure (or total stress) minus the pore water pressure
which exists in the soil.

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During the shearing process, the soil sample experiences axial strain, and either volume change
or development of pore water pressure occurs. The magnitude of shear stress acting on different
planes in the soil sample is different. When at some strain the sample fails, this limiting shear
stress on the failure plane is called the shear strength.

The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:

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The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.

Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.
Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.

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UU Tests:

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All Mohr circles for UU test plotted in terms of total stresses have the same diameter.

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The failure envelope is a horizontal straight line and hence

s.

It can be represented by the equation:

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CU & CD Tests:

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For tests involving drainage in the first stage, when Mohr circles are plotted in terms of total
stresses, the diameter increases with the confining pressure. The resulting failure envelope is an
inclined line with an intercept on the vertical axis.
It can be stated that for identical soil samples tested under different triaxial conditions of UU,
CU and CD tests, the failure envelope is not unique.
The difference between the total and effective stresses is simply the pore water pressure u.
Consequently, the total and effective stress Mohr circles have the same diameter and are only
separated along the - axis by the magnitude of the pore water pressure.

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It is easy to construct a series of total stress Mohr Circles but the inferred total stress parameters
have no relevance to actual soil behaviour. In principle, the effective strength parameters are
necessary to check the stability against failure for any soil construction in the field. To do this,
the pore water pressure in the ground under the changed loading conditions must be known and
in general they are not.
In an undrained triaxial test with pore pressure measurement, this is possible and the effective
stresses can then be determined. Alternatively, in drained tests, the loading rate can be made
sufficiently slow so as to allow the dissipation of all excess pore water pressure. For low
permeability soils, the drainage will require longer times.

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In undrained tests, the general expression relating total pore water pressure developed and
changes in applied stresses for both the stages is:

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where u1 = pore water pressure developed in the first stage during application of confining
u2 = pore water pressure developed in the second stage during application of deviator stressand

s.

B and A are Skempton's pore water pressure parameters.

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Parameter B is a function of the degree of saturation of the soil (= 1 for saturated soils, and = 0
for dry soils). Parameter A is also not constant, and it varies with the over-consolidaton ratio of
the soil and also with the magnitude of deviator stress. The value of A at failure is necessary in
plotting the effective stress Mohr circles.

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Consider the behaviour of saturated soil samples in undrained triaxial tests. In the first stage,
increasing the cell pressure without allowing drainage has the effect of increasing the pore water
pressure
by
the
same
amount.
Thus, there is no change in the effective stress. During the second shearing stage, the change in
pore water pressure can be either positive or negative.

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Sands are usually sheared under drained conditions as they have relatively higher permeability.
This behaviour can be investigated in direct shear or triaxial tests. The two most important
parameters governing their behaviour are the relative density (ID) and the magnitude of the
effective stress ().The relative density is usually defined in percentage as

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where emax and emin are the maximum and minimum void ratios that can be determined from
standard tests in the laboratory, and e is the current void ratio. This expression can be re-written
in terms of dry density as

where dmax and dmin are the maximum and minimum dry densities, and d is the current dry
density. Sand is generally referred to as dense if ID > 65% and loose if < 35%.
The influence of relative density on the behaviour of saturated sand can be seen from the plots of
CD tests performed at the same effective confining stress. There would be no induced pore
water pressures existing in the samples.

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For the dense sand sample, the deviator stress reaches a peak at a low value of axial strain and
then drops down, whereas for the loose sand sample, the deviator stress builds up gradually with
axial strain. The behaviour of the medium sample is in between. The following observations can
be made:
All samples approach the same ultimate conditions of shear stress and void ratio, irrespective of
the initial density. The denser sample attains higher peak angle of shearing resistance in between.
Initially dense samples expand or dilate when sheared, and initially loose samples compress.

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Example 1: A UU test is carried out on a saturated normally consolidated clay sample at a

confining pressure of
3 kg/cm2.The deviator stress at failure is 1 kg/cm2.
(a) Determine its total stress strength parameters.
(b) If another identical sample is tested at a confining pressure of 4 kg/cm 2, what will be the
vertical axial stress at failure?

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Solution:

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(a)
From the plot, note thatUU = 0 and

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(b)

UU tests on identical samples yield the same failure deviator stress

pressures.

at all confining

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Therefore, the vertical axial stress at failure,

VANE SHEAR TEST

Vane shear test is a quick test, used either in the laboratory or in the field, to determine the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil. The vane shear tester consists of four thin steel plates,
called vanes, welded orthogonally to a steel rod. A torque measuring arrangement, such as a
calibrated torsion spring, is attached to the rod which is rotated by a worm gear and worm wheel
arrangement. After pushing the vanes gently into the soil, the torque rod is rotated at a uniform
speed (usually at 1 per minute).

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The rotation of the vane shears the soil along a cylindrical surface. The rotation of the
spring in degrees is indicated by a pointer moving on a graduated dial attached to the worm
wheel shaft. The torque T is then calculated by multiplying the dial reading with the spring
constant. A typical laboratory vane is 20 mm high and 12 mm in diameter with blade thickness
from 0.5 to 1 mm, the blades being made of high tensile steel. The field shear vane is from 10 to
20 cm in height and from 5 to 10 cm in diameter, with blade thickness of about 2.5 mm.
Let

f = unit strength of the soil

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H = height of the vane,D = diameter of the vane

( 2 rdr )

.. (ii)

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Let us assume that the top end of the vane is embedded in the soil so that both top and
bottom ends partake in the shearing of the soil. Assuming that the shear resistance of the soil is
developed uniformly on the cylindrical surface, the maximum total shear resistance, at failure,
developed along the cylindrical surface
= dH f
.. (i)
To find the maximum shear resistance developed at top and bottom ends, consider a
radius r of the sheared surface. The shear strength of a right of thickness dr will be 2 r dr f .
Hence the total resistance of both top and bottom faces will be

d
T ( dH f
2
2

d /2
(2 rdr f )r
0

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0
To total shear strength developed will be equal to the sum of (i) and (ii). The maximum
moment of the total shear resistance about the axis of torque rod equals the torque T at failure.
Hence

d 2H
f
2

d3
6

H
2

d
6

(4.27)

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If only the bottom end partakes in the shearing the above equation takes the from:

d2 f

H
2

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Knowing T, H and d, the shear strength

d
12
f can

. (4.28)

be determined.

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

The unconfined compression test is a special ease of tri-axial compression test in which 2 = 3
=0. The cell pressure in the tri-axial cell is also called the confining pressure. Due to the absence
of such a confining pressure, the uni-axial test is called the unconfined compression test. The
cylindrical specimen of soil is subjected to major principal stress 1 till the specimen fails due to
shearing along a critical plane of failure.

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In its simplest form, the apparatus consists of a small load frame fitted with a proving
ring to measure the vertical stress applied to the soil specimen. Fig4.12. (a) shows an unconfined
compression tester (Goyal and Singh, 1958). The deformation of the sample is measured with the
help of a separate dial gauge. The ends of the cylindrical specimen are hollowed in the form of
cone. The cone seating reduce the tendency of the specimen to become barrel shaped by reducing
end-restraints. During the test, load versus deformation readings are taken and a rap is plotted.
When a brittle failure occurs, the proving ring dial indicates a definite maximum load
which drops rapidly with the further increase of strain. In the plastic failure, no definite

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maximum load is indicated. In such a case, the load corresponding to 20% strain is arbitrarily
taken as the failure load.

From Eq. 4.18, we get

2cu tan

= 2 cu tan

45

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Fig. 4.12. (b), (c) shows the stress conditions, at failure, in the unconfined compression
test which is essentially an un-drained test (if it is assumed that no moisture is lost from the
specimen during the test). Since 3 =0, the Mohr circle passes trough the origin which is also the
pole.

u
2

.(4.22)

. (4.23)

= 2cu

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In the above equation, there are two unknowns cu and u, which cannot be determined by
the unconfined test since a number of tests on the identical specimens give the same value of 1.
Therefore, the unconfined compression test is generally applicable to saturated clays for which
the apparent angle of shearing resistance u is zero. Hence

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When the Mohr circle is drawn, its radius is equal to 1 / 2 = cu. The failure envelope is
horizontal. Pf is the failure plane, and the stresses on the failure plane are

qu
2

..(4.24)

and

tf

qu
2

cu

.(4.25)

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Where, qu = unconfined compressive strength at failure. The compressive stress is

calculated on the basis of changed cross-sectional area A2 at failure, which is given by

A2

Where

L1

A1
L

L
L1

V initial volume of the specimen;

L1 = initial length of the specimen

= Change in length at failure.

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