2.

The classification of infinitive constructions relies on the way in which they

express or fail to (overtly) express their subject.The following situations are
attested:
a) The infinitive lacks an overt subject. This is probably the most frequent situation, since
it is a characteristic property of non-finite complements that they are often subjectless:
(2) a. They tried to arrive in time.
b. She promised her mother to study for the exam.
c. The company persuaded him to resign.
The second available structure is the for-to complement. In this case, the infinitive has
a lexical subject different from the matrix subject and the infinitive is introduced by the
complementizer for. The complementizer for serves as an assigner of Accusative case to
the
infinitive subject. The existence of a specific lexical complementizer indicates that at
least in
these cases infinitive complements are CPs.
(5) a. I hope for him to win the presidential race.
a' I hope [CP FOR [IP him TO win the presidential race]]
b. They arranged for the woman to get the best medical treatment.
b'. They arranged [CP FOR [IP the woman TO get the best medical treatment]].
c) A third possibility is that the infinitive clause may have its expressed lexical subject,
but
this subject surfaces in the main clause either as the main clause subject (= the
Nominative +
Infinitive construction) or as the main clause object (= the Accusative + Infinitive
construction).
7) Melvin appears to speak fluent Japanese. (Nominative + Infinitive)
It appears that Melvin speaks fluent Japanese.
(8) They proved him irrefutably to be the liar. (Accusative + Infinitive)
They proved irrefutably that he was a liar.
THE INFINITIVE:
Definition: Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the
form which follows "to". Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker "to".
Infinitives without "to" are known as "bare infinitives".
Si dau exemple.
The infinitive can have the following forms:
The perfect infinitive
to have + past participle
For example: to have broken, to have seen, to have saved.
This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional
perfect.

Si iar dau exemplu in propozitie, eventual.

The continuous infinitive
to be + present participle
For example: to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting
The perfect continuous infinitive
to have been + present participle
Examples: to have been crying, to have been waiting, to have been painting
The passive infinitive
to be + past participle
For example: to be given, to be shut, to be opened
The infinitive may act:
- as the subject of the sentence: To obey is a soldier's duty./ It is possible to win this
competition. (arat pozitia infinitivului prin exemple, fara sa mai explic)
- as a nominal part of a predicate: His favourite activity is to chat with friends./He is to
blame. (passive meaning)
- as an object (it completes the meaning of the verb): I cannot afford to buy him a present.
The infinitive can also be used as a replacement for subordinate constructions:
- instead of "that"-constructions
He is sure that he will come./ He is sure to come. (there is a difference in meaning)
I consider that he is a good doctor./ I consider him to be a good doctor. (in the active
voice the that-construction is more popular)
It is considered that he is a good doctor./ He is considered to be a good doctor. (in the
passive voice the infinitive construction is more popular)
- instead of purpose clauses (cand principala si subordonata au acelasi subiect)
I went to the market to buy flowers.
- instead of relative clauses:
That was a splendid thing to do. (instead of That was a splendid thing that could be done,
for eg)
Sometimes the infinitive can occur in absolute constructions:
To put it another way, I don't think you're right.
To tell the truth, I can do better.
To hear him talk, you would think that he was the president.
To cut a long story short, he made a fool of himself.
(exemplele nu sunt chiar cele date de el)
split infinitive:
The use of the split infinitive (the placing of a word or words between the "to" and the

verb) is often condemned by the grammarians. This form dates back to the 13th century
and can be found in the work of many authors. It is still very common in modern English:
"Our object is to further cement trade relations."
"This will tend to firmly establish good relations between them."

The Gerund non-finite verbal form (vb+ing go+ing, tell+ing

etc)
It has both substantival and verbal features.
The substantival features:
It may take the plural inflection: such going-ons
It may take the inflection of the genitive: We are walking for walkings sake.
It may be precedeed by an article: There was a gentle tapping on the door.
It can be modified by attributes: There was much coming and going.
It may be used to form compounds: walking stick, blotting paper
It may be co-ordinated with nouns: Travelling and hotel accomodation is always first
class.
The verbal features:
I dont mind Tom borrowing my books (it has a subject)
She was proud of being her daughter. (it has an object or predicative complement)
This saved me from being hurt. (it can be inflected in the passive)
Functions:
Subject: Dancing is so much fun.
Object: I usually do a lot of reading.
The complement of a preposition: What can you do besides drawing?
Use:
- after prepositions a preposition cannot have the infinitive but only the GERUND as its
complement: without saying, instead of writing, except for doing etc
- after vbs that take obligatory prepositions: insist on, succeed in etc
- be+adj+preposition: He is good at telling jokes. We are fond of playing the piano.
- after the expressions: to look forward to, to be used to, its no use, its useless, its no
good, cant help, cant stand, it is not worth.
- in some expressions such as: keep somenone waiting/standing etc, catch someone doing
smth wrong: He caught her cheating.
- in short prohibitions: No trespassing. No smoking. No parking.
Bineinteles ca apoi apar o serie de verbe care cer numai gerund (stop, finish, imagine,
admit, forgive, deny, postpone etc etc), apoi alte verbe care cer fie gerund, fie infinitive
(cu diferente in meaning: He stopped smoking/He stopped to smoke.)
Verbs such as like/love/enjoy/hate/prefer when used in the conditional are followed by
the infinitive: I would love to talk to you.

But when used in the present/in the past they are usually followed by the gerund: I hate
taking piano lessons. He loved singing. She prefers dancing etc.

CONDITIONAL
Type I- open,probable condition
Such sentences express a condition that may or may not be fulfilled
It is used -to talk about possible,probable situation in the future;
Mary will buy that book if she finds it.
-to give advice;
You will feel better if you lie down.
Mayor might can beused insteadof will to express possible consequences: If you don't go
now, you may miss the train.
Type II-rejected/hypothetical/ improbable/ unreal condition
It is used:
- to talk about unlikely situations in the present or future;
If I saw a mugging, I would go and help.
- to talk about imaginary situations;
I wouldn't go to a partyunless I had something new to wear.
- to give advice
If I were you, I would buy a new dress.
could(n't), or might( not) can be used instead of would(n't)
Type III- impossible conditions
It is used :
- to talk about unreal situations in the past;
If I had been the referee, I would have sent him off.
- to express regrets about the past.
If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam.

Mixed Conditionals
Unreal conditionals (type II + III) sometimes can be mixed, that is, the time of the if
clause is different from the one of the main clause.
Past --> Present
If I had taken an aspirin, I wouldn't have a headache now.
Past --> Future
If I had known that you are going to come by tomorrow, I would be in

then.
Present --> Past
If she had enough money, she could have done this trip to Hawaii.
Present --> Future
If I were you, I would be spending my vacation in
Seattle.
Future --> Past
If I weren't flying to Detroit, I would have planned a trip to Vancouver.
Future --> Present
If I were taking this exam next week, I would be high-strung.

Implied Conditionals
Conditionals are not always expressed in the form of conditional clauses, particularly in
spoken English:
Please come out with us tonight. Im sure youll enjoy it. (implied condition: If you come
out with us, )
With a bit more help (if I had more help), I would have finished it on time.
Im sure wed really have a good time with you (if we went), but we just cant afford a
holiday.
Im glad you didnt tell Mathew about this. He would have been furious. (if you had told
him)
Inversion in If-Clauses
When there is should, were or had in the if-clause, the subject and the auxiliary verb can
be inverted and if is omitted.
If he should ring, tell him to come at 8.00. / Should he ring,
If I were you, I wouldnt say that. / Were I you,
If I had known earlier, I wouldnt have done such a thing. / Had I known earlier,

THE PARTICIPLE:
2 types: present participle and past participle
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE:
It ends in -ing: writing, reading; it is found in the progressive tenses of the verbs, where it
may be active or passive: writing/having written.
Characteristics:
The adjectival character of the present participle can be seen from the fact that it can be

found:
- attributively: He has a captivating manner.
- predicatively: He was (visibly) sinking.
- substantivally: The dying were being heaped on top of the dead. (sorry pt. exemplu, e
cam macabru)
- adverbially: boiling hot, piercing cold
The verbal character of the present participle can be seen when this form is combined
with the same sentence members as the corresponding finite verbal expressions:
- adverb: The landscape was continually changing.
- object: He walked for about 10 miles pushing the cart.
- predicative complement: The great majority, being shy, were left behind.
- subject: Being cold, he put on his coat.
It is used:
- in absolute constructions (cand subiectul implicit este acelasi cu cel din principala):
Walking through the park, I saw a lovely bird.
- when 2 actions by the same subject occur simultaneously: He left the room laughing.
- when one action is immediately followed by another by the same subject: Opening the
door, I took a step forward.
- when the second action is a result of the first: She went out, slamming the door.
- to indicate the relationship of cause btw 2 actions having the same subject: Being an old
friend of the family, you can tell them the truth. (=You are the old friend, you tell him.)
- to indicate the relationship of condition btw 2 actions that do not necessarily have the
same subject: Weather permitting, we can go for a walk.
- in nominative absolute constructions: The weather being fine, nobody wanted to stay at
home.
- after verbs of perception: I saw them crossing the street. I could hear them playing in
the garden.
- in some idiomatic expressions: generally speaking.../by the way, talking
of.../considering.../allowing for extras.../strictly speaking.../ judging by...
THE PAST PARTICIPLE
Form: it ends in ed with weak verbs or is formed in other ways with strong verbs.
Function:
- with the adjectival value it may be:
attributive: lost property
predicative: My faith is gone.
substantival: the dead
- with the verbal value it may be found: in the present and past perfect (I have/had
worked) or in the pasive (Battles were lost and won.)
Usage:
- after want, make, have, and like+direct object:
I want this text translated by noon.
He made his presence felt.
I had my hair done.

I would like this matter settled immediately.

- it is used to replace a subject+passive verb construction: She entered, accompanied by
her daughters.
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE vs THE PAST PARTICIPLE
The present participle has an active meaning: He found the house burning.
The past participle has a passive meaning: He found the house burned.
The past participle is active in such examples: a retired teacher, the fallen angels, an
escaped prisoner.
The present participle is used to replace constructions of the type subject+active verb:
He opens the door and looks inside Opening the door, he looks inside.
The past participle is used to replace constructions of the type subject+passive verb:
She entered and she was accompanied by her daughters She entered, accompanied by
her daughters.
In nominative absolute constructions:
- the present participle is used if the absolute phrase is active:
The weather being fine, nobody wanted to stay at home.
- the past participle is used if the absolute construction is passive:
All things considered,/This done, I think we should start immediately.
THE INFINITIVE vs THE PARTICIPLE
- verbs of sensation may be followed by:
the infinitive (the action is NOT complete): I felt the ice melt from the heat of my hand.
(= I held it in my hand until it completely melted.)
the present participle (for both complete and incomplete actions): I felt the ice melting
from the heat of my hand. (= I didnt wait for it to completely melt or = I waited for it to
melt.)
- after have+object:
a.) the infinitive without to is used to cause someone do something for us (THE
STRESS IS ON SOMEONE)
Have Jim bring the car (= imperative);
Ill have you know that Im the head of the company.
b.) the past participle is used for the causative (= to have something done by somebody;
THE STRESS IS ON SOMETHING):
I had the car fixed.
c.) the present participle is used to refer to intended results (Ill have you speaking
English in no time.) or unintended consequences (Youll have the neighbours
complaining.)