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the Bible Among the Myths

Introduction: The Bible Among The Myths by John N. Oswalt
The author Oswalt spent much time studying the subject of the ANE (Ancient Near East). This book will investigate
the Idealism, history, culture and how they related to the relevance of the critical worldview of the Old Testament and
the Hebrew belief as compared to the surrounding ANE. Oswalts views, thinking and direction have changed
completely over his 50 years studying the ANE and the Bible. This book will show the similarities and differences in
thought between the Hebrew Old Testament and the ANE. Oswalt will define what a myth is and argue why the Old
Testament is not and cannot be considered a myth.
The Bible, when compared to ANE literature, has a completely different understanding of creation and how the
spiritual and natural realms interact and exist. There is not a continuous existence that just repeats itself over and
over, but rather a series of single events that lead to a greater purpose. It is Oswalts position that the Bible is an
accurate historical account of a people who received their relevance of belief from a single living transcendent God.
The historical basis is important as God reveals himself through humans, in non-recurring human-historical events, to
impose Gods will and direction to affect the will of humans.
Chapter 1: The Bible In Its World
In this chapter Oswalt addresses different beliefs on the existence of the world. Specifically how the Israelites and
Greeks viewed the world in relation to their neighboring cultures. The Bible is the most important source of all
contributing factors in todays Western culture, especially when combined with Israelite monotheism and Greek
philosophy. The Hebrew transcendent living God along with Greek thought helped to organize the reality found in the
Bible.
Greek Thought: Between 700 and 300 BC Greek philosophers founded the belief that the world is a universe with a
single unifying cosmos and not a polyverse with many different sources of creation. The Greek philosophers
believed everything could be explained through observation and reasoning. Something could not be so and also so at
the same time. The Greek philosophical thinking came in direct conflict with its own culture and the worldviews of the
ANE. The worldview believed existence was caused by many forces that are unseen in the invisible world. Culture
believed that the invisible realm was part of the real world, where something could be so and not so at the same time.
There was no reasoning or observations to determine why things were the way they were. In the end this conflict was
won by culture and the Greek philosophers were forced to live in isolation or to commit suicide. The Greek playwright
Euripides displayed this struggle in his play Bacchae, where we see the conflict between the rational sides of human
nature (represented by men) and the irrational sides of human existence (represented by women). The women slay
the men depicting that the two belief systems could not coexist with the polyverse belief winning out.
Hebrew Thought: With the rise of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires between 625 and 400 BC, the Israelites
began to question their belief. The Hebrew believed in a Sole Creator who rewards and punishes based on
obedience to Gods will for them. This belief was in direct contrast to the multi gods of the ANE cultures which believed
in a parallel invisible world. The physical world originates from that world and doesnt have any real existence of its
own. The gods of the Assyrians and Babylonians had the same purposes of human existence which were survival,
dominance, comfort and pleasure. After being conquered by the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires the Israelites
questioned if their belief was wrong. If they were right how could they fall to a people who followed false gods that
contradicted all they believed in? They understood that the two beliefs could not coexist so they had to choose which
to follow.
There were many contributing factors for why the Hebrew people didnt abandon their belief of a monotheistic God.

The main reason was that the Prophets were able to predict the fall and rise of Israel to the Assyrians and then the
Babylonians based on God punishing his people for lack of obedience. It was not that the pagan gods were stronger
than their true living God, but rather it was God using other kingdoms as his tools. Because of the Prophets, mainly
Ezra, Nehemiah and Malachi, the people became more convicted to follow the obedience of God so they would avoid
punishment.
Combining Greek and Hebrew Thought: Christianity brought about the explanation of Greek reasoning with
monotheistic Hebrew belief. Greek logic gave cause and effect to the Hebrew creation story of a transcendent God.
God made the world and God is separate from the world.
The Necessity Of The Biblical Worldview: One important conclusion is that science and logic cannot stand alone.
With a biblical worldview of a single transcendent creator, science and logic could fully develop and come into its own.
Greek and Hebrew thought combined gave worth to the individual and the importance of history and why things are
what they are.
With advanced technology today man seems to rely more on logic and reasoning and less on God. Historical events
and the individual are also becoming irrelevant. Society seems to be following the old idol worshiping ways of the
past. There is a renewed emphasis on self -preservation, dominance, comfort and pleasure, with the Bible only being
considered some exaggerated myth. Oswalts goal is to show readers that it is necessary to accept the Bible as a
factual historical account of Gods people and not a myth.
Chapter 2: The Bible and Myth A Problem Of Definition
Oswalt outlines the basis for the reality of the Bible. Does the Old Testament have their origins in truth or is the
literature influenced by mythical thought of the ANE? This argument evolved over time with new evidence and new
assumptions by biblical scholars. The main basis for truth is that the Bible is unique from all other cultures of the ANE
in that it uses the human-historical experience to define the revelation of God. If other beliefs of the ANE were based
on Myth, and Hebrew belief was radically different, then Oswalt questions how we include the Bible as a myth. The
real question is how to define myth?
The Problem of Definition: In this chapter Oswalt discusses the many accepted definitions of a myth. He combines
the similarities of all the definitions to establish what is consistent in order determine a true definition of myth. There
must be consistency in the definition for it to be accepted. Oswalt shows that if the definition is too broad it loses
validity. E.g. Automobiles are moving objects with wheels. If this is true, is a wheel barrel than considered an
automobile? Oswalt further explains that the nature of the definition must describe and not evaluate the credibility of
the meaning. Broadening or judging the definition to answer the unexplained does not answer the question or define if
the Bible is a myth.
Historical-Philosophical, Etymological, Sociological, Literary, and Phenomenological: There are many approaches to
describing what a myth is and Oswalt reviews each accepted theological definition. They all have differences and
similarities in how they define what a myth is. Oswalt believes in order to really define a myth we must narrow the
definition and not use speculation or opinion to get a true definition.
The Centrality of Continuity: In summary all the descriptive definitions and approaches to define a myth lead to one
commonality, continuity, to describe the worldview of the people. The philosophy of continuity asserts that all things
are continuous and are one. E.g. I am one with the tree. This statement is not symbolic or spiritual rather it is reality to
someone who believes in continuity. This would than define the gods as spiritual, humanistic and material at the same
time. The gods and the earth are not separate but are one and continuous with each other. Therefore an image of a
god made from materials of the natural world would then in actuality be the god. This is true for all beliefs and
religions around the world except for the Israelites and the three that evolved from the Hebrew belief: Judaism,
Christianity and Islam.
The purpose then of a myth is to reenact or retell an event, to preserve the knowledge for when that event will occur

again. Since all is continuous the ritual will be remembered and performed when the next cycle returns. The actual
story is not important and serves no purpose other then what it represents. The ritual is for the gods and the
significance is for the needs of the people; survival, comfort, pleasure, dominance, punishment and rewards.
Oswalt goes deeper and states that the basis of continuity is the meta-divine, which is the shapeless, nameless
power that inhabits the cosmos and is the basis of all things. The people believed through ritual and reenactment that
they would be capable of manipulating the gods to gain control of their outcomes. Because all things are continuous
with each other, the gods were just like people and had the same characteristics. The gods were strong and weak;
good and bad; trustworthy and fickle, allowing then to be influenced like people. The continuous reenacting of the
ritual creates order to be maintained both in nature and society.
The Bible is completely different in how it approaches the spiritual and natural realms. It is an historical account of
non-recurring events of a separate living God who interacts with his people. The purpose is to affect the will and
choice of an individual to impact society to follow the obedience and will of God. It is polar opposite of the continuous
rehearsed multi god cultures of the ANE. Therefore the Bible cannot be defined as a myth.
Chapter 3: Continuity: The Bible Of Mythical Thinking
In this chapter Oswalt will continue to look at the thought process behind the supernatural aspects of a Myth. He
explores the characteristics and thinking about reality found within the mythical stories. A myth is not primitive or
lacking in intellect. It is rather just a different way to look at reality then what is accepted by modern Western thought.
The main definition that has been establish for a myth is that all things are continuous with each other, therefore there
is no distinction between the three realms, human, nature and divine. All things coexist with each other, are one with
each other and are reliant upon another. This creates problems with defining what something is. Things that sound
and look alike are the same. This made it easy to worship idols as they are the same as the gods themselves. If I
make an idol from natural things in the world then it is actually the god since the god is one with nature. Therefore,
what I do to the idol I do to god. This process is known as pantheism, that gods are everything and everything is gods.
With this logic, when a tragic storm hits, people can manipulate the outcome of the storm in what they do to the idol.
The idol is god who is the storm as well. Oswalt explains, This is the single most important aspect to the way of
thinking that characterizes a myth.
Origins and Implications of continuity: It is instinctual in human behavior to have order and feel in control of the way
things are. If we have no control and no way to impact our lives, we lose our sense of security which is the greatest
longing for humans. By defining the natural world as being continuous with the spiritual world, what we do in the
natural world then will have a similar reaction in the spiritual world. Continuity gives people the belief that they are not
helpless. The gods and people are one, this oneness is acted out in rituals by society to maintain order and eliminate
chaos. All that matters in continuity is the present. There is no yesterday or tomorrow only the Now when dealing
with the gods. The gods are outside of time and space altogether. Time rolls on and has no meaning; it is just a part of
the continuous world.
For instance if it rains each year in the springtime when the crops are planted, what happens if the rains dont fall and
how is that explained? Since time has no impact on the Now it must mean that something has disrupted the
continuity. Rain is needed to begin new life and maintain order. Since the worlds are all one, the actions of what the
people do to the created gods will have a similar action by the gods in the spiritual realm. By performing sexual rituals,
it will entice the gods to do the same; rain will then fall to fertilize the land allowing new life.
In myths it is believed that spells or magic can disrupt the continuous nature of all things. By performing spells or
using charms in the natural world one can either create chaos or bring order between the realms. Magic has been
practiced for centuries and is central to myth. Magic allows boundaries to be eliminated. With magic the ability to
cross though boundaries gives answers, allowing control over outcomes, which will bring order and ultimately
security.

Common Features of Myths: Myths are polytheism, which is the belief that there are many gods to define the divine
world. The world is complex so the divine must also be complex having many gods, who control different aspects of
that complexity. Myths also are represented by symbols. An idol that is made out of natural materials in the shape of a
human with the name of a particular god would be the ultimate symbol. All things are continuous and one with each
other, so that idol in human form, from natural materials with the name of a god would be part of the divine, human
and natural realms.
It is fundamental to all myth that all things began with matter. The first gods were created from chaotic matter to form
order. Spirits can become matter and can control the matter, but it is essential to all that matter is base. This is also
true when trying to define gods and humans. Humans have a low opinion about the gods. The gods are not to be
trusted; they are focused on what they want and need, not concerned about what happens to the people. On the other
hand it also seems that the gods have a poor view of humans as well. Humans only purpose is to serve the gods and
were an afterthought in the creation process. The individual has no significance in the reality of the mythical world.
Personalities only are variations from the norm and create chaos to the continuity. The world is a continuous circle
that keeps going round coming from nowhere and going nowhere at the same time. As Plato described, life is an
endless series of reflections, with each one getting further and further away from reality.
Chapter 4: Transcendence: Basis Of Biblical Thinking
The Bible, when compared to the surrounding ANE, is radically different in how it approaches reality. The Old
Testament, regardless of the historical statements being true or false, is consistent.
Common Characteristics Of Biblical Thought: The two biggest differing traits in the Old Testament are monotheism
and iconoclasm. Monotheism maintains that Yahweh is the sole creator and separate from the world. The Hebrew
people are the only culture ever to exist that believed in monotheism. Israel, which was less advanced in all aspects
of culture then the surrounding ANE, insisted on a monotheistic religion above all. Iconoclasm states that God cannot
be made in any image or any created form. It is clearly stated and defined in the Old Testament (Ex. 20-4-5); You
shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or the earth beneath or in the waters
below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them. This belief is the basis of transcendence. God is not the
world, God cannot be identified to the world, God cannot be recreated and God cannot be manipulated by the world.
Other distinct characteristics that separate Hebrew thought from all other belief systems are:
1.) God is spirit and not matter which is the polar opposite viewpoint of myth. Myth states that matter is the basis of
everything.
2.) There was no conflict during the creation process. In myth creation evolves from chaos but in the Old Testament
the world exists only because God spoke it into existence.
3.) The Old Testament has a very high viewpoint of humanity. In fact man is made in the image of God. God created
man last and man is the apex of all creation. In myth humanity is an afterthought and the only purpose is to provide for
the gods.
4.) God is reliable and consistent. Yahweh will bless people and be there for his people even when it is not to Gods
advantage. In myth the gods are fickle and only self-serving.
5.) God is supra-sexual which simply means God is not sexed. He is neither male nor female. He is spirit being and
does not take on any traits of sexuality and sex played no part in the creation process. In myth gods comes into
existence by sexual means. They have sex with each other to make other gods and also have sex with desirable
women to make semi-gods.
6.) Since God is not sexed in the Bible, sex is desacralized in the Old Testament. God set clear boundaries to
establish what is acceptable and what is forbidden when dealing with sexual relationships. Mythology uses all types of
sexual rituals so that they can influence and manipulate the gods. There are no boundaries and anything goes.

7.) The Old Testament also prohibits the use of magic. Sorcery of all kind is forbidden and may not be used to attempt
to manipulate God in any ritualistic way. The attempt to manipulate God to gain self-interest is vile to God. You
maintain a personal relationship with God though prayer and obedience. In mythology magic, sorcery and rituals are
common and essential to dealing with the gods. There is no individual as the individual is just part of the continuous
nature. The gods are only influenced through the rituals of society.
8. Humans relate to God though ethical behavior and to the disciplined obedience of God. What matters most to the
Israelites is how people treat their parents, their children, their neighbors and strangers. They show their commitment
to God by how they interact with others. God gives strict laws for his people to uphold and follow. Strict obedience to
this covenant will create holiness for oneself bringing one closer to the holiness of God.
Transcendence As The Underlying Principle: The underlying and most important distinction in the biblical
understanding of reality is how God is in relation to the cosmos. In mythical thinking god is the cosmos or the cosmos
is god. The source and the manifestation are indistinguishable and are continuous. In Biblical thought God is
transcendent. God is not the cosmos and the cosmos is not God. God is separate and apart from the creation. This
belief is completely contrary to continuity and distinguishes that God and heaven are not part of the natural world. The
world is separate and only exists because God willed it into existence by his word. This is the law of transcendence
that clearly shows God is other than the cosmos.
Oswalt established in this chapter that all the reasons which make something a myth are opposite from the biblical
worldview of the Old Testament. The Bible can therefore not be considered a myth. This does not say that the Bible is
true but it is definitely not a myth. One thing is true; the Bible is unique and consistent which gives credence to the
approach.
Chapter 5: The Bible Verses Myth
Ethics: In mythology there are two kinds of ethical misbehavior, offenses against gods and offenses against people.
Most offenses against the gods deal in the magical realm with rituals or spells. It is an attempt to ward off the gods
from interfering or to manipulate the gods to gain favors. The repercussion of the offense depends on the mood,
reaction and the personality of the god at the time. Offenses against other people are another matter. It is a crime
against the laws of society that have predetermined punishments. In myth the laws are understood to be human
creations. Therefore judgment is by the people and there isnt reason to appeal to gods for help.
In biblical thought, God has a covenant with man and all the laws for how people relate to God and to each other
come from God through transcendence. One is either obedient or not to the law of God. There is no distinction
between sin against God and crime against society. They are both lack of obedience to the written commands from
God. What is unique is that the standard of the law and covenant with God is formed from the character of the one
true Yahweh. Another biblical thought on ethics to consider is that the expectations are clear to all. There are clear
results from compliance or noncompliance by the individual. One can gain more insight into Gods nature by how one
reacts ethically in the physical world. Things happen to a person because of what that person has done or is doing. It
is no longer an unknown act in the divine world. Lastly, is the free choice from allowed by God, a persons choice can
impact what happens; it is no longer just a reflection from the other realm or from a cosmic event. Jerusalem fell not
because other gods in the divine defeated Yahweh, but because the people broke their covenant with God and God
allowed the fall. It was a result of free choices and the consequences from those choices.
The Significance of Similarities Between Israelites and Non-Israelites: Oswalt now turns to similarities between the
Israelite belief system and other surrounding cultures of the ANE. There are five main topics that Oswalt reviews:
1). Similarities in Practice: Without question there are similarities in the practices of the Hebrews and their neighbors.
One obvious similarity is that both had laws that were delivered to them from God. Another similar practice is the ritual
of sacrifice and the ceremonial cleanness associated with the practice. Still further is the set-up of the tabernacle and
covenant with God which is almost identical to the Canaanite sanctuaries. What makes the Hebrews stand apart is

the obedience to the concept that if I do something to my neighbor it has a direct correlation to my relationship to God.
The Egyptian, Canaanite and Mesopotamians could not accept that if one stole from another person it was a violation
to the creator. No matter how similar any of the beliefs or practices seemed, the deciding factor that separated the
Hebrews was their relationship of the individual to God. There is a system of ethics that affect by ones behavior in all
matters.
2.) Similarities in Expression: There are references in the Bible to the cosmos and to other mythical things such as
the Leviathan. Some argue that the Hebrews believed in the chaos of cosmos or continuity because of the mention of
mythical things that are used as reference in the Bible. Oswalt states the difference is that, the transcendent God is
accomplishing his will through an obedient nature in a specific historic event. In a unique moment in time and space,
never to be repeated, but also ever to be forgotten, God has worked redemption for his people. The Bible doesnt
necessarily believe the myth of the surrounding cultures, but makes the point of the myth, to only break the myths
validity, to make it absolutely clear it is God who prevailed.
3,) Similarities in Thought Patterns: There is a scholarly consensus that believes the Israelite religion is based on the
principle of continuity which is similar to the surrounding ANE culture. The Israelites abandon the belief system of
continuity because of a cataclysmic event. It is further argued that the event was the exodus from Egypt and that all
documented history of the Israelites prior to the exodus was rewritten to mirror the recent adopted transcendent God
belief. The problem with this argument is that the Hebrew believes that God reveals himself through unique events
and persons in time and space. The historical relevance is absolute and the inspired written word of God. It is
contrary to the entire belief system of a transcendent God that defines the Hebrew thought.
4.) Genesis: Is Genesis, especially the early chapters, written in myth? The problem with this thought is that the
characteristics that define a myth are absent. There are not multiple gods, there is no continual creation that the world
reflects, sex is not a part of the creation story, there is a high view of man not a low one and there is no conflict
between order and chaos. Scholars have attempted to say that in Genesis 1:1 When God began to create the
heaven and earth, the earth was without form and void. that Hebrews believed in a preexistent chaos. The second
point scholars make to say that Genesis is a myth, is that the creation story is similar to the Babylonian. When
observed closely the texts of the two stories do not really match. The majority of the Babylonian creation story focuses
on the creation of the gods and the battle between gods for a supreme rule. They are only similar in a logical
progression of how things were made The bottom line is that there is no conflict between good and evil or any sexual
deeds that transpired to make the creation process start. The world both in heaven and on earth are because God
willed it and commanded it to be so by his word.
Psalms: There are many Psalms that can be construed as similar and describing pagan gods and viewpoints.
Oswalt demonstrates in Psalm 29, Psalm 68 and Psalm 104 the comparison that the author could be describing Baal
instead of Yahweh. Both are cloud riders and both control the rain. In all accounts it is clear that God is separate from
the rain and storms, God is not the rain or the storm but apart from it. God is the maker and giver of all things. In myth
there is no separation only oneness with all things. Baal is god, Baal is nature and Baal is the idol. Baal cannot be
separate from the storm because of continuity Baal is the storm.
Chapter 6: The Bible And History: A Problem Of Definition
The main distinction of biblical Old Testament thought is that God interacts in unique non-recurring events in a
specific time and place. The Bible contends that the events are factual and happened as written. The idea that human
choice and actions can effect outcomes in the natural world and that these choices are non-repeatable and are
aligned toward a single measurable universal goal are all unique and recorded in the Bible.
Definitions Of History: Like a myth, history needs a clear definition. History can refer to the recording of an event, the
study of the past or just a connected experience of an event in time and space. Oswalt reviews different definitions
and interpretations of what history means and how it will refer to the Old Testament. Oswalt then offers his own
definition: A history is a narrative of a series of events revolving about human beings acting in time and space.

Existing for the purpose of human self-knowledge, it purports to be an accurate account of all significant elements for
the eventual outcome. History is about the accurate account of human beings.
Understandings Of Reality On Which History Writing Depends: In order to establish the importance of history, it must
be established that the belief in human free will and choice is absolute. If not then history doesnt matter. Oswalt
reviews six theological points and six historical practices of the ANE that historic writings depend on:
1.) Humans are free and responsible. If there isnt free will and choice then everything is preconditioned and just part
of a continuous cycle. History and the knowledge gained from the study of history cannot change a predetermined
fate of a future event. Choice is just an illusion.
2.) There is cause an effect to an event in time and space. Things are not just by chance as a result from events in
the invisible world.
3.) Truth is absolutely necessary to establish order to study history. If an event in history never happened, what is the
point of learning from the choices made by a person in that event? If there is only speculation and interpretation
without fact, then the event is meaningless.
4.) Humans are dynamic and goal-oriented. Humans must believe that we can change for the better. If we are just
part of a repetitive cycle there is no reason for goals and improvement.
5.) Relationships within time and space have significance. If this is true then what happens in the physical world
matters. If not relationships are all continuous and predetermined.
6.) A consistent standard must be established to measure against. If there isnt a standard there will never be
agreement and it all becomes meaningless.
Omens: An omen is a sign which foretells the results of a particular event or journey. Omens diminish the value of free
choice and lead to predetermination by the gods. In Babylonian culture much time has been spent on documenting all
the different omens and meanings of their signs.
King Lists: Is simply the names, lineage and length of each king being documented.
Date Formulae: In ANE it was standard practice each year to document the name of the ruling king with his title and
announce what he accomplished within that particular year.
Epic: Epics are narratives that reveal events of a hero on a journey. Many of the characters have been found to be
based on historic individuals with the feats based in fact. E.g. Ulysses was an actual character who fought in Troy and
did have difficulty getting home.
Royal Annals: These annals record in detail the events in each a kings reign. They describe in detail military
conquest, building projects, interests and favorite topics of that king.
Chronicles: Chronicles are an objective documented account of the life of a king describing his victories and defeats
as well as his line of succession. It does not evaluate the value of the feats.
Reasons For The Absence Of History Writing: Oswalt outlines five reasons why there would not have been
documented writings in the ANE:
1.) Focus on Now: If we conclude that the ANE was founded on and believed in continuity then all that matters is
the present. Nothing in the past or future influence or effect what was happening today. There was no need to
document it.
2.) Subjective Orientation: Historical writings gain credibility when written by an outside person. In the ANE all is
connected and one with each other so there is no outside or subjective opinion. There was no point to have it written
by a neutral person as there is only me.

3.) Multiplicity of Causes: In continuity there are infinite causes to an event. How the stars line up in the sky have
more impact on what happens then human free choice. What happens in the invisible world effects the physical world
giving infinite reasons why it happened.
4.) Determinism: Choice is just an illusion because of the cyclical and interconnected nature of reality. In reality there
are no choices because everything is dictated by outside forces. What a person does is predetermined regardless of
what they believe. What is the point to document and study an event if they have no future choice?
5.) Preoccupation with Order and Security: The forces in the cosmos are constantly battling each other over good
and evil, creating and destroying at all times. Chaos is always around whether in the physical, material or political
world. Security is completely dependent on the outcome of the victory of order. The study of events from the past
would have no impact on the battles waged in the cosmos which is where order and security is decided.
The Bibles Unique Approach To Human-Historical Experience:
1.) Humans treated as Real Individuals: The Bible is radically different from other literature of the ANE. The Bible
uses characters that are real and human. Truth is found in the individual not in the normalcy of things, but in the
character of that individual. The ANE literature uses semi-gods and supernatural representatives which is
contradictory to the Bible. The emphasis of the individual in the Bible is important and had no relevance in ANE
culture.
2. Failures and defeats Not Glossed Over: In the Bible both positive and negative traits of the individual character
are highlighted. Failures are documented and judged by God. There isnt glory in failure as in Greek heroic literature,
just lessons to be learned.
3. Significance of relationships: The Bible deals explores in detail, relationships with individuals and with God. It
does not pass over them as insignificant, but rather goes into them in detail from a purely neutral perspective. Our
actions and what we do to others matter. What David chose to do with Bathsheba was done and judged by the
transcendent Yahweh. Yahweh dealt with the result, but allowed the choice of the individual to be made.
4. Significance of Human Choice: The Bible states that it is human choice that shapes the events on earth, not a
predetermined continuous force in the cosmos. A person can interact with God, but that person has the right to
choose and the results are determined by the choice.
5. Developmental Relationships: The Bible relates past events to the present and compares the results. This is
completely in contrast to the ANE literature which only deals in the Now. The writings are strictly to document the
current reign. They do not demonstrate or compare one reign to the next one. There is no purpose to documenting as
it is just another repetitive report in an endless continuous circumstance.
Implications of Transcendence For Israels View Of Human-Historical Experience: Transcendence is the belief that
God is separate and not part of the world. This concept is a major difference in approach to all the surrounding ANE.
Transcendence makes it impossible to believe that human events correspond to a mirror opposite invisible world.
There isnt a connection between the two, what happens in invisible world doesnt affect the physical world.
1.) Possibility of Transcending Events: Since God is separate and apart from creation, there is a space beyond this
created world. Since this world is purposefully created by God who judges all things, then there is a reason to act
beyond ones own self-interest. This concept is documented many times in the Old Testament with how the individual
relates to the covenant presented by God. There is a force outside this world to judge the events of the individual.
2.) Impossibility of misleading God: God is all knowing and all is revealed to God. You cant fool God. In the ANE the
gods are part of the system, so they can be manipulated. I can document things that are not true because I can trick
the gods. Not so with a separate God who created all and is transcendent. God knows everything and will judge
according to integrity of the individuals choices and actions. God used the Prophets to write the history of the Bible

and to uphold Gods integrity. All of Israel respected and knew that the Prophets were chosen by God. The Prophets
could write the truth without fear of consequences of man. In the ANE culture if a person wrote something the king
didnt like he could be killed.
3.) A Simplified Understanding of Causation: In the Bible God is responsible for all and God has no rival. God is the
only one to answer to and the cause of everything. Humans are personal and at the same time disconnected from
God. Everything that a person chooses to do is either in defiance or compliant to God. This makes relationships with
humans to God and humans to humans very significant. God wants our obedience and more importantly God wants a
relationship with people. That is something that cannot be predetermined.
4.) Speech as the Mode of Accomplishing Divine Purposes: God chose to communicate to his people by entering the
lives of individuals through personal experiences and non-recurring historical events. Since God is not continuous,
but separate from this world, one cannot participate in Gods life. Any attempt to do so is forbidden in the Bible as
discussed in earlier chapters. So how does a person then participate in the life of God? By that person demonstrating
an ethical character and obedience to Gods law, a person receives Gods blessing and approval. God reveals himself
through the human historical experience at a specific time and space. Therefore what God does is very important and
how it is truthfully documented is extremely significant. That is why documented history is captured.
History writing As Myth-Making: ANE culture used nature to express myth in culture. Did Israel choose another mode
for myth and use historical myth to express their faith? The answer is no. In pagan worship idols are made from
nature and nature is the gods. All is continuous with each other. There is no separation. With Israel God is not the
history rather the history is the people who experience God along the way. This is because God is separate and
transcendent. Israel, like the neighboring ANE, attempted many times to place God in a box to control God. Unlike the
recurring continuous pagan gods of the ANE, God liked to perform miraculous one-time events to keep the people on
track. God also used the prophets to constantly remind the people that they were different and God was different. The
Hebrew therefore, does not witness faith by retelling a fictional story or by a ritual of drama to recreate an outcome.
The Hebrew recites how God intervened with individuals and the nation of Israel that was directed by God through the
prophets.
Chapter 7: Is The Bible Truly historical? The Problem Of History (I)
The Bible is thought by many to contain historical-fiction. Is the Bible history like or is it historical fact? The bigger
question is, are biblical accounts history and does it matter? Historians argue that history is accepted only if complete
human responsibility for events and outcomes are present. Clearly events and outcomes of the Bible are not only
human responsibility. Other historians now believe that history is accepted if the historical writing is for a divine
purpose. Human involvement and choice is always involved but divine intervention explains what happened. Since
there is no way to document the purpose and true nature of God, we are only left with speculation. E.g. There is no
way to prove biblical accuracy to the events of the exodus. So does that make the Bible a myth or historical fact?
History as Revelation: INADEQUACIES: The Bible can be considered as history revelation. That is the
interpretations of Gods actions in the Bible are through humans and are flawed but still bear witness to the revelation
of God.
Revelation Is Not Confined to Divine Action: James Barr argued, the problem with this explanation is that the Bible
doesnt distinguish the division between revelation and witness to revelation. If there is a difference then the miracles
all disappear and the reports of the events are not valid. If the only access to the events is the witness, then that
source isnt trustworthy; there is no truthful access to the acts at all. If history is rooted in faith the history disappears.
This argument states there is no revelation in the Bible. The Bible is just speculation, a vehicle of history writing the
Hebrew people chose to use.
Divine Action in History Is Not Unique to Israel: Another attack on the uniqueness of the historical revelation of the
Bible is that there are many other cultures that use gods to intervene on behalf of an individual in a specific event in

history. The thought that a god could act in history was not a new concept to the ANE. Oswalt stated the difference:
that this was the only place he acted that had significance for human beings, that those actions were according to a
consistent, long term purpose, that he was using the details of human-historical behavior to reveal that purpose, and
that he was just as capable of using enemies as he was friends to accomplish his good purpose---that, I maintain, is
not found anywhere else in the world, ancient or modern, outside of the Bible and its direct derivatives, Israel was the
first people who believed that God is the sole creator and never changed that belief. Israel knew that transcendence
cannot exist with continuity and carried it out is all aspects of life. The Creator of the universe is discontinuous with
the creation.
Necessities For History Writing Found In Israel: The Bible insists that God made all things known through humanhistorical experience. The question is why did Israel record all these historical experiences? The main reason is so
God can be known to his people. If God is known through nonrecurring events that are unique to that time and place,
they must be recorded in order to know God. God is characterized by faithfulness so it is necessary to report back
faithfully. One cannot falsify the account because that is contrary to the entire belief. The transcendent God is outside
the account and will evaluate and judge the author.
What are the Origins Of Israels Unique Understandings? How did Israel come out with such a different belief and
endpoint of the nature of reality? If it is advancement,we established earlier that Israel was much less developed then
many of the kingdoms in the ANE. If we ask this question to the Hebrews, they would say it was from the direct
revelation of the God. All the credit goes to God and the Israelite s contend to not have had anything to do with the
thought process. If anything they are steadfast to explain that much of the time they were stubborn and stiff-necked
about accepting Gods intervention. The entire history is one failure after another failure. It makes sense that the only
way they received the belief was through the transcendent God. God impressing his will on individuals through
human-historical experience.
Revelation Through Human-Historical Experience Calls For Careful Recording:
God is revealed through history so the importance of how that is recorded is critical to the Hebrew nation. What God
said, did and willed for the people must be captured perfectly. To do otherwise would be sacrilegious to the Hebrews.
The argument that the accurate documentation of the Bible is not correct must be evaluated. What is accuracy? This
can also be a broad interpretation: Did the witness write the account? Was the story recreated, exaggerated or made
up? It has been established that it would be against God and the nature of the writer to not document accurately. What
is more important to the accuracy is the main meaning and interpretation that is intended by God in the humanhistorical experience. Details are important, but only to help grasp the intended meaning. Details cannot be
rearranged to suit the author and the complete picture is not the intent, but rather Gods will and meaning so God is
revealed to his people. The account of the Exodus might not be a full account in all details, but what is accounted is
accurate and the reader can enter the story and understand the meaning and intent of God. The reader can
experience the story and interpret it the same as the witness and draw the same conclusions.
The accuracy is vital to the story. The religious intent didnt create the event but rather Gods intervention in a human
experience is the story and the lessons inspired the people in how they approached life. Israel broke away from Egypt
not only physically by overcoming Egyptian slavery, but also spiritual by how God intervened with individual humanhistorical events that lined up in unrepeatable occurrences.
Chapter 8: Does It Matter Whether The Bible Is Historical? The Problem If History (2)
There are three questions to explore in order to prove Israels historical experience: 1.) Did they actually occur? 2.)
Are they accurately reported? 3.) Are they correctly interpreted?
The Entire Bible Is Historical: When the Bible is studied it is obvious that it contains more than just a documented
history of events or historical narrative. The Bible is an interpretation of factual historical experiences with the climax
occurring at the resurrection of Christ. Gods words are meaningless without the human experience and interpretation
that is presented. The words become historical as the prophets deliver Gods word. They are always used to tell

Israels history with the focus on accomplishing Gods covenant with Israel. God has revealed himself to Israel through
the prophets in their historic experience. The prophets are at the center of the Israel history and without the prophets
the history would be indistinguishable.
Are Biblical Faith And Biblical History Really Inseparable: Can one rely on the history in the Bible if God is separated
from the story? There are two attempts that suggest the Bibles historical records are not factual and that the facts are
insignificant.
The Bultmannian Approach: Bultmannian uses existentialism to address historical faith. One must take responsibility
for ones own existence. Only the moment is reality. There is no before and after, therefore there is no need for
history. We only exist and live if we choose to do so. History is then a choice of an individual rather than determined
by experiences.
The Problem of history: With existentialism an accumulation of historical experiences would have no relevance since
the events are gone and can never be repeated. One must choose to exist now so contemplating over the
accumulation of historical existence is counterproductive. To the existentialist the biblical documentation of miraculous
events cannot have happened because historical science tells us they cant. This leaves a big concern, if the
authority, judgment and redemption of a sinful world can be accurate and the facts behind that authority of God are not
factual, how can there be truthto the Bible?
Distinguishing Historie from Geschichte:
Historie refers to an event and defines what was transpiring in the domain of the theologian. There is a difference
between the event and the interpretation of the event. Bultmannian states: Any attempt to imprison the Divine in
Historie shows that humans are responsible for themselves and the world. The divine cannot be mixed as that would
mean we are not responsible for ourselves. Jesus that is both human and God cannot exist with Historie
Gerschichte refers to the narrative and describes what happened from the perspective of the writer. Humans are free
and responsible in light of the past and hope of the future. Choices are unconditioned and one must take responsibility
for the choices. In Gerchishte Jesus freely accepts the unjust cross as a result of standing up against the religious
elite. By his choice to allow the crucifixion, Jesus shows the way to salvation for all who follow in his footsteps.
Denying the Subject-Object Distinction: There is a distinction between subject and object. An object is separate from
and observed by an individual without emotion or concern for the object. If God is an object that can be studied and
separated from the one observing God, then God can be manipulated which is idolatrous. Science cannot be the
means to understand God. God cannot be caught, contained or manipulated to gather information. To attempt to
authenticate the acts of God in regards to mans criteria, turns God into the subject and object. Bultmann believes to
have a worldview is to make the world an idol.
Critique: Bultmann puts the decision on how the Bible is interpreted; do we study the vehicle or the event? The
reader has to decide what is meaningful and what is not from the text. When the symbolism is separated from the
word, the word losing the meaning and is interpreted to mean something that could be radically different. By doing this
Bultmann has redefined the faith and changes the texts meaning in the Bible.
More serious issues: When God is removed from the natural order and is only experienced from an inner personal
experience, the question arises does God even exist? It becomes subjective to think of God outside of the personal
psyche. To do so is just a thought inside another thought and not physical reality. If this is accurate, one can define
God and all of reality in ones mind. This belief does not change history. To believe that one is Napoleon, no matter
how much belief, does not make them the Napoleon.
Another concern and flaw with the thinking of Bultmann is how history has to do with the past, but what is truly
historical excludes the past. The past is dead and meaningless, it does not shape what is now and the future isnt
dependent from the past or present. Only what occurs now is relevant and only if one chooses to participate by

accepting the consequences of that choice, will one be living historically. In summary Bultmanns answer to history
and biblical faith is flawed. The acts of God that happen at a particular time and space cannot be separated from the
events and history of the story. The biblical interpretation and understanding of reality in the stories are completely
dependent and define the worldview that evolved.
Process Thought: Alfred North Whitehead developed the foundations of process thought which is an attempt to put
the human-historical experience in time and space, a place for the God who is involved in that human-historical
process and a place for both progress and purpose in the experience. This approach was not provided for in
existentialism and process thought became very popular with American Christians.
A Description of Process thought: God is the source and ultimate goal in all. As history develops so does God
develop. God started everything and everything is moving to God. God is also the the human-historical experience. To
separate God from the historical experience does not work. There is no plan or direction with the unfolding of history.
God would then be on the outside as an observer only to witness and evaluate.
Critique of Process Thought: Positive Elements: 1.) God is intimately involved in every level of human life. 2.) God is
not outside pulling the strings but allows free choice and responsibility. God is affected by the choice as well. 3.) Evil
is defined as a violation of love. It is not an entity. 4.) History is real and important. Defects: 1.) Process thought
identifies God with the system and truly is historical myth. History is the vehicle to explain God. 2.) No personal God.
God is a force within that can be good or evil. 3.) There is no purpose or evaluation to life and no way to measure if
progress has occurred. 4.) Lack of goals or development to a goal. Does the creator have a goal for us and are we
heading towards that goal. Process thought is more compatible to biblical thought than existentialism, but as critiqued
above it is false hope.
Concluding Observations:
In conclusion Oswalt poses the question: Is it possible to save the theology of the Bible while denying the historical
witness to the experiences that supposedly produced that theology? The answer to the question is no. God is the
premise and the theology grows from Gods intervention at specific times and places that are essential to the
development of the human-historical experience. The story is that sin can be forgiven and that there is eternal life with
Christ. God is known, and reality is known because God broke into our time and space and revealed himself. If that is
false then all of the Israel history is a lie. If true, than how can the idea of God be explained?
Chapter 9: Origins Of The Biblical Worldview: Alternatives.
Oswalt begins by asking the reader to be open-minded, to review all options on what the influences were or could
have been that caused Israel to accept the transcendent monotheistic biblical worldview. It is important not to exclude
or predetermine that the Hebrew biblical claim of divine intervention by God, who reveals himself through individuals
in historical experiences is true. Oswalt will build a case, by reviewing four different scholars who attempt to prove the
Israel biblical worldview was developed other than the transcendence of God revealing himself.
John Van Seters: Israels Understanding of Reality Arose As A Late Creative Fiction: John Van Seters showed that
the Israelite history, similar to the surrounding ANE literature (Thucydides and Herodotus), is not unlike other history
that was written down hundreds of years after the events occurred. The facts are not relevant and necessarily
accurate, but they do create a continuous story. Seters believes that the books of the Bible were just a novel created
by a genius who he calls the Yahwist. This Yahwist was attempting to create a national history for Israel. This belief
stimulated discussion from all sides of the spectrum and was not received as accurate. Seters work did lay out the
argument that the Pentateuch should be viewed as one book by a single author and not five separate books. Many
scholars did agree that theory did make sense. This argument of similarities to Thucydides and Herodotus, when
compared side by side is the basis of Seters argument. When this is dome the differences are more glaring then the
similarities. The main difference is the Greek religion is different from the Hebrew religion.
Frank Cross: Israels Understanding Arose In A Prose Rewriting Of An Earlier Epic Poem: Frank Cross compares the

Pentateuch to the epic poem, Homer. The purpose was to provide a human explanation for the view of reality that
produced the Pentateuch. The problem is there is no epic poem in the Hebrew literature or Bible to turn to that
supports this theory. In order for this to hold up, the Greeks have to have Homer become true history and the Israels
need the Bible to become an epic adventure and not just historical events. The Greeks have the epic without historical
events and the Bible has the historical events without the epic.
William Dever: Israels Understanding Is An Imposition Of A Small Elite: William Dever is a biblical archaeologist and
approaches disproving the history of the Bible through archaeology finds. Dever proposes that Israel in the Bible
didnt exist as depicted. By archeological discovery Dever says there is evidence to prove that many of the historical
events happened differently than the Bible suggests. Dever further argues that there is no evidence at all to prove that
the Exodus and the miracles ever did happen. Dever does agree that there is evidence to support that the state of
Israel and then the two states of Judea and Israel did exist.
Dever strongly argues that the evidence of certain events, and lack of evidence to prove the miraculous historical
revelation of God, prove that the biblical worldview was not factual and was just created by the prophets themselves.
Dever believes that the elite few used the newly formed alternative religion to force unity of the people. Oswalt argues
four points to counter these claims by Dever: 1.) If this is true then why didnt Israel remove all mention of Icons and
pagan worship from the written created history? 2.) If there isnt any revealing of God through human historical
experience by a transcendent God, and Israels experience is the same as all the rest of the ANE, why have ones
religious conviction in terms of choices and responsibilities be dependent of the revealed will of God? Dever answers
that some things are just a mystery and cannot be answered. 3.) How can a state formed religion explain Israels
religious documents that stand in judgment of the monarchy? It is contradictory and doesnt make sense. 4.) When
and where does Israel change from continuity to transcendent belief, and what accounted for that change? Was it the
exile? It seems unlikely, why would it appear in a thoroughly pagan Israel who was surrounded by ANE paganism? It
could have only come from God revealing himself to his people in historical experiences through transcendence.
Mark Smith: Israels Understanding Is A Natural Development From West Semitic Religion: Oswalt gives the most
credit to Mark Smith because he gave the most thought to these questions. Smith argues at great length that the
Israel belief came from the Canaanite polytheism. The history of the early Israel monarchy is very similar to the Ugarit
that pre-existed Israel by 300-400 years. If this is true, then why is the Bible so different in biblical thought and belief?
Smith argues that it is different because of all the challenges that Israel faced, both politically and environmentally,
during their existence. Smith explains that the Israel monarchy came about because the loose-knit system of the
Judges was not able to defend against surrounding kingdoms, mainly the Palestinians. Smith concludes that Yahweh
evolved as the dominant God for Israel from the multi-god culture. Smith gives two main reasons for this belief: 1.)
The Hebrew emphasis on the family and Yahweh was seen as the head. 2.) The emergence of a king in the nation of
Israel. These two things began the change: one belief, one law, one God, worshipped in one place. Yahweh is the
king in heaven above all earthly kings. With the exile and return, this philosophy gave hope to the nation. Oswalt
argues against this reasoning since all the other surrounding ANE also endured hardship and faced similar trials.
None of those nations developed a similar transcendent monotheistic God. All surrounding nations developed
monarchy with a central place to organize and were also focused on the family structure. Yet none of them even
hinted at or changed from the multi-god polyverse. Smith argues this claim by declaring there isnt enough evidence
of the other ANE nations to answer the question.
Chapter 10: Conclusions:
This book centered on the observation that the Bibles worldview is different from all other ANE literature. Mainly that
the belief in the Bible is transcendent and the ANE is continuity. The Bible is the history of the Hebrew people who
developed their belief system from a transcendent God who entered the lives of individuals to reveal his will through
human-historical experiences. The events are unique, non-repeatable and with persons in a specific time and space
that are important to know God. All other literature and belief systems in the ANE do not follow this format. The Bible
has been attacked by historians, anthropologists, sociologists, scientists and others who all attempt to discredit the
Bible as being a myth and not the transcendence of a monotheistic God revealing his will to influence the will of his

people.
Oswalt goes through a progression of theories that have been used to show that the Bible is not factually based and
was used to create a history for human purposes. After presenting each case against the Bible Oswalt explains why
the case is not able to hold up and prove that the Bible is nothing more than a myth. Many of the arguments present
similarities in other ANE literature, which reviewed on the surface, can lead one to believe it was derived from the
same belief as the surrounding culture of Israel. It isnt surprising to see the similarities because Israel was very
involved in the surrounding ANE culture. Israel was captured and ruled by the Egyptians, Assyrians and the
Babylonians and were influenced by those cultures. Many biblical stories center on the falling away of the
monotheistic transcendence belief, adopting gods of foreign nations, and how God punished his people for lack of
obedience and discipline. When observed deeper, it is clear that the similarities are not the defining features. The
Bible as a whole is unlike any other history or literature in the world. It is completely different in how the Hebrew
people became a nation, existed in this world and documented the story, both tragically and in glory of individual life
through the transcendence of God in specific non-recurring events.
Oswalt concludes that one may or may not agree with the questions and arguments of all or some of the cases
presented. The only answers that matter is to the following questions: Is there a God? Does God have a will? And
does God have a purpose for our lives? Has God revealed that will to his people in specific events? If the answers to
the above questions are yes, than the revealed will of God is the highest importance in our lives.