4.

4 Thyristors

4.4.1 Introduction
Thyristors are two- to four-lead semiconductor devices that act
exclusively as switches—they are not used to amplify signals, like
transistors. A three-lead thyristor uses a small current/voltage applied to
one of its leads to control a much larger cur- rent flow through its other
two leads. A two-lead thyristor, on the other hand, does not use a control
lead but instead is designed to switch on when the voltage across its
leads reaches a specific level, known as the breakdown voltage. Below
this breakdown voltage, the two-lead thyristor remains off.
You may be wondering at this point, Why not simply use a transistor
instead of a thyristor for switching applications? Well, you could—often
transistors are indeed used as switches—but compared with thyristors,
they are trickier to use because they require exacting control
currents/voltages to operate properly. If the control cur-
rent/voltage is not exact, the transistor may lay in between on and off
states. And according to common sense, a switch that lies in between
states is not a good switch. Thyristors, on the other hand, are not
designed to operate in between states. For these devices, it is all or
nothing—they are either on or off.
In terms of applications, thyristors are used in speed-control
circuits, power- switching circuits, relay-replacement circuits, low-cost
timer circuits, oscillator cir- cuits, level-detector circuits, phase-control
circuits, inverter circuits, chopper circuits, logic circuits, light-dimming
circuits, motor speed-control circuits, etc.
TA B L E4.3 M ajor Kinds of Thyristors

TYPE SYMBO L MODE OF OPER ATION

Silicon-controlled Normally off, but when a small current enters its gate
(G), it turns on. rectifier (SCR) Even when the gate current is removed, the SCR
remains on.To turn it off, the anode-to-cathode current flow must be removed, or the anode
must be set to a more negative voltage than the cathode.
Current flows
in only one direction, from anode (A) to cathode (C).

Silicon-controlled Similar to an SCR, but it can be made to turn off by

applying a positive switch (SCS)
device also can
voltage pulse to a four-lead, called the anode gate. This
be made to trigger on when a negative voltage is applied to
the anode-
gate lead. Current flows in one direction, from anode (A) to
cathode (C).

Triac Similar to a SCR, but it can switch in both directions,

meaning it can switch ac as well as dc currents. A triac
remains on only when the gate
is receiving current, and it turns off when the gate current is
removed.
Current flows in both directions, through MT1 and MT2.

Four-layer diode It has only two leads.When placed between two points in a
circuit, it acts
as a voltage-sensitive switch.As long as the voltage
difference across its
leads is below a specific breakdown voltage, it remains off.
However,
when the voltage difference exceeds the breakdown point, it
turns on.
Conducts in one direction, from anode (A) to cathode (C).

Diac Similar to the four-layer diode but can conduct in both

directions.
Designed to switch either ac or dc.

Table 4.3 provides an overview of the major kinds of thyristors. When

you see the
phrase turns it on, this means a conductive path is made between the
two conducting leads [e.g., anode (A) to cathode (C), MT1 to MT2).
Normally off refers to the condition when no voltage is applied to the
gate (the gate is open-circuited). I will present a closer look at these
thyristors in the subsections that follow.

4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers

SCRs are three-lead semiconductor devices that act as electrically controlled
switches. When a specific positive trigger voltage/cur rent is applied to the
SCR’s gate lead (G),
a conductive channel forms between the anode (A) and the cathode (C)
leads. Current flows in only one direction through the SCR, from anode to
cathode (like a diode).

A C

FIGURE anode gate

4.89

Another unique feature of an SCR, besides its current-controlled

switching
, has to
do with
its
conductio
n state
after the
gate
current is
removed.
After an
SCR is
trig-
gered
into
conductio
n,
removing
the gate
current
has no
effect.
That is,
the SCR
will
remain
on even
when the
gate
current/v
oltage is
removed.
The only
way to
turn the
device off
is to
remove
the
anode-to-
cathode
current
or to
reverse
the
anode
and cath-
odes
polarities.
 In terms of applications, SCRs are used in switching circuits, phase-
control cir- cuits, inverting circuits, clipper circuits, and relay-control
circuits, to name a few.

How SCR s Work

An SCR is essentially just an npn and a pnp bipolar transistor sandwiched
together, as shown in Fig. 4.90. The bipolar transistor equivalent circuit
FIGURE works well in describing how the SCR works.
4.90

"anode"
N
An ode anode
P

N equivalent to "gate"
gate
Gate N P

Cathode cathode
N "cathode"

THE SCR IS OFF

Using the bipolar equivalent circuit, if the gate is not set to a specific positive voltage needed to turn the
npn transistor on, the pnp transistor will not be able to “sink” current from its own base. This means that
neither transistor will conduct, and hence current will not flow from anode to cathode.

THE SCR IS ON
If a positive voltage is applied to the gate, the npn transistor ’s base is properly biased, and it turns on.
Once on, the pnp tran- sistor’s base can now “sink” current though the npn transistor ’s collector —which is
what a pnp transistor needs in order to turn on. Since both transistors are on, current flows freely between
anode and cathode. Notice that the SCR will remain on even after the gate current is removed. This—
according to the bipolar equivalent circuit—results from the fact that both transistors are in a state of
conduction when the gate current is removed. Because current is already in motion through the pnp
transistors base, there is no reason for the transistors to turn off.

Basi c SCR Applic ations

BASIC LATCHING SWITCH

V+ Here, an SCR is used to construct a

simple
latching circuit. S1 is a momentary
contact, nor-
mally open pushbutton switch, while S2
is a momentary contact, normally closed
S2 pushbut-
normally ton switch. When S1 is pushed in and
S1 closed released,
normally a small pulse of current enters the gate
open of the
load SCR, thus turning it on. Current will then
flow through the load. The load will
RG continue to receive current until the
moment S2 is pushed, at which time the
SCR turns off. The gate resis- tor acts to
set the SCR’s triggering voltage/cur-
rent. We’ll take a closer look at the
triggering specifications in a second.
FIGURE 4.91
 ADJUSTABLE RECTIFIER

R1
Vsource

Vsource

Rload Vload Vtrig set by R1

Vload

FIGURE
4.92

Here, an SCR is used to rectify a sinusoidal signal that is to be used to power a load.
When a sinu-
soidal waveform is applied to the gate, the SCR turns on when the anode and gate
receive the pos- itive going portion of the waveform (provided the triggering voltage is
exceeded). Once the SCR
is on, the waveform passes through the anode and cathode, powering the load in
the proces s. During the negative going portion of the waveform, the SCR acts like a
reverse-biased diode; the SCR turns off. Increasing R1 has the effect of lowering the
current/ voltage supplied to the SCR’s gate. This in turn causes a lag in anode-to-
cathode conduction time. As a result, the fraction of the cycle over which the device
conducts can be controlled (see graph), which means that the average power
dissipated by Rload can be adjusted. The advantage of using an SCR over a simple
series variable resistor to control current flow is that essential ly no power is lost to
resistive heating.

DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER

+10V +3 to 6V An SCR along with a few resistor s, a

capacito r,
and a UJT can be connected together to
make a variable-speed control circuit
used to run a dc motor. The UJT, the
R1 100 dc motor capacito r, and the resistors make up an
Ω oscillator that supplies an ac volt-
100K age to the SCR’s gate. When the voltage
at the
gate exceeds the SCR’s triggering
voltage, the SCR turns on, thus
2N4819 allowing current to flow through the
4.7 µ motor. Changing the resistance of R1
F changes the frequen cy of the oscillator
100 and hence determines the number of
Ω times the SCR’s gate is triggered over
time, which in turn controls the speed
FIGURE of the motor. (The motor appears to
turn continuously, even though it is
4.93 receiving a series of on/off pulses. The
number of on cycles averaged over time
determines the speed of the motor.)
Using such a circuit over a simple series
variable resistor to control the speed
of the motor wastes less energy.

Kind s of SCRs
Some SCRs are designed specifically for phase-control applications, while
others are designed for high-speed switching applications. Perhaps the
most distinguishing fea- ture of SCRs is the amount of current they can
handle. Low-current SCRs typically come with maximum current/voltage
ratings approximately no bigger than 1 A/100
V. Medium-current SCRs, on the other hand, come with maximum
current/voltage ratings typically no bigger than 10 A/100 V. The
maximum ratings for high-current SCRs may be several thousand amps
at several thousand volts. Low-current SCRs come in plastic or metal
can-like packages, while medium and high-current SCRs come with heat
sinks built in.
FIGURE L o wcurrent M ediumcurrent High current
4.94

Technica l Stuff
Here are some common terms used by the manufacturers to describe their SCRs:
VT On state-voltage. The anode-to-cathode voltage present when the SCR is on.
IGT Gate trigger current. The minimum gate current needed to switch the SCR on.
VGT Gate trigger voltage. The minimum gate voltage required to trigger the gate
trigger current.
IH Holding current. The minimum current through the anode-to-cathode terminal
required to maintain the SCR’s on state.
PGM Peak gate power dissipation. The maximum power that may be
dissipated between the gate and the cathode region.
VDRM Repetitive peak off-state voltage. The maximum instantaneous value of the
off-state volt- age that occurs across an SCR, including all repetitive
transient voltages but excluding all nonrepetit ive transient voltages.
IDRM Repetitive peak off-state current. The maximum instantaneous value of the
off-state cur- rent that results from the application of repetit ive peak off-state
voltage.
VRMM Repetitive peak reverse voltage. The maximum instantaneous value of the
reverse voltage that occurs across an SCR, including all repetit ive transient
voltages but excluding all nonrepetit ive transient voltages.
IRMM Repetitive peak reverse current. Maximum instantaneous value of the reverse
current that results from the application of repetitive peak reverse voltage.
Here’s a sample section of an SCR specifications table to give you an idea of what
to expect
(Table 4.4).

TA B L E4.4 Sa m pleSectionof an S C RSp ecifications Table

V DRM IDR IRR IG VG I
(MIN) (MAX) (MAX) V (TYP/MAX) (TYP/MAX) (TYP/MAX) PG
MNF R # (V (mA) (mA) (V)
T (mA) (V (mA) (W)
M
) )
2N6401 10 2. 2. 1. 5.0/3 0.7/1.5 6.0/4 5
0 0 0 7 0 0

4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches

A silicon-controlled switch (SCS) is a device similar to an SCR, but it is
designed to turn off when a positive voltage/input current pulse is
applied to an additional anode gate lead. The device also can be
triggered into conduction by applying a negative voltage/output current
pulse to the same lead. Other than this, the SCS behaves just like an SCR
(see last section for the details). Figure 4.95 shows the symbol for an
SCS. Note that the lead names may not appear as cathode, gate, and
anode gate. Instead, they may be referred to as emitter (cathode), base
(gate), and collector (anode gate).
gate
(base)

anode cathode
(emitter)

4.95
FIGURE
anode gate
(collector)
 SCSs are used in counters, lamp drivers, power-switching circuits, and
logic cir- cuits, as well as in essentially any circuit that requires a switch
that can be turned on and off by two separate control pulses.

How an SCS Works

Figure 4.96 shows a basic n-type/ p-type silicon model of an SCS, along
with its bipo- lar equivalent circuit. As you can see, the equivalent circuit
looks a lot that the SCR equivalent circuit, with the exception of the
anode gate connection. When a positive pulse of current is applied to the
gate, the npn transistor turns on. This allows current
to exit the pnp transistor ’s base, hence turning the pnp transistor on.
Now that both transistors are on, current can flow from anode to cathode
—the SCS is turned on. The SCS will remain on until you remove the
anode-to-cathode current, reverse the anode and cathode polarities, or
apply a negative voltage to the anode gate. The negative anode gate
voltage removes the transistor ’s self-sustaining biasing current.

Anode

"anode"

anode
P

anode
Anodegate gate
N "anode gate"
equivalent to "gate"

Gate P gate

N cathode

"cathode"

Cathode
FIGURE
4.96
Specific ations
When buying an SCS, make sure to select a device that has the proper
breakdown voltage, current, and power-dissipation ratings. A typical
specification table will pro- vide the following ratings: BV CB, BV EB, BV CE, IE,
IC, IH (holding current), and PD (power dissipation). Here I have assumed
the alternate lead name designations.

4.4.4 Triacs
Triacs are devices similar to SCRs—they act as electrically controlled
switches—but unlike SCRs, they are designed to pass current in both
directions, therefore making them suitable for ac applications. Triacs
come with three leads, a gate lead and two conducting leads called MT1
and MT2. When no current/voltage is applied to the gate, the triac
remains off. However, if a specific trigger voltage is applied to the gate,
the device turns on. To turn the triac off, the gate current/voltage is
removed.
gate

MT1 MT2
FIGURE
4.97
 Triacs are used in ac motor control circuits, light-dimming circuits,
phase-control circuits, and other ac power-switching circuits. They are
often used as substitutes for mechanical relays.

How a Tria c Works

Figure 4.98 shows a simple n-type/ p-type silicon model of a triac. This
device resem- bles two SCRs placed in reverse parallel with each
other. The equivalent circuit describes how the triac works.
MT2

MT2 "MT2"
P

N equivalent to

gate
Gate P
MT1 "gate" "MT1"

FIGURE M T1
4.98

TRIAC IS OFF
Using the SCR equivalent circuit, when no current/ voltage is applied to the gate
lead, neither of the SCRs ’ gates receives a triggering voltage; hence current
cannot flow in either direction through MT1 and MT2.

TRIAC IS ON
When a specific positive triggering current/ voltage is applied to the gate, both SCRs
receive suf- ficient voltage to trigger on. Once both SCRs are on, current can flow in
either direction through MT1 to MT2 or from MT2 to MT1. If the gate voltage is
removed, both SCRs will turn off when the
ac waveform applied across MT1 and MT2 crosses zero volts.

Basi c Applic ations

SIMPLE
SWITCH
load Here is a simple circuit showing how a
triac acts to permit or prevent current
from reaching
a load. When the mechanical switch is
open, no current enters the triac’s gate;
ac input RG
the triac remains off, and no current
(e.g., 120 V)
passes through the load. When the
FIGURE switch is closed, a small current slips
4.99 through RG, triggering the triac into
conduction
(provided the gate current and voltage
exceed the triggering requirements of
the triac). The alternating current can
now flow through the triac and power
the load. If the switch is open again, the
triac turns off, and current is pre-
vented from flowing through the load.
 DUAL RECTIFIER

Vsource
R
Vsource R load Vload

C
Vload

FIGURE
4.100
A triac along with a variable resistor and a capacito r can be used to construc t an
adjustabl e full-wave rectifie r. The resistanc e R of the variable resistor sets the time
at which the triac will trigger on. Increasin g R causes the triac to trigger at a later
time and therefor e results in a larger amount of clip- ping (see graph).The size of C
also determine s the amount of clipping that will take place. (The capac- itor acts to
store charge until the voltage across its terminal s reaches the triac’s triggering
voltage. At that time, the capacito r will dump its charge.) The reason why the
capacito r can introduc e additional clippin g results from the fact that the capacito r
may cause the voltage at the gate to lag the MT2-to- MT1 voltage (e.g., even if the
gate receives sufficien t triggering voltage, the MT2-to-MT1 voltage may
be crossing zero volts). Overall, more clipping results in less power supplied to the
load. Using this circuit over a simple series variable resistor connecte d to a load saves
power. A simple series variable resistor gobble s up energy. This circuit, however,
supplies energy-efficien t pulses of current.

AC LIGHT DIMMER

120 V This circuit is used in many househol d

100 W dimmer
switches. The diac—describe d in the next
sec- tion—acts to ensure accurat e triac
R1 triggering.
1K triac (The diac acts as a switch that
R2 diac
passes current when the voltage across
120 V
its leads reaches a set breakdown value.
500K
Once the breakdown voltage is reached,
ac the diac releas e a pulse of current.) In
this circuit, at one momen t the diac
0.1 µ F is off. However, when enough current
50V passes through the resistor s and
charges up the capacito r to a voltage
FIGURE 4.101 that exceed s the diac’s triggering volt-
age, the diac suddenly passes all the
capacitor ’s charge into the triac’s gate.
This in turn causes the triac to turn on
and thus turns the lamp on. After the
capacito r is discharged to a voltage
below the breakdown voltage of the
diac, the diac turns off, the triac turns
off, and the lamp turns off. Then the
cycle repeats itself, over and over again.
Now, it appears that the lamp is on
(or dimmed to some degree) becaus e
the on/off cycles are occurring very
quickly. The lamp’s brightnes s is
controlle d by R2.
AC MOTOR CONTROLLER

motor

This circuit has

R2
the
R1 triac
100K 100 Ω same basic
structure as the
2W 1/2W
120 V light dimmer
ac circuit, with the
C1 C2
excep- tion of the
diac transient
0.1 µ 0.22 µ
suppresso r
F F
FIGURE 100V 200V
4.102 section
(R2C2). The speed
of the motor is
adjusted by
varying R1.
 Kind s of Triacs
Triacs come in low-current and medium-current forms. Low-current triacs
typically come with maximum current/voltage ratings no bigger than 1
A/(several hundred volts). Medium-current triacs typically come with
maximum current/voltage rating
of up to 40 A/(few thousand volts). Triacs cannot switch as much current
as high- current SCRs.

FIGURE L o wcurrent High current

4.103

Technica l Stuff
Here are some common terms used by the manufacturers to describe their triacs:
ITRMS,max RMS on-state current. The maximum allowable MT1-to-MT2 current
IGT,max DC gate trigger current. The minimum dc gate current needed to switch the
triac on
VGT,max DC gate trigger voltage. The minimum dc gate voltage required to trigger
the gate trig- ger current
IH DC holding current. The minimum MT1-to-MT2 dc current needed to keep
the triac in its on state
PGM Peak gate power dissipation. The maximum gate-to -MT1 power dissipation
Isurge Surge current. Maximum allowable surge current
Here’s a sample section of a triac specifications table to give you an idea of what
to expect
(Table 4.5).

TA B L E4.5 Sa m pleSe ctionof a Triac Sp ecific

ations Table
IT,RMS IG VG
MAX. MAX. MAX. V FON I ISURGE
MNF R # (A) (mA) (V (V (mA)
H (A)
) )
NTE5600 4. 3 2. 2. 3 30
0 0 5 0 0

4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs

Four-layer diodes and diacs are two-lead thyristors that switch current
without the need of a gate signal. Instead, these devices turn on when
the voltage across their leads reaches a particular breakdown voltage
(or breakover voltage). A four-layer diode resembles an SCR without a
gate lead, and it is designed to switch only dc. A diac resembles a pnp
transistor without a base lead, and it is designed to switch only ac.

four-layer diode diac

anode cathode
FIGURE
4.104
 Four-layer diodes and diacs are used most frequently to help SCRs and
triacs trig- ger properly. For example, by using a diac to trigger a triac’s
gate, as shown in Fig.
4.105a, you can avoid unreliable triac triggering caused by device
instability resulting from temperature variations, etc. When the voltage
across the diac reaches the break- down voltage, the diac will suddenly
release a “convincing” pulse of current into the triac’s gate.

FULL-WAVE PHASE CIRCUIT USED TO MEASURE DIAC

CONTROL CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
diac under test
100K
load 47K
3.3K
(<1500W)
triac
diac
120 200K 120 Vrms RL
VAC 0.1 µ I
F
60 Hz 60 Hz L
220 Ω
IC
0.1 µ
F
100V
FIGURE
4.105

The circuit in Fig. 4.105 right is used to measure diac characteristics.

The 100-kΩ
variable resistor is adjusted until the diac fires once for every half-cycle.

Specific ations
Here’s a typical portion of a specifications table for a diac (Table 4.6).

TA B L E4.6 S a m p leSectionof a D ia c Specifications Table

IB
VBO MAX IPULSE VSWITCH PD
MNF R # (V) (µ A (A) (V (mW)
) )
NTE6411 40 10 2 6 250
0

Here, VBO is the breakover voltage, IBO is the breakover current, Ipulse is the
maximum
peak pulse current, Vswitch is the maximum switching voltage, and PD is the
maximum power dissipation.