Report on

One & Half Months Industrial Training

At BHEL, Hardwar.

A Training Report submitted in partial fulfillment

Of the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology in

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Of Uttar Pradesh Technical University,Lucknow.
Submitted by:
SACHIN KUMAR
(Roll No. 0712731087)
(Batch 2007-2011)
Submitted to:
Mr. PRAVEEN TIWARI
H.O.D.

Department of
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
IIMT ENGINEERING COLLEGE,MEERUT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Sachin Kumar here undergone One &
half month training here in our organization Bharat Heavy Electrical
Limited, Hardwar (UK). His discipline and performance during the
training period was excellent. We wish his very prosperous and bright
career in future.

(VISHAL VERMA)
DY.Mgr.
(WEX-TELECOM)

(V.K. JOSHI)
Mtr. TECH
(WEX-TELECOM)

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my respected parents, who always
encouraged me and taught me to think and workout innovatively what so ever be the
field of life. My sincere thanks go to Mr. Vishal Verma (Dy.Mgr.) Telecom for his
prodigious guidance, persuasion, and painstaking attitude, reformative and prudential
suggestion throughout my summer training schedules.
Special thanks go to Mr.V.K.Joshi (Mtr.Technician) Telecom. Who helped me a
lot in giving minute details of Telecom? Department and enlightened me with the
knowledge of Exchange equipments and their working.
Last but not the least, my sincere thanks to all the staff members and friends for
instilling in me a sense of self-confidence.

BRANCH: (ELECTRONICS & COMM. ENGG.)

Academic Year: 2007 to 2011

Institute: IIMT,Engineering colleage ,Meerut

III

TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM IN BHEL, HARDWAR.

VOCATION TRAINING REPORT: 2010

CONTENTS
1. Introduction.
2. The Organization.
3. Telecommunications.
4. Electronic Exchange(s).
5. Telephone Lines.
6. Connection Types.
7. General faults occurring in an Exchange.
8. Special User Features of Various Exchanges.
9. Optical Fiber System.
10. Maintenance.

IV

1. INTRODUCTION.
In past few years the field of communication has been developing with no leaps or
bounds. It has become a necessity of each human being to be connected with each other.
Telephone is rapidly becoming a tool to quench this thirst.
In Automatic Telephony, operators are not required to establish connections manually
between the different calling and the called subscribers as are required in the case of
manual telephone systems. In these system subscribers those selves establish required
connections by operating the different switches placed at the central place known as the
EXCHANGE from their telephones at remote place from it. The automatic telephone
systems are rapidly replacing manual ones due to their outstanding merits over the latter
types, some of which are enumerated below:
* In Automatic Telephony higher level of secrecy is maintained due to absence of
Operators who can overhear the conversation if they like in the manual telephone
Systems.
The working of an Automatic Telephone system does not depend for its efficiency
On the personal efficiencies of the operators.
* There is no possibility of the calls being missed or wrong metering being done due to
faults of operators or due to phonetic errors between the subscribers and the operators.
As no operator is required, the running cost of the exchange is reduced.

COMMUNICATION Dia.I

2. THE ORGANIZATION.
BHEL was primarily set up to meet the needs of the power sector in the country.
The first plant was established nearly 35 years ago at Bhopal, which heralded the
genesis of the heavy electrical equipment in India. BHEL is today the largest
engineering enterprise in India, with excellent track record of performance, making
profits continuously since 1971-72. It achieved a sales turnover of Rs. 3154 carores with
a pretax Profit of Rs.201 carores, in 1990-91.

The areas of BHEL operations broadly cover conversion, transmission, utilization

and conservation of energy in core sectors of the economy like Power, Industry and
Transportation, etc., and fulfill vital infrastructure needs of the country.

Today, BHEL has 13 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centers and 4 Power

Sector Regional Centers, in addition to over 150 project sites spread all over India and
even abroad to provide prompt and effective service to customers.

BHEL Hardwar is one of the premier organizations which is honored by I.S.O.9002 specifications.

VI

3. TELECOMMUNICATION.
BHEL manufactures EPABX and MAX systems based on C-Dot technology and
has plans to make other ranges of telecommunication equipment also.
These are basically used for connecting links between various modules like peripherals,
exchange and its equipments. It is necessary to run a number of internal cables of
suitable conductors between the following stages and frames:1. Handset to exchange's cable chamber
2. Cable chamber to M.D.F.
3. M.D.F. to I.D.F.
4. I.D.F. to Number Block
5. Number Block to Exchange Equipment
6. Between two exchanges
7. Between two cities
8. Between two countries
Prior to advent of Electronic Exchanges inter-connection of various circuits are made by
mechanical contacts that are operated by mechanical movements produced by the
attraction of an iron armature of an electromagnet or by the operation of an electric
motor. There are some disadvantages of such systems for using mechanical contacts,
due to following reasons:
Contacts are subjected to wear and tear.
Require adjustments time to time.
Maintenance is highly precise.
Prone to corrosion. Etc...
But now-a-days Electronic Exchanges are used. In Electronic exchange electronic
devices effect the inter-connection between different transmission circuits and Electromechanical relays and switches are dispensed with. Such electronic devices remove
difficulties associated with mechanical contacts. The greatest advantage of using
electronic devices in place of electromechanical devices is that no time is loosed in
making a connection and a very high speed of operation is possible.

VII

4. ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES.
Electronic Exchanges are of two types:
1. Tone type
2. Pulse type
1. Tone type:
In this type of exchange sine waves are used. There speed of dialing
for a given number is more than that of Pulse type.
2. Pulse type:
In this type of exchange square wave is used due to which the dialing
speed is lesser. The telephone apparatus used for both types are different in construction.
But now days both types of apparatus are integrated in a single machine in which
switch-over can be made via a selector switch.
TONES USED IN MODERN TELEPHONY
Dial Tone: When handset is picked up from the cradle, then Dial tone is heard if a free
line is available. This means that the instrument is ready to send the signals to the
exchange. When the subscriber takes up the receiver then signals are sent M.D.F. then to
I.D.F., line Number block and to Peripherals where in various line-cards are mounted in
a shelf. When corresponding number on the line-card is free then the Ringer section of
that Peripheral generates a signal called tone. This tone is a continuous burble sound of
400 Hz. modulated by 25Hz. and is sent to the calling subscriber as soon as his line
seizes the free line. The subscriber must not dial before receiving this tone; otherwise he
is liable to get wrong connection. If he does not get this tone, he should try after some
time.
Busy Tone: When the called subscriber is engaged with other call, this tone is heard. It
consists of a sound of 400 Hz. which is regularly interrupted at equal intervals. It is
generally on for 0.75 sec. and off for also 0.75 sec.
Ringing Tone: When a number is dialed then telephone of the called subscriber starts
ringing. Calling subscriber should get this information and this is indicated by sending
ringing tone of interrupted 400 Hz. supplies modulated by 25 Hz. and its durations are
generally equal to the duration of ringing current, which rings the bell. It may be 0.4
sec. on, 0.2 sec. off , 0.4 sec. on and 2 sec. off and so on or it may be 0.75 sec. on and
0.75 sec. Off and so on. When this ringing tone is received, the calling subscriber
knows that the connection is completed and that the bell of the called subscriber is
ringing

VIII

Number Unobtainable Tone: This tone is sent when the number dialed cannot be
obtained. If any subscriber dials which is not actually connected to the exchange, this
indication is send. This is also a tone of 400 Hz. with interruption of 200 msec. every 3
sec.
Now-a-days push button type telephone apparatus are used. This apparatus can be
exploded into following sections:
1. Ringer section
2. Speech section (Transmitter and Receiver section)
3. Voltage limiter section
From telephone exchange two wires or connectors run for each number, in which one is
neutral and the other is main or positive. For the telephone circuit to work the necessary
supply is provided by the exchange. Like other circuits telephone also operates when a
circuit is established between calling and called subscriber. When one dials a number
then the corresponding relays at the exchange established a circuit automatically. The
telephone exchange supplies 40-60 volt D.C. and 110/20 Hz. to operate this circuit. This
is required because of voltage drop that may creep in long transmission wires. As soon
as the handset is picked-up this 48-volt D.C. supply is available at voltage limiter
section, dialing pulse generator and speech section.
In telephone dialing two types of frequencies are used which are:
* High band tone (1216 Hz. to 1645 Hz.)
* Low band tone (701 Hz. to 936 Hz.)
Frequencies used in Telephony
The numbers from 1 to 5 falls in low band and 6 to 9, 0 falls in high band. Till the
handset is on-hook, the ringing section of the apparatus is on through telephone line but
on lifting the handset the ringing section becomes off, also the dialing and speech
section becomes ready. On lifting the handset first the dial tone is received which is
amplified by the amplifier of speech section.
When a number is pressed on the keyboard, the dialing pulses are made on and off
according to the number dialed. For example if 5 is pressed then dialing pulses are made
on and off 5 times. This process can be heard on the receiver. There is a gap of 1 sec.
between consecutively pressed numbers.
When the handset is placed on or is lifted from the instrument a switch is operated
called the hook-switch. The main function of this switch is to toggle between telephoneline and ringer, dialing & speech sections of the telephone. When the handset is on the
telephone then ringer section of the telephone is on while on lifting it ringer section is
disconnected and dialing section is connected.

IX

How the telephone call is made:

Telephone call is characterized into two sections:
1. Outgoing calls: Generally a voltage of 48V-60V D.C. always remains on the
telephone line but as the handset is picked-up the voltage limiter drops this voltage to 912V. On hearing the dial tone it is confirmed that the apparatus is ready to work and
after dialing the number a ringing pulse is send to the called party. When the calling
party picks-up the handset the billing meter of the exchange becomes activated. There is
a counter in the exchange, which counts the pulse and converts them into calls.
2. Incoming calls: These are just opposite of outgoing calls. In the incoming calls the
telephone detects the ringing signal from the exchange and provides the ring. At the
instance of ringing signal, there remains a voltage of 75-110V./20 Hz. on the telephone.
A high voltage (A.C.) is sent from the ringer section of the exchange to start the ringer
circuit of the telephone. When the ringing signal is received it should be properly
isolated as it may give a shock. This ringing circuit is on until the handset is not pickedup at the called party. The duration of this tone, if unattended, is 1 minute after which an
engage tone is heard. After lifting the handset a circuit is established and a call is made.

Electronic Exchange Dig.II

There are various powers providing circuits available in the exchange to run the
circuitry. These are broadly categorized in two categories:
* Outside the exchange
* Inside the exchange
Outside the Exchange:
Since the voltage supplied in Indian Subcontinent is 220-volts/50 Hz. A.C. but for the
normal working of the exchange 48(46-53) volts of D.C. is required.
Hence a Rectifier circuit, backed with battery array for power-failures, is used.
This rectifier block not only rectifies the input supply but also works as a battery
charger. It is known as Float rectifier cum charger.

XI

Battery backup is utilized for smooth operation of the exchange during power failures.
For battery back-up lead acid battery array is used in parallel to the supply from the
rectifier block, so that during power failures the exchange supplies are not terminated.
Inside the Exchange:
Inside the telephone exchange various types of power supplies are used for powering
various modules (for example: - Line-cards, Ringer). Some of them are: # -5 V. 12 A
# +5 V. 12 A
# +12 V. 6A.
From M.D.F. a number of cables, based upon the requirement of a place, are connected
to cabinets. On the cabinets these cables are divided into cables of 20 pairs. Now every
20 pair cable goes to the distribution box (D.B.). At the D.B. this 20 pair cable is further
divided into two parts of 10 pairs each. These pairs are then connected to the subscriber
ports via jumpers. The line from these ports then goes to the subscribers through single
pair cables which are usually of P.V.C. type. These wires are connected to the instrument
via Rosette-Box.
M.D.F.: This frame serves the following purposes: It is place where both external and internal cables are terminated. The external
individuals cable carry conductors from subscribers who are necessarily from the
same locality and as such their numbers cannot be in numerical order. On the other
hand, the internal cable conductors come from apparatus side in numerical order.
This cross-section between the two cables is done on the M.D.F. through jumper
wires.
It carries all the protectors used in the exchange. The different protectors that are
used are (a) Fuses, (b) Heat coils, and (c) lightning protectors.
This M.D.F. is an ideal place for testing purpose. Both the internal and the external
cables are available at this frame and, therefore, both external and internal wiring
and lines can be tested for this purpose.
I.D.F.: These frames like M.D.F. consists of a large number of verticals with horizontal
cross-arms fitted with tag blocks at both the ends. The cable from M.D.F. is terminated
on the multiple sides from where connections are extended to metering and from the
exchange side cables are run to the respected line-cards. The two tag blocks are joined
by means of jumper wires as in the M.D.F., so that any subscriber can be given
connection to any uniselector on the line-card. The subscriber and, therefore, their
uniselector are divided into different groups and it is necessary for these groups to
originate more or less the same amount of traffic for smooth distribution among
different trunks.
XII

NEW MDF Dig.III

OLD MDF Dig.IV

XIII

5. TELEPHONE LINES.
In BHEL-Hardwar three types of telephone lines are used. They are: MAX Lines
EPABX Lines
C-DOT Lines

MAX Lines:
Before MAX Ex. Lines are used only Internal Exchange. But New (CORAL)
MAX lines are used for both internal (Intercom) and external communication links
BHEL.
EPABX Lines:
EPABX lines are used for both internal and external communication links in
BHEL. If the user wants to dial outside the periphery of BHEL, he can use these lines.
There are about 500 lines available here. These lines are distributed in 17 line-cards
with 24 line numbers in each. Its I.D.F. section has 40 tag blocks. 96 numbers available
here are connected via digital lines in which a host of facilities are provided that can be
accessed using code 69.
C-DOT Lines:
These lines are the direct telephone lines from C-DOT The facility they provide is
called DID (Direct Inward Dialing). It has 24 lines and any BHEL number starting with
digit 5 can be accessed using code 48.

XIV

6. CONNECTION TYPES.
Types of Connections:
* With wires i.e. Cables
* Wireless Microwave Links through Satellite
Cables: Two types of Cables are used. They are:
1) Underground cables: These types of cables run under the earth and are basically used
to connect the exchange to the subscriber's Distribution Box (D.B.). They are further of
two types based upon their construction and the insulating material used.
a. Paper core A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable)
b. Jelly filled A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable)
2) Overhead cables: These types of cables are used to connect the equipments inside the
exchange and to connect the peripheral devices to the subscriber's Distribution Box
(DB) They are generally of P.V.C. type.
In an exchange, based upon the number of conductor pairs, following types of cables are
used:
* Single Pair cable
* 2 Pairs cable
* 5 Pairs cable
* 10 Pairs cable
* 20 Pairs cable
* 50 Pairs cable
* 100 Pairs cable
Color-coding:
TYPE OF CABLECOLOR OF WIRES
Single pair

Blue-White

2 Pair cable

Blue-White/Orange-White

5 Pair cable

Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/Grey-White

10 Pair cable
Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/
Grey-White/Blue-Red/Orange-Red/Green-Red/Brown-Red/Grey-Red

XV

20 Pair cable
Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/Gray-White/BlueWhite-Blue/Orange-White-Blue/Green-White-Blue/Brown-White-Blue/
Gray-White-Blue/Blue-White-Orange/Orange-White-Orange/Green-White
-Orange/Brown-White-Orange/Gray-White-Orange/Blue-White-Green/
Orange-White-Green/ Green-White-Green/Brown-White-Green/
Gray-White-Green.
For 100 pairs cable the color-coding is same as that of the above 20 pairs cable except
That the mate color is changed after each bunch of 20 pairs.
PAIRMATE COLOR1st 20 pairs White2nd 20 pairsYellow3rd 20 pairsBlack4th 20
pairsViolet5th 20 pairs Red
7. General faults occurring in an Exchange.
There are mainly two types of faults that often occur in the Exchange. These are
basically
* Faults that occur from Line
* Faults that occur due to Instrument
A. Faults that occur from Line:
Due to line three types of faults may occur. They are categorized as under:
1. Break fault: They are also called as Disconnection faults. They can occur in the
connectors at home, in line or in exchange. In common they are broadly called as
"Telephone is dead".
2. Loop fault: They are also called as Line-Shorting faults. In this fault connectors are
shorted prior the instrument forming a local loop. If unattended for a long time they may
cause severe damage to the Exchange.
3. Earth fault: This fault may occur due to:
* wetting of connectors
* Water in Rosette-Box
* Weak insulation or
* Oxidation of copper wire
Connectors can either touch from earth, with other connector or with any conductor
(such as metallic table, frame etc.)

XVI

 Problems that can occur due to line faults:

1. Subscriber can not dial a number.
2. Ring Trip i.e. connection from the exchange breaks after one ring.
3. False Ring
4. Low speech
5. One sided speech
Faults that occur due to instrument:
These may be:
* The number is not being dialed
* One way speech
Receiver coil is faulty
Faults that occur due to instrument: contd
* Plunger or Push switch faulty. Dial tone breaks after two or three rings.
From second subscriber bell is heard to be going but at first subscriber only dial tone
Is heard.
* Instrument circuitry faulty.
When loop or earth fault is received than exchange can be affected so it is wedged as
soon as possible because if not wedge for longer it can damage line-card too.
To sense these faults first line-side is checked and then exchange side is checked
at exchange. If however exchange side is correct then line faults after detection are
handed over to the concerned lineman for further checking.

XVII

Testing Procedure Dig.V

Testing Procedure Dig.VI

XVIII

Testing Procedure Dig.VII

Testing Procedure Dig.VIII

XIX

Testing Procedure Dig.IX

Testing Procedure Dig.X

XX

Testing Procedure Dig.XI

Testing Procedure Dig.XII

XXI

8. LIST OF SPECIAL USER FEATURES ON VARIOUS EXCHANGES.

A) MAX (CORAL INDIA PVT.LTD.NOIDA)
Manufacturer: - JEUMONT SCHINEDIER, FRANCE
Capacity: - 2700 lines

CALL PICK UP: 89-xxxx to pick up a call ringing at another location xxxx.
CALL TRANSFER: 2 Parties conversing, any party can dial 3rd party, then
Conversation among them Hang-up. The party on line now
Talks to 3rd party.
PARTY CONFERENCE: While speaking with a party:
(From Pulse Instrument: -- If CALLER requires dialing 3rd party
During conversation and maintaining talks, then dial 4.
(From Tone Instrument: -- If CALLER requires dialing 3rd party
During conversation and maintaining talks, then flash, and dial 4.
MALICIOUS CALL TRACE: Dial 29 during conversation, to trace a malicious
call From a MAX Extension. Then enquire from 4999 or 4424.
APPOINTMENT REMINDER: Dial 80-xx-yy {xx=hr, yy=min}.
To Cancel: Dial 27.

XXII

LIST OF SPECIAL USER FEATURES ON VARIOUS EXCHANGES Contd

B) EPABX=ALCATEL 4400
Manufacturer: - ALCATEL, FRANCE
Capacity: - 500 lines (96 DIGITAL, 404 ANALOG)
Technology used: - P.C.M. - T.D.M.
1. TONE MODE DIAL: Dial # before no.{If instrument is not tone enabled )
2. CALL TRANSFER: Hook FLASH: Do Hook Flash On hearing prompt "Please dial." Dial the no., wait for party to respond, then
Disconnect.
3. ENQUIRY CALL: FLASH (from Tone mode instrument.) or 2 (from Pulse mode)
During converses, to put the party on HOLD. Then, dial a 3rd party and speak.
4. BROKER CALL: (After ENQUIRY CALL): Dial 1
To go BACK & FORTH, between two parties (one party in conversation & other
On HOLD)
5. CONFERENCE-3 PARTY: While talking to 1st party, first make ENQUIRY CALL
(Put on hold){FLASH from Tone; or 2 from Pulse}.
Then - Dial 3rd party - Flash-- Dial 3.
6. AUTO CALLBACK: Dial 5 to book auto-callback when a busy PABX hangs up.
(
To cancel auto-callback request: Dial 67 or/and 848)
7. PASSWORD MODIFICATION: 847-0000-xxxx (0000=old password; xxxx = new
Password). This facility is available on STD enabled extensions only.
8. LAST CALLER CALLBACK: 851 {to ring the last unattended PABX Caller}
9. APPOINTMENT REMINDER: 852 then dial the time as {xx (hr) xx (min)}
To cancel: 853
10. LAST NO. REDIAL: 854 User can use this if instrument. Doesnt have a Redial
Button.

XXIII

11. CALL PICKUP: 72 - XXXX to pickup a call ringing at another extension.

12. CALL-PARK / RETRIEVE: It is used during an incoming or outgoing call, to
speak
From a different set.
(To park from own (speaking) set: FLASH-855- dial own extension number. Then
"Hang-up". The call is now parked, and the other party is kept on hold.
(To pick up from a different set: 855- dial own extension number)
(To pick up from own set (later, if not taken elsewhere) 855)
9. OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM.
Fiber optical transmission medium is fast emerging as an alternative and strong
competitor to coaxial cables in telecommunication networks.
Long distance data transmission in electrical cables suffers from ground loop
problems. The merits of the optical fiber stem from the fact tat the basic material used in
their construction is nonmetallic and electrically non conductive.
In contrast, the nonmetallic and totally dielectric fiber optical cable are immune to
radio frequency an other electromagnetic interferences. Ground loop and common mode
voltage problem do not exist and data can be transmitted between points of vastly
different potential. In optical cables the information is transmitted by packets of photons
which have no charge. There is no possibility of sparks or short circuit when a fiber is
cut. The bandwidth high compared to that of the electrical cables. The standard RG-58
coaxial cable has bandwidth distance product of a typical optical fiber is about 100
MHz-Km.
Fiber cables are about the thickness of a human hair any dirt obstructing the optical port
causes poor transmission. The thin dimension results in a low weight for given length
when compared to electrical cables. However, being thin and somewhat brittle in nature,
fiber tend to break easily if bent beyond a certain limit a direct viewing into the optical
point can be harmful to the eyes.

XXIV

10.

MAINTENANCE.

The subject of maintenance of Automatic Telephone Exchange can be broadly divided

under two categories: -

1. Prevention of Service Failures.

2. Location of Faults and their removal.

Prevention of Service Failures can be done in following ways: 1. Suitable design and adoption of suitable adjustment standards of the equipment parts
of the exchange can minimize failures in service.
2. Some preventive measures may also reduce service failures viz. keeping the rooms
dust free, maintaining temperature and humidity under tolerable limits using airconditioners etc...
3. Routine inspection, routine tests and routine adjustments also help in preventing
service failures.
When faults occur in some parts of the exchange, they should be detected and removed
as quickly as possible.
Various tools are also used to check the faults in the telephone lines.
For checking fault inside the exchange

XXV

INTRODUCTION

Development of computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines is an outstanding

contribution to the manufacturing industries. It has made possible the automation of the
machining process with flexibility to handle small to medium batch of quantities in part
production.
Initially, the CNC technology was applied on basic metal cutting machine like lathes,
milling machines, etc. Later, to increase the flexibility of the machines in handling a
variety of components and to finish them in a single setup on the same machine, CNC
machines capable of performing multiple operations were developed. To start with, this
concept was applied to develop a CNC machining center for machining prismatic
components combining operations like milling, drilling, boring and taping. Further, the
concept of multi-operations was also extended for machining cylindrical components,
which led to the development of turning centers.

ADVANTAGE OF CNC MACHINES

Higher flexibility
Increased productivity
Consistent quality
Reduced scrap rate
Reliable operation
Reduced non productive time
Reduced manpower
Shorter cycle time
High accuracy
Reduced lead time
Just in time (JIT) manufacture
Automatic material handling
Lesser floor space
Increased operation safety
Machining of advanced material

XXVI

CNC SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Numerical control (NC) is a method employed for controlling the motions of a machine
tool slide and its auxiliary functions with input in the form of numerical data. A
computer numerical control (CNC) is a microprocessor-based system to store and
process the data for the control of slide motions and auxiliary functions of the machine
tools. The CNC system is the heart and brain of a CNC machine which enables the
operation of various machine members such as slides, spindles, etc. as per the sequence
programmed into it, depending on the machining operations.
The main advantage of a CNC system lies in the fact that the skills of the operator
hitherto required in the operation of a conventional machine is removed and the part
production is made automatic.
The CNC systems are constructed with a NC unit integrated with a programmable
logic controller (PLC) and some times with an additional external PLC (non-integrated).
The NC controls the spindle movement and the speeds and feeds in machining. It
calculates the traversing path of the axes as defined by the inputs. The PLC controls the
peripheral actuating elements of the machine such as solenoids, relay coils, etc. Working
together, the NC and PLC enable the machine tool to operate automatically. Positioning
and part accuracy depend on the CNC system's computer control algorithms, the system
resolution and the basic mechanical machine accuracy. Control algorithm may cause
errors while computing, which will reflect during contouring, but they are very
negligible. Though this does not cause point to point positioning error, but when
mechanical machine inaccuracy are present, it will result in poorer part accuracy.
This chapter gives an overview of the configuration of the CNC system, interfacing
and introduction to PLC programming.

CONFIGURATION OF THE CNC SYSTEM

Fig.1 shows a schematic diagram of the working principle of a NC axis of a CNC
machine and the interface of a CNC control.

XXVII

Spindle Head

CNC system
Servo Drive

PL
C

Servo Motor
Encoder

NC

Command
value

Velocity
Feedback

Tacho
Generator

Lead
Screw

Table

Position Feedback

Tape Reader
Tape Punch
Other Devices
Inputs
Outputs

Work piece

Machine
Elements

Proximity switches
Limit switches
Relay coils
Pressure switches
Float switches

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of a CNC machine tool

A CNC system basically consists of the following:

Central processing unit (CPU)

Servo-control unit
Operator control panel
Machine control panel
Other peripheral device
Programmable logic controller (PLC)

Fig.2 gives the typical numerical control configuration of Hinumerik 3100 CNC system
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the heart and brain of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the memory as
part program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and velocity control
signals. It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle whenever this does not match the
programmed values, a corrective action is taken.
All the compensations required for machine accuracy (like lead screw pitch error, tool wear out,
backlash, etc.) are calculated by the CPU depending upon the corresponding inputs made available to
the system. The same will be taken care of during the generation of control signals for the axis
movement. Also, some safety checks are built into the system through this unit and the CPU unit will
XXVIII

provide continuous necessary corrective actions. Whenever the situation goes beyond control of the
CPU, it takes the final action of shutting down the system in turn the machine.
Speed Control Unit
This unit acts in unison with the CPU for the movement of the machine axes. The CPU sends the
control signals generated for the movement of the axis to the servo control unit and the servo control
unit convert these signals into the suitable digital or analog signal to be fed to the machine tool axis
movement. This also checks whether machine tool axis movement is at the same speed as directed by
the CPU. In case any safety conditions related to the axis are overruled during movement or otherwise
they are reported to the CPU for corrective action.
Servo-Control Unit
The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the axis movement forms
the input to the servo-control unit. This unit in turn generates suitable signals as command values. The
servo-drive unit converts the command values, which are interfaced with the axis and the spindle
motors (Fig.1).
The servo-control unit receives the position feedback signals for actual movement of the machine tool
axes from the feedback devices (like linear scales, rotary encoders, resolves, etc.). The velocity
feedback is generally obtained through tacho generators. The feedback signals are passed on to the
CPU for further processing. Thus the servo-control unit performs the data communication between the
machine tool and the CPU.
As explained earlier, the actual movements of the slides on the machine tool is achieved through
servo drives. The amount of movement and the rate of movement are controlled by the CNC system
depending upon the type of feedback system used, i.e. closed-loop or open-loop system (Fig.3).

Position Feedback
A closed-loop system, regardless of the type of feedback device, will constantly try to achieve and
maintain a given position by self-correcting. As the slide of the machine tool moves, its movement is
fed back to the CNC system for determining the position of the slide to decide how much is yet to be
traveled and also to decide whether the movement is as per the commanded rate. If the actual rate is
not as per the required rate, the system tries to correct it. In case this is not possible, the system
declares fault and initiates action for disabling the drives and if necessary, switches off the machine.
Table
Command
Counter
Subtraction
Circuit
Position
Control

Tape reader

Comparison
Circuit
Stop at
Zero

Controller

Amplifier

Servo
Motor

Lead Screw

XXIX

Open-loop positioning control

Error
Signal

Active
Buffer
Storage

Table
Transducer

Count
Comparator
Amplifier

Servo
Motor

Lead Screw

Tape reader
Position feedback signal

Close-loop positioning control

Fig.3 Open-and Closed-loop positioning system

Velocity feedback
In case no time constraint is put on the system to reach the final programmed position, then the system
may not produce the required path or the surface finish accuracy. Hence, velocity feedback must be
present along with the position feedback whenever CNC system are used for contouring, in order to
produce correct interpolation and also specified acceleration and deceleration velocities. The tacho
generator used for velocity feedback is normally connected to the motor and it rotates whenever the
motor rotates, thus giving an analog output proportional to the speed of motor. The analog voltage is
taken as speed feedback by the servo-controller and swift action is taken by the controller to maintain
the speed of the motor within the required limits.
Open-loop system
The open loop system lacks feedback. In this system, the CNC system send out signals for movement
but does not check whether actual movement is taking place or not. Stepper motors are used for actual
movement and the electronics of these stepper motors is run on digital pulses from the CNC system.
Since system controllers have no access to any real time information about the system performance,
they cannot counteract disturbances appearing during the operation. They can be utilized in point to
point system, where loading torque on the axial motor is low and almost constant.
Servo-drives
XXX

As shown in Fig.1 the servo-drive receives signals from the CNC system and transforms it into actual
movement on the machine. The actual rate of movement and direction depend upon the command
signal from CNC system. There are various types of servo-drives, viz., dc drives, ac drives and stepper
motor drives. A servo-drive consists of two parts, namely, the motor and the electronics for driving the
motor.
Operator Control Panel
Fig.4 shows a typical Hinumerik 3100 CNC system's operator control panel. The operator control
panel provides the user interface to facilitate a two-way communication between the user, CNC system
and the machine tool. This consists of two parts:

Video Display Unit (VDU)

Keyboard

Video Display Unit (VDU)

The VDU displays the status of the various parameters of the CNC system and the machine tool. It
displays all current information such as:
Complete information of the block currently being executed
Actual position value, set or actual difference, current feed rate, spindle speed
Active G functions
Main program number, subroutine number
Display of all entered data, user programs, user data, machine data, etc.
Alarm messages in plain text
Soft key designations
In addition to a CRT, a few LEDs are generally provided to indicate important operating modes and
status.
Video display units may be of two types:
1. Monochrome or black and white displays
2. Color displays
Operator's and machine panel

SINUMERIK

SIEMENS

SYSTEM 3

Reset changeover
Assignment of keys
Cancel word
Alter word
Change to actual
value display
Basic display
Change of display
Tool compensation
Zero offset
Leaf forwards
Program in progress
Feed hold
Test
LED-indicator
backwards
Position not yet reached Leaf
Part program
For assignment
Right-Left
Cursor
(Machine in motion)
POWER
CRT
Of
keys
ZX 3100
X+
Z+
Control
elements
and
Fig.4
indicators
Operator
of
control
the
operator's
panel
of
Hinumerik
panel
systemCycle
Alarm
Emergency Stop
ON

Enter word
Change over to
customer display
Operator guidance
Yes,No
Delete
input
XXXI
Address
Start
Keys/Numerical
keyboard

Keyboard
A keyboard is provided for the following purposes:

Editing of part programs, tool data, and machine parameters.

Selection of different pages for viewing.
Selection of operating modes, e.g. manual data input.
Selection of feed rate override and spindles speed override.
Execution of part programs.
Execution of other toll functions.

Machine Control Panel (MCP)

It is the direct interface between operator and the NC system, enabling the operation of the machine
through the CNC system. Fig.5 shows the MCP of Hinumerik 3100 system.
During program execution, the CNC controls the axis motion, spindle function or tool function on a
machine tool, depending upon the part program stored in the memory. Prior to the starting of the
machine process, machine should first be prepared with some specific tasks like,
Establishing a correct reference point
Loading the system memory with the required part program
Loading and checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc.
For these tasks, the system must be operated in specific operating mode so that these preparatory
functions can be established.
Control elements of the machine control panel
Rapid traverse activate
Mode selector
Switch

Spindle speed
override

Federate/rapid traverse
override

Emergency Stop

Direction keys

Spindle
OFF ON

X+
Z-

Z+
Feed
Hold/Start

X-

Cycle start
POWER
ON

NC ON

Key operated
switch for input
inhibit

Cycle
Single
block
Block search

Block Dry Run

Delete
Rapid Traverse
Override active

Manual encoder active

in
X-and Z-axis resp.

Fig.5 Machine control panel of Hinumerik 3100

system
XXXII

Modes of operation
Generally, the CNC system can be operated in the following modes:

Manual mode
Manual data input (MDI) mode
Automatic mode
Reference mode
Input mode
Output mode, etc.

Manual mode: In this mode, movement of a machine slide can carried out manually by pressing the
particular jog button (+ or -). The slide (axis) is selected through an axis selector switch or through
individual switches (e.g., X+, X-, Y+, Y-, Z+, Z-, etc.). The feed rate of the slide movement is prefixed.
CNC system allows the axis to be jogged at high feed rate also. The axis movement can also be
achieved manually using a hand wheel interface instead of jog buttons. In this mode slides can be
moved in two ways:

Continuous
Incremental

Continuous mode: In This mode, the slide will move as long as the jog button is pressed.
Incremental mode: Hence the slide will move through a fixed distance, which is selectable. Normally,
system allows jogging of axes in 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, increments. Axis movement is at a prefixed
feed rate. It is initiated by pressing the proper jog or jog- key and will be limited to the no of
increments selected even if the jog button is continuously pressed. For subsequent movement the jog
button has to be released and once again pressed.
Manual Data Input (MDI) Mode
In this mode the following operation can be performed:

Building a new part program

Editing or deleting of part program stored in the system memory
Entering or editing or deleting of:
------ Tool offsets (TO)
------ Zero offsets (ZO)
------ Test data, etc.

Teach-in
Some system allows direct manual input of a program block and execution of the same. The blocks
thus executed can be checked for correctness of dimensions and consequently transferred into the
program memory as part program.
Playback
In setting up modes like jog or incremental, the axis can be traversed either through the direction keys
or via the hand wheel, and the end position can be transferred into the system memory as command
values. But the required feed rates, switching functions and other auxiliary functions have to be added
to the part program in program editing mode.
XXXIII

Thus, teach-in and playback operating method allows a program to created during the first component
prove out.
Automatic Mode (Auto and Single Block)
In this mode the system allows the execution of a part program continuously. The part program is
executed block by block. While one block is being executed, the next block is read by the system,
analyzed and kept ready for execution. Execution of the program can be one block after another
automatically or the system will execute a block, stop the execution of the next block till it is initiated
to do so (by pressing the start button). Selection of part program execution continuously (Auto) or one
block at a time (Single Block) is done through the machine control panel.
Many systems allow blocks (single or multiple) to be retraced in the opposite direction. Block retrace
is allowed only when a cycle stop state is established. Part program execution can resume and its
execution begins with the retraced block. This is useful for tool inspection or in case of tool breakage.
Program start can be affected at any block in the program, through the BLOCK SEARCH facility.
Reference Mode
Under this mode the machine can be referenced to its home position so that all the compensations (e.g.,
pitch error compensation) can be properly applied. Part programs are generally prepared in absolute
mode with respect to machine zero. Many CNC systems make it compulsory to reference the slides of
the machine to their home positions before a program is executed while others make it optional.
Input Mode and Output Mode (I/O Mode)
In this mode, the part programs, machine setup data, tool offsets, etc. can be loaded/unloaded into/from
the memory of the system from external devices like programming units, magnetic cassettes or floppy
discs, etc. During data input, some systems check for simple errors (like parity, tape format, block
length, unknown characters, and program already present in the memory, etc.). Transfer of data is done
through a RS232C or RS422C port.
Other Peripherals
These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment, programming units, printer,
tape reader/puncher interface, etc.
Fig.6 gives an overview of the system with few peripheral devices.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replacement for hard wired
relay control panels. They were developed to be reprogrammed without hardware changes when
requirements were altered and thus are reusable. PLCs are now available with increased functions,
more memory and large input/output capabilities. Fig.7 gives the generalized PLC block diagram.
In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU
receives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives the outputs.
Connections to a computer for hierarchical control are done via the CPU.
The I/O structure of the PLCs is one of their major strengths. The inputs can be push buttons, limit
switches, relay contacts, analog sensor, selector switches, proximity switches, float switches, etc. The
outputs can be motor starters, solenoid valves, position valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED
displays, etc.
The field devices are typically selected, supplied and installed by the machine tool builder or the end
user. The voltage level of the field devices thus normally determines the type of I/O. So, power to
actuate these devices must also be supplied external to the PLC. The PLC power supply is designated
and rated only to operate the
XXXIV

Internal portions of the I/O structures, and not the field devices. A wide variety of voltages, current
capacities and types of I/O modules are available.

Programming
Units

Tape
Reader

Tape
Puncher

Printers

Fig.6 System with peripheral devices

Inputs
Processor
Programmer

Logic
memory

Storage
memory

Power
Supply

Outputs
Power
Supply

Field
Devices

Fig.7 Generalized PLC block diagram

XXXV

XXXVI

INTERFACING
Interconnecting the individual elements of both the machine and the CNC system using cables and
connectors is called interfacing.
Extreme care should be taken during interfacing. Proper grounding in electrical installation is most
essential. This reduces the effects of interference and guards against electronic shock to personnel. It is
also essential to properly protect the electronic equipment.
Cable wires of sufficiently large cross-sectional area must be used. Even though proper grounding
reduces the effect of electrical interference, signal cable requires additional protection. This is
generally achieved by using shielded cables. All the cable shields must be grounded at control only,
leaving other end free. Other noise reduction techniques include using suppression devices, proper
cable separation, ferrous metal wire ways, etc. Electrical enclosures should be designed to provide
proper ambient conditions for the controller.
MONITORING
In addition to the care taken by the machine tool builder during design and interfacing, basic control
also includes constantly active monitoring functions. This is in order to identify faults in the NC, the
interface control and the machine at an large stage to prevent damages occurring to the work piece,
tool or machine. If a fault occurs, first the machining sequence is interrupted, the drives are stopped,
the cause of the fault is stored and then displayed as an alarm. At the same time, the PLC is informed
that an NC alarm exits. In Hinumerik CNC system, for example, the following can be monitored:

Read-in
Format
Measuring circuit cables
Position encoders and drives
Contour
Spindle speed
Enable signals
Voltage
Temperature
Microprocessors
Data transfer between operator control panel and logic unit
Transfer between NC and PLC
Change of status of buffer battery
System program memory
User program memory
Serial interfaces

DIAGNOSTICS
The control will generally be provided with test assistance for service purposes in order to display
some status on the CRT such as:

Interface signals between NC and PLC as well as between PLC and machine
Flags of the PLC
Timers of the PLC
Counters of the PLC
XXXVII

 Input/output of the PLC

For the output signals, it is also possible to set and generate signal combinations for test purposes in
order to observe how the machine react to a changed signal. This simplifies trouble shooting
considerably.

MACHINE DATA
Generally, a CNC system is designed as a general-purpose control unit, which has to be matched with
the particular machine to which the system is interfaced. The CNC is interfaced to the machine by
means of data, which is machine specific. The NC and PLC machine data can be entered and changed
by means of external equipment or manually by the keyboard. These data are fixed and entered during
commissioning of the machine and generally left unaltered during machine operations.
Machine data entered is usually relevant to the axis travel limits, feed rates, rapid traverse speeds and
spindle speeds, position control multiplication factor, Kv factor, acceleration, drift compensation,
adjustment of reference point, backlash compensation, pitch error compensation, etc. Also the optional
features of the control system are made available to the machine tool builder by enabling some of the
bits of machine data.
COMPENSATIONS FOR MACHINE ACCURACY
Machine accuracy is the accuracy of the movement of the carriage, and is influenced by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Geometric accuracy in the alignment of the slide ways

Deflection of the bed due to load
Temperature gradients on the machine
Accuracy of the screw thread of any drive screw and the amount of backlash (lost motion)
Amount of twist (wind up) of the shaft which will influence the measurement of rotary transducers

The CNC systems offer compensation for the various machines' accuracy. These are detailed below:
Lead Screw Pitch Error Compensation
To compensate for movements of the machine slide due to in accuracy of the pitch along the length of
the ball screw, pitch error compensation is required. To begin with, the pitch error curve for the entire
length of the screw is built up by physical measurement with the aid of an external device (like laser).
Then the required compensation at predetermined points is fed in to the system. Whenever a slide is
moved, these compensation are automatically added up by the CNC system (Fig.8)

Pitch error (um)

Positive end
limit

Reference
point

To negative
end limit

Fig.8 Typical error curve

XXXVIII

Backlash Compensation
Whenever a slide is reversed, there is some lost motion due to backlash between nut and the screw; a
compensation is provided by the CNC system for the motion lost due to reversal, i.e. extra movement
is added into the actual movement whenever reversal takes place. This extra movement is equal to
backlash between the screw and the nut. This has to be measured in advance and fed to the system.
This value keeps on varying due to wear of the ball screws, hence the compensation value has to be
updated regularly
time to time
Positivefrom
backlash
Negative backlash
(the usual case)

Table

Table

Backlash
Encoder

Toothed wheel
Backlash here

Encoder

Ballscrew

Encoder actual value precedes the

table movement

Actual movement of the table precedes the

encoder measurement

Fig.9 Backlash compensation

Sag Compensation
Inaccuracy due to sag in the slide can be compensated by the system. Compensations required along
the length of the slide have to be physically measured and fed to the system. The system automatically
adds up the compensation to the movement of the slide.
Tool Nose Compensation
Tool nose compensation normally used on tool for turning centers. While machining chamfers, angles
or turning curves, it is necessary to make allowance for the tool tip radius; this radius is known as
radius compensation. As shown in Fig.10 (a), if the allowance is nit made, the edges of the tool tip
radius would be positioned at the programmed X and Z coordinates, and the tool will follow the path
AB and the taper produced will be incorrect. In order to obtain correct taper, tool position has to be
adjusted.
It is essential that the radius at the tip of the tool is fed to the system to make an automatic adjustment
on the position and movement of the tool to get the correct taper on the work. In Fig.10 (b) the distance
Xc is the adjustment necessary at the start of the cut and distance Zc is the adjustment at the end of the
cut.

XXXIX

Z0
X0

Z0
Tool

Minimum
radius of taper

X0
Datum
Position

Datum
Position

Xc

A
Z -25,0

X 20,0
Z -15,0
Z0

Z -15,0

Zc

X 20,0

X 30,0

X 30,0

Fig.10 Tool nose radius compensation

Cutter Diameter Compensation
The diameter of the used tool may be different from the actual value because of regrinding of the tool
or due to non-availability of the assumed tool. It is possible to adjust the relative position of cutter size
and this adjustment is known as cutter diameter compensation.
Z0

ZR

ZR=Setting distance for

reference tool
X0
XR=Setting distance for
reference tool

Reference tool
Tool no.1

ZR

XR
Tool no.2
X offset for
tool no.2

XL

Z offset for
tool no.2

Fig.11 Tool offsets

Tool Offset
A part program is generated keeping in mind a tool of a particular length, shape and thickness as a
reference tool. But during the actual mounting of tools on the machine, different tools of varying
lengths, thickness and shapes may be available. A correction for dimension of the tools and movements
of the work piece has to be incorporated to give the exact machining of the component. This is known
as tool offset. This is the difference in the positions of the centre line of the tool holder for different
tools and the reference tool. When a number of tools are used, it is necessary to determine the tool
offset of each tool and store it in the memory of the control unit. Fig.11 explains the function of the
tool offset.
Normally, it is found that the size of the work piece (diameter or length) is not within tolerance due to
wear of the tool; it is the possible to edit the value of offsets to obtain the correct size. This is known as
tool wear compensation.

PLC PROGRAMMING
The principle of operation of a PLC is determined essentially by the PLC program memory, processor,
inputs and outputs.
The program that determines PLC operation is stored in the internal PLC program memory. The PLC
operates cyclically, i.e. when a complete program has been scanned, it starts again at the beginning of
the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor examines the signal status at all inputs as
well as the external timers and counters and are stored in a process image input (PII). During
subsequent program scanning, the processor the accesses this process image.
To execute the program, the processor fetches one statement after another from the programming
memory and executes it. The results are constantly stored in the process image output (PIO) during the
cycle. At the end of a scanning cycle, i.e. program completion, the processor transfers the contents of
the process image output to the output modules and to the external timers and counters. The processor
then begins a new program scan.
STEP 5 programming language is used for writing user programs for SIMATIC S5 programmable
controllers. The program can be written and entered into the programmable controller as in:

Statement list (STL), Fig.12 (a)

Control system flowchart (CSF), Fig.12 (b)
Ladder diagram (LAD), Fig.12 (c)
Statement list
STL
A I
A I
O I
= Q

2.3
4.1
3.2
1.6

(a)

I 2.3
I 4.1

(b) Control system flow

A
N
D

chart CSF

O
R
I 3.2

Q 1.6

XLI

Operation

2.3

2.3

(c) Ladder diagram LAD

Statement

I 2.3

I 4.1

Operand

2.3

Parameter
Operand identifier

I 3.2

Fig.12 Programmable controller

The statement list describes the automation task by means of mnemonic function designations.
The control system flowchart is a graphic representation of the automation task.
The ladder diagram uses relay ladder logic symbols to represent the automation task.
The statement is the smallest STEP 5 program component. It consists of the following:
Operation, i.e. what is to be done?
E.g.

A = AND operation (series connection)

O= OR operation (parallel connection)
S= SET operation (actuation)

Operand, i.e. what is to be done with?

E.g.

I 4.5, i.e. with the signal of input 4.5

The operand consists of:

Operand identifier (I = input, Q = output, F = flag, etc.)
Parameter, i.e. the number of operand identifiers addressed by the statement. For inputs, outputs
and flags (internal relay equivalents), the parameter consists of the byte and bit addresses, and for
timers and counter, byte address only.
The statement may include absolute operands, e.g. I 5.1, or symbolic operand, e.g. I LS1.
Programming is considerably simplified in the later case as the actual plant designation is directly used
to describe the device connected to the input or output.
Typically, a statement takes up one word (two bytes) in the program memory.
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
The user program can be made more manageable and straightforward if it is broken down into relative
sections. Various software block types are available for constructing the user program.
Program blocks (PB) contain the user program broken down into technologically or functionally
related sections (e.g. program block for transportation, monitoring, etc.). Further blocks, such as
program blocks or function blocks can be called from a PB.
Organization blocks (OB) contain block calls determining the sequence in which the PBs are to be
processed. It is therefore possible to call PBs conditionally (depending on certain conditions).
In addition, special OBs can be programmed by the user to react to interruptions during cyclic
programming processing. Such an interrupt can be triggered by a monitoring function if one or several
monitored events occur.
XLII

Function block (FB) is block with programs for recurrent and usually complex function. In addition to
the basic operations, the user has a extended operation at his disposal for developing function blocks.
The program in a function block is usually not written with absolute operands (e.g. I 1.5) but with
symbolic operands. This enables a function block to be used several times over with different absolute
operands.
For even more complex functions, standard function blocks are available from a program library. Such
FBs are available, e.g. for individual controls, sequence controls, messages, arithmetic operations, two
step control loops, operator communications, listing, etc. These standard FBs for complex functions
can be linked it the user program just like user written FBs simply by means of a call along with the
relevant parameters.

The Sequence block (SB) contain the step enabling conditions, monitoring times and conditions for the
current step in sequence cascade. Sequence blocks are employed, for example, to organise the
sequence cascade in communication with a standard FB.
The data blocks (DB) contain all fixed or variable data of the user program.
CYCLIC PROGRAM PROCESSING
The blocks of the user program are executed in the sequence in which they specified in the
organisation block.
INTERRUPT DRIVEN PROGRAM PROCESSING
When certain input signal changes occur, cyclic processing is interrupted at the next block boundary
and an OB assigned to this event is started. The user can formulate his response program to this
interrupt in the OB. The cyclic program execution is the resumed from the point at which it was
interrupted.

XLIII

TIME CONTROLLED PROGRAM EXECUTION

Certain Obs are executed at the predetermined time intervals (e.g. every 100ms, 200ms, 500ms, 1s, 2s,
and 5s). For this purpose, cyclic program execution is interrupted at the block boundary and resumed
again at this point, once the relevant OB has been executed. Fig.13 gives the organisation and
execution of a structured user program.
Structured programming

OB1

PB1

FB2

PB2

FB3

Program block (PB)

Organisation block (OB)

Function block (PB)

Cycle execution
OB

PB

FB

PB

FB

Interrupt-driven execution
OB

PB

FB

XLIV

Points at which interrupt-driven program can be inserted

Start and finish of interrupt-driven program execution

Fig.13 Organisation and execution of a structured user program

EXAMPLES OF PLC PROGRAM

Before attempting to write a PLC program, first go through the instruction set of the particular
language used for the equipment, and understand the meaning of each instruction. Then study how to
use these instructions in the program (through illustration examples given in the manual). Once the
familiarization task is over, then start writing the program.
Follow the following steps to write a PLC program.

List down each individual element (field device) on the machine as Input/Output.
Indicate against each element the respective address as identifier during electrical interfacing of
these elements with the PLC.
Break down the complete machine auxiliary functions that are controlled by the PLC into
individual, self contained functions.
Identify each individual function as separate block (PBxx/FBxx)
Once the PBs and FBs for each function are identified, take them one by one for writing the
program.
List down the preconditions required for the particular function separately.
Note down the address of the listed elements.
Write down the flow chart for the function.
Translate the flow chart into PLC program using the instructions already familiarized.
Complete the program translation of all individual functions in similar lines.
Check the individual blocks independently and correct the program to get the required results.
Organize all the program blocks in the organization block depending upon the sequence in which
they are supposed to be executed as per the main machine function flow chart.
Check the complete program with all the blocks incorporated in the final program.

Example 1: Spindle ON
Preconditions
Remark

Feedback elements Address

Fault indication

Address

Tool clamp
Job clamp
Door close

Pressure switch
Proximity switch
Limit switch

Lamp
Lamp
Lamp

Q 2.1
Q 1.7
Q 4.0

I 2.4
I 3.2
I 5.7

XLV

Lubrication ON
Drive ready

PLC output bit

Input signal from
Drive unit

Q 1.0
I 4.6

Lamp
Lamp

Q 7.7
Q 0.4

PB 12 written is the individual function module for spindle ON for all the preconditions checked and
found satisfactory. This function is required to be executed only when the spindle rotation is requested
by the NC in the form of a block in the part program.
Whenever NC decodes the part program block, it in turn informs the PLC through a fixed buffer
location that spindle rotation is requested. Say Flag bit F 100.0 is identified for this information
communication. With this data, spindle ON function module can be recalled in the organisation block
OB1 as follows.
Now, spindle ON function module PB12 will be executed only when F 100.0 is set. Otherwise the
function execution will be bypassed.
FLOW CHART
PB12
START
Comments
NO
INDICATE
FAULT

TOOL CLAMP

AN I 2.4
=
Q 2.1

Tool not clamped

Display fault lamp

YES
NO
INDICATE
FAULT

JOB CLAMP

AN I 3.2 Job not clamped

=
Q 1.7 Display fault lamp

YES

NO
INDICATE
FAULT

DOOR CLOSED

AN I 5.7
=
Q 4.0

Door not closed

Display fault lamp

AN Q 1.0
=
Q 7.7

Lubrication not on
Display fault lamp

YES

NO
INDICATE
FAULT

LUBRICATION
ON

YES
XLVI

NO
INDICATE
FAULT

DRIVE READY

AN I 4.6
=
Q 0.4

Drive not ready

Display fault lamp

ON I
ON I
ON I
ON Q
ON I
R Q
BEC
A I
A I
A I
A Q
A I
S Q
BE

Tool not clamped

Job not clamped
Door not closed
Lubrication not on
Drive not ready
Reset spindle enable bit
Block end conditionally
Tool clamped
Job clamped
Door closed
Lubrication ON
Drive ready
Set spindle enable bit
Block end

YES
YES
Exit

STOP
SPINDLE

ANY FAULT

NO

DO SPINDLE
ON

2.4
3.2
5.7
1.0
4.6
67.3
2.4
3.2
5.7
1.0
4.6
67.3

END

XLVII

XLVIII