Notes for Part 1: Basic Formalism of Electrodynamics

Dr Leek Meng Lee

Version: 9th Jan 2015
Abstract
The logic flow for this part is:
1. We want to state the conservation laws in electrodynamics clearly.
2. We want to formulate electrodynamics (the time-dependent EM) using the potentials, hoping
~ to solve for.
to take advantage that there are only 4 quantities, ( and A)
3. From the solutions, which are the retarded potentials, we then discover that information takes
speed of light, c, to travel.
4. We then derive the electrodynamic E and B-fields (Jefimenkos equations) which has Coulombs
law and Biot-Savarts law as static special cases.
5. We apply the solutions to some standard applications and discover velocity corrections (relativistic corrections) to the fields.
6. Finally, the new acceleration terms in the fields are shown to give rise to radiation.

Contents
1 Conservation Laws
1.1 Charge continuity equation . .
1.2 Energy continuity equation . .
1.3 Momentum continuity equation
1.4 Angular Momentum . . . . . .

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2
2
2
3
5

2 Potential Formulation of Electrodynamics

2.1 Electrodynamics in terms of potentials . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Gauge transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Coulomb gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Lorenz gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Solutions are Retarded Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 The fields: Jefimenkos equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Standard Application 1: Point Charge . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Retarded potentials: Lienard-Wiechert potentials
2.5.2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Example: Point charge in constant velocity . . .
2.6 Standard Application 2: Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 From Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 From Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 From Arbitrary Distribution . . . . . . . . . . .

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5
5
6
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7
8
13
14
14
16
18
20
20
22
25

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Conservation Laws

1.1

Charge continuity equation

The global conservation of charge means that the total charge in the universe is a constant. The stronger
statement is the local conservation of charge which states: if the total charge in some volume changes,
then that amount of charge must have entered or exited through the closed surface bounding that volume.
We want to obtain the mathematical expression for that statement.
I
dQ
~
= J~ dA
(1)
dt
Z
| write Q(t) = (~r, t)dV
Z
I
(~r, t)
~
dV = J~ dA
(2)
t
| use divergence theorem
Z
~ JdV
~
=
(3)
|
(~r, t)
t

since it holds true for any volume

~ J(~
~ r, t)
=

(4)

Note that we may obtain the same continuity equation from Maxwells equations but the displacement
current term was added to be compatible with the charge continuity equation so the argument may be
somewhat circular.

1.2

Energy continuity equation

Conservation of energy is of course one of the most sacred conservation laws we believe in. Actually in the
context of relativity, conservation of energy and conservation of momentum is one combined conservation
law as we will see in part 2 1 . Now we will handle conservation of energy and conservation of momentum
separately.
Consider work done by electric and magnetic forces on charge q,
~ + ~v B)
~ ~v dt
dW = F~ d~l = q(E

(5)

as expected, magnetic forces do no work

~ ~v dt
= qE
~ ~v dt
= dV E
dW
dt

(6)
(7)

| recall that ~v = J~
Z
~ JdV
~
=
E

(8)

~ J~ is the power (per unit volume) delivered to the charges.

Thus E
!
Z
Z
~
dW
1

E
~ JdV
~
~
~ B
~ 0
= E
=
E

dV
dt
0
t

(9)

where we replace J~ using Ampere-Maxwell law

!
Z
~
1 ~ ~
E
~
~
=
E ( B) 0 E
dV
0
t
|

1 Which

(10)

~ (E
~ B)
~ =B
~ (
~ E)
~ E
~ (
~ B)
~
use identity

~ (
~ B)
~ =
~ (E
~ B)
~ +B
~
then use Faradays law, E

~
~
~ B = 1 B
~ 2 and E
~ E = 1 E
~2
then rewrite B
t
2 t
t
2 t

includes rest mass energy.

~
B


I
~ B)
~ dA
~
~2 + 1 B
~ 2 dV 1
(E
0 E
0
0


1
~2 + 1 B
~2
| define the EM field energy density, uEM =
0 E
2
0
1
~=
~ B)
~
| and define the Poynting vector, S
(E
0
Z
I
d
~ dA
~
uEM dV S
=
dt
=

d
dt

1
2

(11)

(12)

where the closed surface bounds volume V . This is Poyntings theorem or work-energy theorem of
electrodynamics. We will derive the differential version or the energy continuity equation shortly.
We first need to interprete Poyntings theorem clearly:

dW
dt

is the work done (per unit time) on the charges in volume V by EM forces
R
d
dt
uEM dV is the change in energy (per unit time) stored in the fields
H
~ dA
~ is the energy (per unit time) that flowed out through the surface
S
dW
To get the differential version, suppose we can write a mechanical energy density umech , then
=
dt
Z
d
umech dV , then
dt
Z
Z
I
d
d
~ dA
~
(13)
umech dV =
uEM dV S
dt
dt
| use divergence theorem on the last term
|

(umech + uEM )
t

since the equation holds for any volume

~ S
~
=

(14)

which is the continuity equation for energy and the Poynting vector is the energy current vector. If there
uEM
~ S
~ which simply means that the change in energy
are no sources in volume V , we have
=
t
stored in the field in volume V is equal to the amount of energy that flowed in or out of the surface
bounding volume V .

1.3

Momentum continuity equation

Let us look at a quick example to see why the EM field also carries momentum.
Consider 2 charges moving with constant v as shown in the figure.

Figure 1: Two charges moving with speed v and exerting forces on each other.
The calculation of E-field and B-field due to moving charges is not from Coulombs law and BiotSavarts law. This calculation will be done later in part 1 but the essential results are easily stated:
the E-field is still radial and the B-field is still circular. Thus the electric force and magnetic force are
3

as drawn in the figure and we can see that the net force on each charge is equal in magnitude but not
opposite to each other.
This appears to be a violation of Newtons third law which is essential in the conservation of momentum. Thus if we realise that the EM fields also carry momentum then the conservation of momentum
would be the conservation of field momentum + mechanical momentum.
We shall now derive the momentum continuity equation. Consider the total electromagnetic force on
charges in volume V ,
Z
~
~ + ~v B)dV
~
F =
(E
(15)
|
=

recall that ~v = J~
Z
~ + J~ B)dV
~
(E

(16)

~ + J~ B
~ as the force per unit volume. We want to eliminate and J~ and express
We can denote f~ = E
the RHS completely in terms of the fields. This will allow us to discover the field momentum (and the
Maxwell Stress tensor).
~ + J~ B
~
f~ = E

(17)

~
~ B
~ 0 E
~ E)
~ and Ampere-Maxwell law: J~ = 1
use Gauss law: = 0 (
0
t
!
~
~
~ E)
~ E
~+ 1
~ B
~ 0 E B
= 0 (
0
t
|

~
~
~
~ = E B
~ +E
~ B
(E B)
t
t
t
~
~
B
~ E
~ so that E B
~ = (E
~ B)
~ +E
~ (
~ E)
~
| and Faradays law:
=
t
t
t
h
i
~ B)
~
~ B)
~ B
~ 0 (E
~ E)
~ E
~ E
~ (
~ E)
~ + 1 (
= 0 (
0
t
~ B)
~ B
~ = B
~ (
~ B)
~
| rewrite (
~ B)
~ B
~ which is zero, to make the expression more symmetrical
| introduce (
|

(18)

then use

~ = 1 (E
~ B)
~
recall the Poynting vector: S
0
h
i
h
i
~
~ E)
~ E
~ E
~ (
~ E)
~ + 1 (
~ B)
~ B
~ B
~ (
~ B)
~ 0 0 S
= 0 (
0
t
1
~E
~ 2 = 2(E
~ )
~ E
~ + 2E
~ (
~ E)
~ = E
~ (
~ E)
~ =
~E
~ 2 (E
~ )
~ E
~
| use identity:
2
~ B
~ (
~ B)
~ = 1
~B
~ 2 (B
~ )
~ B
~
| a similar identity holds for B:
2
h
i
h
i
~ E)
~ E
~ + (E
~ )
~ E
~ + 1 (
~ B)
~ B
~ + (B
~ )
~ B
~
= 0 (
0


~
1~
1
~2 +
~ 2 0 0 S
0 E
B
2
0
t
| introduce the 3 3 matrix: Maxwell stress tensor




1 ~2
1
1 ~2
| which is: Tij = 0 Ei Ej ij E +
Bi Bj ij B
2
0
2
X

~ T )j =
| the divergence of T is (
i Tij

(19)

(20)

(21)

i=x,y,z

~ E
~ and
i Ei =

~ )E
~ j
Ei i Ej = (E

and note that





~ T ) j = 0 (
~ E)E
~ j + (E
~ )E
~ j 1 j E
~ 2 + 1 (
~ B)B
~ j + (B
~ )B
~ j 1 j B
~2
we have (
2
0
2

i=x,y,z

i=x,y,z

~ T 0 0 S
=
t

(22)

The total force is obtained by integrating over volume V .

~
S
dV
t
use divergence theorem
Z
I

~
~ 0 0 d
SdV
T dA
dt
Z

F~

=
|
=

~ T dV 0 0

(23)

(24)

Thus we can interprete T as a generalized pressure. The diagonal elements, Txx , Tyy and Tzz are pressures
and the off-diagonal elements, Txy , Tyz , . . . are shears.
We want to write it into the differential version which is the momentum continuity equation.
Z
Z

d
~
~
~
F =
SdV
(25)
T dV 0 0
dt
Z
d
p~mech dV
| assume we can define a mechanical momentum density F~ =
dt
~= 1S
~
| the field momentum density is p~EM = 0 0 S
c2
Z
Z

d
~ T dV

(26)
(~
pmech + p~EM )dV =
dt

~ T
(~
pmech + p~EM ) =
(27)
t

which is the momentum continuity equation. We can thus also interprete T as the momentum flux
density.

1.4

Angular Momentum

We will only briefly mention angular momentum in this course. The angular momentum (density) is
defined in the usual way
h
i
~ B)
~
lEM = ~r p~EM = 0 ~r (E
(28)

2
2.1

Potential Formulation of Electrodynamics

Electrodynamics in terms of potentials

In electrostatics and magnetostatics, it is advantageous to solve the potential problem (by solving the
Poisson or Laplace equation) then get the fields from the potentials. In electrodynamics, the advantage
is smaller. So it is still worthwhile to express electrodynamics in terms of potentials. This means we
~ resulting from time dependent sources (~r, t) and J(~
~ r, t).
want the time dependent solutions of and A
~ is still divergenceless in the time dependent problem, we still have
Since B
~ =
~ A
~
B

(29)

~ is Faradays law, so
Curl of E
~ E
~

~
~ + A
E
t

(30)

~
B
t
~ =
~ A
~ and move it to LHS
insert B

(31)

~ (f
~ )=0
recall the identity

~
~ + A
E
t

~
E

(32)
~
A
t

(33)

~ into Gauss law,

When we insert this E

~ E
~ =

!
~
A
~
=

t

~ A)
~
~ 2 + (

0

(34)

0

(35)

0

(36)

which is the time dependent generalization of Poisson equation.

Now using Ampere-Maxwell equation
~ B
~

~
E
= 0 J~ + 0 0
t

(37)

~
~ =
~ A
~ and E
~ =
~ A
insert B
t
 
2~
~ (
~ A)
~ = 0 J~ 0 0
~ 0 0 A

t
t2
~ (
~ A)
~ = (
~
~ A)
~
~ 2A
~
| use vector identity
!


2~
~ A
~ + 0 0
~ 2A
~ 0 0 A
~

0 J~ =
2
t
t
|

(38)

(39)

The potential formulation has thus been achieved with those 2 equations. The 2nd equation is much
much more complicated than the magnetostatic version. We need to simplify the equations. This can
be achieved by using the gauge degree of freedom that these potentials possess.

2.2

Gauge transformations

~ and B
~ are the physical fields and the and A
~ potential fields are not. This gauge freedom
Note that E
~ and yet the
exists because, according to the equations of electrodynamics, we can have different and A
~ and B
~ fields are obtained. Lets work this out precisely.
same E
~0
suppose, A
~ A
~0
take curl,

=
=

~+
A
~ and 0 = +
~ A
~+
~

(41)
(42)
(43)

~
B

~ field is required
the same B
~ +
~
B
~

~
~
=
~ =

(40)

(44)

Now use,
~
E

~ 0 )
(

=
|
0

~
A
t

(45)

~0
(A
~)
t
~0

~ 0 A +
~ + ~

t
t
~0
~ 0 A = E,
~ so
we require
t

~ + ~

t
6

(46)
(47)

(48)

~
~ +

t 

~ +

(49)
(50)
(51)

Thus,
~0 = A
~ +
~ and 0 =
A
t

(52)

~
represent the allowed gauge transformations of and A.
2.2.1

Coulomb gauge

We will now choose the so-called Coulomb gauge and see what happens to the potential formulation of
electrodynamics.
~ A
~0 =
~ A
~+
~ ()
~
~ A
~ 0 = 0 (Coulomb gauge).
Take
and choose such that

(53)
0

(54)
0
so the related terms cancel

(55)
0
~ A
~ 0 is chosen to be zero, then drop the prime
| recall that

(56)
=
0

~ A)
~ =
~ 2 + (

t




~ A
~0
~ ()
~
~ 2 0 + +
=

t
t
|

~ 2 0 + (
~ A
~0) =

t
~ 2

which is just Poisson equation. The solution is already known in electrostatics. However in electrody~ to get E,
~ so now we look at the other potential equation.
namics, we also need A
!


~
2A
2~
~
~ A
~ + 0 0
~
A 0 0 2
= 0 J~ (57)
t
t





2 ~0 ~

2 ~0
0
0
~
~
~
~
~
~
(A ) 0 0 2 (A ) (A ) + 0 0
+
= 0 J~ (58)
t
t
t
~ 2 ()
~ = (
~
~ )
~
~ (
~ ())
~
~ ())
~
note
and
=0 |
~ A
~ 0 is chosen to be zero |
recall that
 0
2 ~0
~ 2A
~ 0 0 0 A 0 0
~

=
t2
t

0 J~ (59)

~ is very complicated, so Coulomb gauge

where we can drop the prime labels also. Thus solving for the A
does not look useful in getting solutions in electrodynamics.
2.2.2

Lorenz gauge

~ A
~0 =
~ A
~+
~ ()
~
~ A
~ 0 = 0 0 0 . This is the Lorenz
We again take
and choose such that
t
gauge. Historically, this gauge was wrongly attributed to H. A. Lorentz. Thus the potential equations
become,
~ 2 0 + (
~ A
~0) =

t
0
2 0

~ 2 0 0 0

=
t2
0

(60)
(61)

and,
2 ~0
~ 2A
~ 0 0 0 A

t2

= 0 J~

(62)

~ and treats them on an equal footing. In part 2, we

This gauge has the virtue that it decouples and A
will also see that this gauge is Lorentz (not Lorenz!) invariant. In the next section, we will solve the
potential equations in this gauge.

2.3

Solutions are Retarded Potentials

We drop the primes from the potential equations,

2
2~
~ 2 0 0 = and
~ 2A
~ 0 0 A = 0 J~

t2
0
t2

(63)

This is the problem of solving an inhomogeneous partial differential equation and we will do it using the
method of Greens function.
The Greens function method is defined by,


2
2
~
0 0 2 G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) = 3 (~r ~r0 )(t t0 )
(64)
t
so the solution is
(~r, t) =

1
0

G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )(~r0 , t0 )dV 0 dt0


2
~ 2 0 0

, we get back the differential equation

t2



Z 
2
2
1
~ 2 0 0
~ 2 0 0

(~
r
,
t)
=

G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )(~r0 , t0 )dV 0 dt0

t2
0
t2
Z
1
3 (~r ~r0 )(t t0 )(~r0 , t0 )dV 0 dt0
=
0
(~r, t)
=
0

(65)

It is easy to see that when we apply

(66)
(67)
(68)

We shall solve G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) in Fourier space.



2
~ 2 0 0
G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) = 3 (~r ~r0 )(t t0 )

t2
|
|
|
|
|
g(~k, )

(69)

d3~k i~k(~r~r0 )
e
3
(2)
Z
d i(tt0 )
e
use Fourier form2 : (t t0 ) =
2
Z
Z
0
0
~
use Fourier form: G =
d3~k
dg(~k, )eik(~r~r ) ei(tt )





2
0
0
0

2
~
~
2
ik(~
r ~
r ) i(tt0 )
2
~
~
note 0 0 2 e
e
= k + 2 eik(~r~r ) ei(tt )
t
c
1
where 0 0 = 2 , then comparing Fourier coefficients will give,
c
1
1

(70)
(2)4 k 2 c22
3

use Fourier form: (~r ~r ) =

where we wrote ~k 2 = k 2 for simplicity. Hence G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) is solved.

Z
Z
1
1
3~
i~
k(~
r ~
r 0 ) i(tt0 )
d
G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) =
d
k
e
2 e
4

2
(2)
k c2

(71)

2 The choice of different signs in the temporal and spatial Fourier forms is to cater for the Minkowski metric in Special
Relativity.

Well, we still have to carry out the integrals. The integrand has 2 simple
We shall
I poles at = ck.
X
treat as complex, so = R + iI and use Cauchys residue theorem:
f (z)dz = 2i
Residues.
Therefore we need to choose a closed contour for the integration and making a choice of a closed
contour amounts to specifying a (physical) boundary condition for the Greens function, as we shall see.

Figure 2: Two simple poles of the integrand.

Choice 1 (Retarded): The choice to skip above the poles is equivalent to moving the poles infinitesimally into the lower half plane (LHP). This is equivalent to rewriting G as

Figure 3: Skipping above the poles is equivalent to moving the poles down.
G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )

= GR (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )
Z
Z
0
0
1
1
~
3~
= lim
d k
d
eik(~r~r ) ei(tt )
(+i)2
2
0 (2)4
k

(72)
(73)

|
=

note (ck)2 ( + i)2 = (ck i)(ck + + i)

Z
Z
0
0
~
1
eik(~r~r ) ei(tt ) c2
3~
lim
d
k
d
0 (2)4
( + ck + i)( ck + i)

(74)

We still have not decided to close this straight path over UHP or LHP. If we close it in UHP, it does
not enclose any poles so the integral is zero. Anyway to determine the domain in closing the integral in
0
0
0
UHP where I > 0, we look at ei(tt ) = eiR (tt ) eI (tt ) . Thus we require t t0 < 0 so that the
integral is damped and therefore well defined.
Summarizing: GR (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) = 0 for t t0 < 0
Now we choose to close this path over LHP. Closing over LHP, where I < 0, the damping of the integral
0
(due to eI (tt ) ) requires t t0 > 0. So now we can evaluate the contour integral,
I
0
X
ei(tt ) c2
d
= 2i
Residues
(75)
( + ck + i)( ck + i)
9

Figure 4: Closing the contour over the lower half plane (LHP).
|

the negative sign is due to the clockwise closed contour

I
Z
Z
| break d into
d +
d
straight
curve
Z
| then
d 0 due to damping and I
Z curve
Z
| and
d =
d
straight

"
#
0
0
ei(cki)(tt )
ei(cki)(tt )
2
= 2ic
+
(76)
ck i ck + i ck i + ck + i

ei(tt ) c2
( + ck + i)( ck + i)

take the limit  0


0
2ic2  ick(tt0 )
e
+ eick(tt )
=
2ck
ic
=
(2i sin(ck(t t0 )))
k
2c
=
sin(ck(t t0 ))
k

(77)
(78)
(79)

In summary, we have
(
R

G (~r, t; ~r , t )
or, GR (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )

t t0 < 0

0
i~
k(~
r ~
r0 )

d3~k e k
sin(ck(t t0 )) t t0 > 0
Z
i~
k(~
r ~
r0 )
c
0
3~ e
= (t t )
d k
sin(ck(t t0 ))
(2)3
k
c
(2)
3

(80)
(81)

To finish the calculation, we need to carry out the k integral. We use spherical coordinates and align ~r ~r0
to the z-axis so ~k (~r ~r0 ) = k|~r ~r0 | cos = kR cos and the volume element is d3~k = k 2 sin dkdd.
GR (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )

Z 2
Z Z
c
0
(t

t
)
d
d
dkeikR cos k sin sin(ck(t t0 ))
(82)
(2)3
0
0
0
| the integral gives 2
Z
Z
2
sin(kR)
| the integral:
d sin eikR cos =
d cos eikR cos =
kR
0
0
Z
2c
0
=
(t

t
)
dk sin(kR) sin(ck(t t0 ))
(83)
(2)2 R
0
1
| write sin(kR) = (eikR eikR ) and similarly for sin(ck(t t0 ))
2i
Z

0
0
0
2c
dk  ik(R+c(tt0 ))
= (t t0 )
e
+ eik(R+c(tt )) eik(Rc(tt )) eik(Rc(tt ))
8R 0 2
=

10

Z
Z Z 0
dk ik(R+c(tt0 )) k1 =k
dk1 ik1 (R+c(tt0 ))
e

e
then
=
2
2
0
0
0

| so the 2nd term adds to 1st term. The 4th term adds similarly to the 3rd term
Z
i
0
dk h ik(R+c(tt0 ))
c
0
e
(84)
eik(Rc(tt ))
= (t t )
4R 2
Z
dk ik(R+c(tt0 ))
| recall the delta function Fourier representation:
e
= (R + c(t t0 ))
2


R
0
0
| then use identity: c(R + c(t t )) = t t +
c
 



1
R
R
= (t t0 )
t t0 +
t + t0 +
(85)
4R
c
c
| recall that the delta function is even
Z

note 2nd term:

drop first delta function as we require t t0 > 0



1
R
= (t t0 )
t t0
4R
c
|

(86)

Choice 2 (Advanced): This will just be briefly mentioned as the steps are very similar and this is
an unphysical solution. Skipping over the poles from below means,

Figure 5: Skipping below the poles is equivalent to moving the poles up.

Figure 6: Closing the contour over the upper half plane (UHP).
G(~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )

=
=

GA (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )
Z
Z
1
1
3~
i~
k(~
r ~
r 0 ) i(tt0 )
e
lim
d
k
d
2 e
4
(i)
0
(2)
k 2 c2

(87)
(88)

For the same reasons of damping the integral, GA (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) = 0 for t t0 > 0. The path is to be closed
over UHP (I > 0).
11

After evaluating the contour integral, we have in summary, 3

(
0
t t0 > 0
R 3 ei~k(~r~r0 )
GA (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) =
c
0
d ~k
sin(ck(t t )) t t0 < 0
(2)3
k
Z
i~
k(~
r ~
r0 )
c
3~ e
d
k
or, GA (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 ) = (t0 t)
sin(ck(t t0 ))
(2)3
k

(89)
(90)

Carry out the k integral in the same way to get,

 



R
R
1
0
0
tt +
tt
G (~r, t; ~r , t ) = (t t)
4R
c
c
0
| drop the 2nd delta function s we require t t < 0


R
1
t t0 +
= (t0 t)
4R
c
A

Thus the retarded solution of the scalar potential is

Z
1
(~r, t) =
GR (~r, t; ~r0 , t0 )(~r0 , t0 )dV 0 dt0
0
| usually (t t0 ) is left out and recall R = |~r ~r0 |


Z Z
|~r ~r0 |
(~r0 , t0 )
1
0

dV 0 dt0
=
40
|~r ~r0 |
c

(91)

(92)

(93)

(94)

Similarly, we have
~ r, t)
A(~
where t0 = t

|~
r ~
r0 |
c

0
4


Z Z ~ 0 0 
J(~r , t )
|~r ~r0 |
0

dV 0 dt0
|~r ~r0 |
c

(95)

= tr is called the retarded time.

Figure 7: The information at the point of observation at time t is from the source at the retarded time
tr .
0

r |
To understand retarded time, we see that |~r~
is the time for information to travel at speed c
c
from the source to the point of observation. Thus the potential at time t is due to the information
from the source at tr . This is a clue that electrodynamics and relativity are related as relativity requires
causality where information takes a finite speed (maximum is c) to travel.
3 The

missing negative sign is due to the contour being closed in an anticlockwise manner.

12

2.4

The fields: Jefimenkos equations

~ r, t) differs from their electrostatic and magnetostatic versions

Note that it appears that (~r, t) and A(~
just by the retarded time. It is not that simple. If we take the electrostatic and magnetostatic versions
of the fields and put in the retarded time, the results are wrong.


Z
Z Z
(~r0 ) 0
1
(~r0 , t0 )
|~r ~r0 |
1
0
~
~
RdV E(~r, t) 6=
R t t
dV 0 dt0 (96)
E(~r) =
40
|~r ~r0 |2
40
|~r ~r0 |2
c

Z ~ 0
Z Z ~ 0 0


|~r ~r0 |
J(~r ) R
J(~r , t ) R
0
0
~ r, t) 6= 0
~ r) = 0
dV

B(~

B(~
dV 0 dt0 (97)
4
|~r ~r0 |2
4
|~r ~r0 |2
c
~ =
~
To get the fields, we need to use the retarded potentials and the equations: E
~
~ =
~ A.
~ We do the easier A term first,
B

~
A
t

and

~
A
t

0
t 4

Z ~ 0
Z ~ 0
J(~r , tr ) 0
J(~r , tr ) 0
0
dV =
dV
0
|~r ~r |
4
|~r ~r0 |

(98)

~ but note that ~r is in the denominator as |~r ~r0 | and is hiding in tr = t

Then we calculate
!
Z
~ r0 , tr )
1
1
(~
0
~
~ r, t) =
+ (~r , tr )
dV 0
(~
40
|~r ~r0 |
|~r ~r0 |
!
~ r ~r0 |
t ~
|~
1 ~r ~r0

~
| write =

=
tr =
t tr
t
c
c |~r ~r0 |

1
~r ~r0
R
=

=
0
0
3
|~r ~r |
|~r ~r |
|~r ~r0 |2
!

R
R

dV 0

c |~r ~r0 |
|~r ~r0 |2

~
and write

1
40

~ r, t)
E(~

=
=

1
40

|~
r ~
r0 |
c .

(99)

(100)

~
A
t

(101)

~ r0 , tr )
r0 , tr )
J(~
(~r0 , tr ) (~
R
+
R

|~r ~r0 |2
c|~r ~r0 |
c2 |~r ~r0 |

!
dV 0

(102)

So there are 2 more terms extra as compared to our naive guess. This Jefimenkos equation for the
E-field is essentially the time-dependent generalization of Coulombs law.
Now for the B-field,
~ r, t)
B(~

~ A
~
=
~ (f A)
~ = f (
~ A)
~ A
~ (f
~ )
| recall
!
Z
~ J~
0

1
~
=
J~
dV 0
4
|~r ~r0 |
|~r ~r0 |

(103)

(104)

1
~r ~r0
R
=

|~r ~r0 |
|~r ~r0 |3
|~r ~r0 |2
~ J)
~ x = Jz Jy = Jz t tr Jy t tr = Jz tr Jy tr
| look at (
y
z
t tr y
t tr z
y
z


0
~
r

~
r
1
1
~ r=

= R
| recall that t
|~r ~r0 |
c
c




~ J)
~ x = Jz 1 R
y Jy 1 R
z = 1 (J~ R)
x
| hence, (
c
c
c
!
Z
~ r0 , tr ) R

~ r0 , tr ) R

0
J(~
J(~
=
+
dV 0
(105)
4
c|~r ~r0 |
|~r ~r0 |2
|

~
we already know

13

This Jefimenkos equation for B-field is essentially the time-dependent generalization of Biot-Savarts
law.
These 2 Jefimenkos equations are essentially formal and have limited uses but they complete electrodynamics before we recast into a relativistic description.

2.5
2.5.1

Standard Application 1: Point Charge

Retarded potentials: Lienard-Wiechert potentials

Figure 8: The setup to calculate the retarded potentials of a moving charge.

~ r, t) to a moving charge of charge q.
We shall apply the retarded potentials (~r, t) and A(~
Point charge trajectory: ~r0 (t)
Point charge velocity: ~v (t) =

d~
r0 (t)
dt

Point charge density: (~r, t) = q 3 (~r ~r0 (t))

~ r, t) = q~v (t) 3 (~r ~r0 (t))
Point charge current density: J(~


Z Z
1
|~r ~r0 |
(~r0 , t0 )
0
(~r, t) =
tt
dV 0 dt0
40
|~r ~r0 |
c


Z Z 3 0
|~r ~r0 |
q
(~r ~r0 (t0 ))
0
tt
dV 0 dt0
=
40
|~r ~r0 |
c
| do the volume integration


Z t t0 |~r~r0 (t0 )|
c
q
=
dt0
40
|~r ~r0 (t0 )|
| because the dependence on t0 is implicit, we need an identity

Z
Z
Z
g(s)
g(s) 
df (f (s))
g(s) = df (f ) df = df 
| identity:
ds(f (s))g(s) = ds
df

ds ds
ds
ds

(106)
(107)

(108)

f (s)=0

|~r ~r0 (t0 )|

1p
= t0 t +
(x x0 (t0 ))2 + (y y0 (t0 ))2 + (z z0 (t0 ))2
| so, f (t0 ) = t0 t +
c
c
0 ) ~v (t0 )
df (t0 )
(x x0 (t0 ))x 0 (t0 ) +
(~r ~r0 (t0 )) ~v (t0 )
R(t
| so,
=1 p
=1
=1
0
0
dt
c|~r ~r0 (t )|
c
c (x x0 (t0 ))2 +


qc
1

=
(109)

~ 0 ) ~v (t0 )  0
40 R(t0 )c R(t
|~
r ~
r0 (t0 )|
R(t0 )
f (t )=0 or t0 =t
=t
c

Then,
~ r, t)
A(~

q0
4

Z Z



~v (t0 ) 3 (~r0 ~r0 (t0 ))
|~r ~r0 |
0
tt
dV 0 dt0
|~r ~r0 |
c
14

(110)

~v (t0 )
so the only difference here is that g(s) =
, so
|~r ~r0 (t0 )|


cv(t0 )
q0

=

~ 0 ) ~v (t0 )  0
4 R(t0 )c R(t
|~
r ~
r0 (t0 )|
R(t0 )
t =t c =t
c


~v (t0 )
0 
(~r, t )
=
|~
r ~
r0 (t0 )|
R(t0 )
c2
t0 =t
=t
|

(111)

(112)

We can provide a nice physical (actually goemetrical) picture to the derivation. We write,
Z Z
1
(~r0 , t0 )
(~r, t) =
(tr t0 )dV 0 dt0
40
|~r ~r0 |
| do the time integral formally
Z
(~r0 , tr ) 0
1
dV
=
40
|~r ~r0 |

(113)

(114)

TheR picture is that, information comes to the point of observation at speed c and the charge is moving
so dV 0 is not the total charge. This is a geometric effect and has nothing to do with relativity.

charge seen if charge distribution is not moving = shaded area

Shifted area

=
|

((~v R)dt)dA
dr
where dt =
c
15

= dAdr

(115)

(116)

dV

(117)

=
=

dr dA
~v R
c

~v R
dV which is actually less
c

charge seen if charge distribution is moving with velocity ~v

dq

dV

so roughly,

=
=

(118)

shaded area

~v R
dV
dV
c
Z
1
dq

1 ~vcR

Z
1
1
dV
40 |~r ~r0 (tr )|
Z
1
1
1
dq

40 |~r ~r0 (tr )|

1 ~vcR
Z
1
1
1
dq
40 |~r ~r0 (tr )| 1 ~vR

(119)
(120)

(121)
(122)
(123)

R
and dq = q gives the same retarded potential expression. Again, this is to show that the origin of the

factor: 1/(1 ~vcR ) is a geometrical one.

2.5.2

Fields

~ =
~ A.
~ The main difficulty in calculation is
~ =
~ A~ and B
The equations for the fields are E
t
that the differentiation needs to be done implicitly. Note the expressions
tr

and, ~v (t)

|~r ~r0 (tr )|

R(tr )
=t
= R(tr ) = c(t tr )
c
c
d~r0 (t)
dt

(124)
(125)

~ r, t),
We start by calculating (~
~ r, t)
(~

1
~ qc
=
~ r ) ~v (tr )
40 R(tr )c R(t
qc
1
~
~ ~v )
=
(Rc
R
~ ~v )2
40 (Rc R
|
|
|
|
|

(126)
(127)

~ = |~
~ r ~r0 (tr )| = c(t
~
~ r
note R
tr ) = ct
~ R
~ ~v ) = (R
~ )~
~ v + (~v )
~ R
~ +R
~ (
~ ~v ) + ~v (
~ R)
~
note (
chain rule will be used to simplify all 4 terms


d~v (tr ) tr

~
~
~ t
~ r)
+ ~v (tr ) = Rx
+ = ~a(R
first term: (R )~v = Rx
x
dtr x
~ R
~ = (~v )~
~ r (~v )~
~ r0 (tr ) = ~v ~v (~v t
~ r)
second term: (~v )

~ (
~ ~v ) = R
~ (~a t
~ r)
third term: R
~ R)
~ = ~v (
~ ~r
~ ~r0 (tr )) = ~v (~v t
~ r)
| fourth term: ~v (
h
i
qc
1
~ r ~a(R
~ t
~ r ) ~v + ~v (~v t
~ r) + R
~ (~a t
~ r ) ~v (~v t
~ r)
=
c2 t
~ ~v )2
40 (Rc R
~ (~a t
~ r ) ~a(R
~ t
~ r ) = (R
~ ~a)t
~ r
| use identity R
~ r ) ~v (~v t
~ r ) = v 2 t
~ r
| use identity ~v (~v t
h


i
qc
1
~ ~a) t
~ r
=
~v + c2 v 2 + (R
(128)
~ ~v )2
40 (Rc R
p
~ R
~ R)
~
~ )
~ R
~ +R
~ (
~ R)
~
(R
~ r = R
~ =
~ R
~ R
~ = (
p
| lastly, we need ct
=
R
~ R
~
2 R
|

16

~ )
~ R
~ =R
~ ~v (R
~ t
~ r ) and
~ R
~ = ~v t
~ r
then chain rule give (R
~ (~v t
~ r ) = ~v (R
~ t
~ r ) (R
~ ~v )t
~ r and 2 terms cancel
then, R

|
|

~
R
~ r the subject to get t
~ r=
rearrange and make t
~ ~v
Rc R
"
#


~
qc
R
1
~ ~a
=
~v c2 v 2 + R
~ ~v )2
~ ~v
40 (Rc R
Rc R
h


 i
qc
1
~ ~v ~v c2 v 2 + R
~ ~a R
~
Rc R
=
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
|

Similarly, and we are not repeating the calculation,

~
A
t

~
A
t

(129)
(130)

is obtained as


 
  R~a
 R~v 
qc
1
2
2
~
~
Rc R ~v
~v + c v + R ~a
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
c
c

(131)

So the electric field is

~ r, t)
E(~

=
=
=
|
=
Term

(132)



R~a
qc
~ ~v
~ ~a R
~ R~v
Rc R
~v
+ ~v + c2 v 2 + R
3
~ ~v )
40 (Rc R
c
c
h


i
q
R
~ ~v )~a + c2 v 2 + R
~ ~a (Rc
~v )
(Rc R
(133)
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
h
i
R
q
~v ) + (R
~ ~a)Rc
(R
~ ~a)~v Rc~a + (R
~ ~v )~a
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
(134)
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)
we can check backwards that the last 4 terms become R
h
i
q
R
~v ) + R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
(135)
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R

q
R
2
~ v )3 (c
40 (RcR~

q
R
~
~ v )3 R
40 (RcR~
as R1 .

Term
falls

~ r, t)
A(~
t 

1

~ r, t)
= (~



~v ) is called the velocity field term and it falls as

v 2 )(Rc

1
R2 .

~v ) ~a is called the acceleration field or the radiation field and it

((Rc

For the magnetic field,

~
B

~ A
~
=


~ ~v
=
c2
h
i
1
~ ~v ) ~v ()
~
(

=
c2

(136)
(137)
(138)

~
~a R
~
Rc R ~v
h
i
qc
1
~ =
~ ~v )~v (c2 v 2 + R
~ ~a)R
~
| recall that
(Rc R
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
h
i
1
~ = qc
~ ~a)(~v R)
~
| then ~v ~v = 0 and ~v
(c2 v 2 + R
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
"
#
~
1
~
a

R
1 q
~ ~v )2
~ ~a)(~v R)
~
(Rc R
+ (c2 v 2 + R
=
~ ~v )3
~ ~v
c 40 (Rc R
Rc R
h
i
1 q
1
~ ~a(Rc R
~ ~v ) + ~v (c2 v 2 + R
~ ~a)
=
R
~ ~v )3
c 40 (Rc R
h
i
1 q
R
(c2 v 2 )(~v ) (R
~ ~a)~v Rc~a + (R
~ ~v )~a
=
R
~ ~v )3
c 40 (Rc R
|

~ ~v = ~a t
~ r=
recall that

17

(139)
(140)
(141)

 into first term since R

Rc
= 0 anyway
insert Rc
~ ~a)Rc
since R
R
~ = 0 anyway
| insert (R
h
i
1 q
R
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
~v ) + (R
~ ~a)Rc
(R
~ ~a)~v Rc~a + (R
~ ~v )~a (142)
=
R
~ ~v )3
c 40 (Rc R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)
| we can check backwards that the last 4 terms become R
h
i
R
1 q
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
~v ) + R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)
R
(143)
=
~ ~v )3
c 40 (Rc R
|

Term

R
1 q

~ v )3 R
c 40 (RcR~

~v ) is called the velocity field term and it falls as

(c2 v 2 )(Rc
h

R
1 q

~ v )3 R
c 40 (RcR~
it falls as R1 .

Term
and

1
R2 .

i
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a) is called the acceleration field or the radiation field
R

A quick comparison between the 2 fields give

E(~
~ r, t)
~ r, t) = 1 R
B(~
c

(144)

Thus the magnetic field of a point charge is always perpendicular to the electric field and to the vector
that points from the retarded position to the point of observation.
R
2.5.3

Example: Point charge in constant velocity

Before we start the example of a point charge with constant velocity, we quickly talk about a point
charge that is stationary. This means we set ~a = 0 and ~v = 0. For the potentials,
1
qc
40 R(tr )c
| where R(tr ) is simply R
q
=
(as expected)
40 R

(~r)

(145)

~ r) = ~v (tr )
A(~
c2

set ~
v=0

(146)

0 (as expected)

(147)

For the fields, after setting ~a = 0 and ~v = 0,

~ r)
E(~

q
R 2
q
(which is Coulombs law as expected)
c Rc =
R
40 (Rc)3
40 R2
q
~ r) = 1 R
E
~ = 1R

= 0 (as expected)
B(~
R
c
c
40 R2

(148)

(149)

For the point charge in constant velocity, the trajectory where the particle passes through the origin
at t = 0 is ~r0 (t) = ~v t. So for this case, we can make the implicit dependence of tr to be explicit.
tr
2

|~r ~v tr |
2

r 2~r ~v tr +

v 2 t2r

|~r ~r0 (tr )|

c
= c2 (t tr )2

= t
2

= c (t 2ttr +
=
|

(151)

t2r )

tr

(150)

(c t ~r ~v )

(c2 t

(152)
~v )2

(c2

v 2 )(c2 t2

~r

2
2
(c v )
to fix the sign, we set ~v = 0 and require tr < t

r2 )

(153)

tr

so the negative sign is the meaningful one

p
(c2 t ~r ~v ) (c2 t ~r ~v )2 (c2 v 2 )(c2 t2 r2 )
=
(c2 v 2 )
18

(154)

In the Lienard- Wiechert potentials, we have the common denominator,

common denominator

~ r ) ~v (tr )
R(tr )c R(t

recall that R(tr ) = |~r ~r0 (tr )| = |~r ~v tr | = c(t tr )

c2 (t tr ) (~r ~v tr ) ~v
2

(155)
(156)

c (t tr ) ~r ~v + v tr

(v 2 c2 )tr + c2 t ~r ~v

(157)

(158)


from above solution of tr write (c v )tr (c t ~r ~v ) =
p
(c2 t ~r ~v )2 (c2 v 2 )(c2 t2 r2 )
(159)
2

|
=
|

further rewrite: define ~rp = ~r ~v t where ~r0 (t) = ~v t is the present position
 4 2
1/2
(160)
c t + (~r ~v )2 2c2 t(~r ~v ) + r2 c2 c4 t2 r2 v 2 + c2 v 2 t2
q
r2 v 2 cos2 r2 v 2 + c2 rp2
(161)
s
r2 v2
crp 1 2 2 sin2
(162)
c rp

=
=
=
|

use geometry as in figure 9

r
v2
crp 1 2 sin2
c

(163)

Figure 9: Somehow the field points from the present position but the information came from the retarded
2
2
sin(1800 )

position. Note the sine rule: sin

= sinr2 = sinr2 .
rp =
r
p

The retarded potentials are

q

(~r, t) =
40 rp

v2
c2

q~v
~ r, t) = ~v (~r, t) =
q
and A(~
2
c
2
sin
40 c rp 1
2

(164)
v2
c2

sin2

~ and B
~ and start by setting ~a = 0 so only
We shall calculate the fields using the explicit formulae for E
the velocity field term survives.
~ r, t)
E(~

=
|
=

R
q
~v )
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
r
2
~ ~v = crp 1 v sin2
recall that Rc R
2
c
~v ) = Rc
~ R~v = (~r ~v tr )c c(t tr )~v = (~r ~v t)c = c~rp
note that R(Rc

q
c~rp (c2 v 2 )
40 c3 r3 1 v2 sin2
3/2
p
c2

1 vc2
q
rp


3/2
2
40 1 v sin2
rp2
c2

(165)

(166)

(167)

19

~ points along the line from the present position of the particle to the point of observation! The fact
So E
that the information came from the retarded position and yet the vector points from the present position
is due to an extraordinary coincidence which we will uncover in part 2.
The magnetic field is obtained by,
~ r, t)
B(~

1 ~
R E(~r, t)
c

(168)

~
= R = ~r ~v tr = ~rp + ~v t ~v tr = ~rp + ~v
rewrite R
R
R
c(t tr )
R
c
~
~
| since E is in the ~rp direction, ~rp E = 0

1 
~ r, t)
=
~
v

E(~
c2
|

(169)

~ so the B-field forms circles around the trajectory of

Thus the B-field is perpendicular to both ~v and E,
the charge.
2
For a slow moving charge, where v << c or v 2 << c2 , take vc2 0,
~ r, t)
E(~
~ r, t)
B(~
|
=

2.6

q rp
(which is Coulombs law)
40 rp2
1
q rp
~v
2
c
40 rp2
1
recall that 2 = 0 0
c
0 q ~v rp
(which is Biot-Savarts law for a slow moving point charge)
4 rp2

(170)
(171)

(172)

Standard Application 2: Radiation

Note that in the example of a point charge with constant velocity, the solutions for the fields are not
waves. We suspect that the reason is because we set ~a = 0 in that example. Thus we can deduce that
accelerating charges and changing currents are needed to generate electromagnetic waves (radiation).
Waves carry energy from the source and the energy never comes back. For EM waves, we can calculate
the radiated power using the Poynting vector:
I
~ dA
~
S
(173)
Prad = lim P (r) = lim
r
r
I
1
~ B)
~ dA
~
= lim
(E
(174)
r 0
r

So if E r12 (or faster) and if B r12 (or faster) then S r14 (or faster) and SdA r14 r2 so Prad 0.
This means that the velocity field terms do not give rise to radiation. Thus radiation involves (acceleration
r
field or radiation field) terms where B, E 1r , so that SdA r12 r2 and Prad finite.
2.6.1

From Point Charge

Recall that the electric field of a point charge in arbitrary motion is

h
i
q
R
~ r, t) =
~v ) + R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)
E(~
(c2 v 2 )(Rc
~ ~v )3
40 (Rc R
~ r, t) = 1 R
E(~
~ r, t)
and, B(~
c

(175)
(176)

Recall that the first term is the velocity field and the second term is the acceleration/radiation field.
The Poynting vector is
~
S

=
=

1 ~
~
(E B)
0
1 ~
E))
~
(E (R
0 c

(177)
(178)
20

~ (B
~ C)
~ = B(
~ A
~ C)
~ C(
~ A
~ B)
~
use product rule: A


1
~ 2R
(R
E)
~ E
~
=
E
0 c
(R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a)) = 0
| then note that R
velocity field terms 1 does not cause radiation
| and R
R2
| and so drop all velocity field terms
1 ~2

E R
0 c
!2
h
i h
i
q
R
1
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a) R
~ ((Rc
~v ) ~a) R

~ ~v )3
0 c 40 (Rc R
|

(179)

(180)
(181)

To make the calculations easier, we carry on with the calculations in a frame where the charge is
instantaneously at rest at time tr , so set ~v = 0 but ~a 6= 0. We will generalise this in Part 2.
2 

 

1
q
R
~ (Rc
~a) R
~ (Rc
~a) R

~
R
(182)
S =
0 c 40 R3 c3
~ (B
~ C)
~ = B(
~ A
~ C)
~ C(
~ A
~ B)
~
| use product rule: A
|
=
|
=
=
|
=
=

~ (R
~a) = R(
R
~ ~a) ~a(R
~ R)
= R(
R
~ ~a) R~a
so, R

2




1
q
1 2 ~

R
~ ~a) R~a R
R(
R(
R

~
a
)

R~
a

c
0 c 40
R4 c6
1
recall 0 =
and carry out the dot product
0 c2

1  0 q 2 1  2 2
~a)2 R

R a R2 (R
2
0 c 4R R

1  0 q 2  2

~a)2 R
a (R
0 c 4R
~a = a cos
write R



1
0 q 2 2

a a2 cos2 R
0 c 4R
0 q 2 a2 sin2
R
16 2 c R2

(183)

(184)
(185)

(186)
(187)

Thus power is emitted like a donut about the direction of instantaneous acceleration. No radiation is
emitted in the forward or backward direction.
The power radiated into a patch of area R2 sin dd = R2 d is
dP
dP
d

=
=

~ dA
~ = |S|R
~ 2 d
S
0 q 2 a2
sin2
16 2 c

The total power emitted is found by integrating over the entire solid angle.
Z
P =
dP
Z
Z
dP
~ dA
~
d or,
S
=
d
Z
Z
0 q 2 a2 2
=
d
d sin2 sin
16 2 c 0
0
Z 2
Z
4
| note that
d = 2 and
sin3 d =
3
0
0
2 2
0 q a
=
6c

(188)
(189)

(190)
(191)
(192)

(193)

This is Larmors formula for slow moving, accelerating point charge. We shall see the Lienards generalised version of Larmors formula (for point charge) for any velocity in Part 2.
21

2.6.2

From Hertzian Dipole

Consider an electric dipole driven as shown in figure 10.

Figure 10: The setup for the Hertzian dipole radiation source.
We need to calculate the retarded potentials, then get the fields and finally get the power radiated.
The retarded potentials are,
Z
1
(~r0 , tr ) 0
(~r, t) =
dV
(194)
40
|~r ~r0 |
d
d
3 0
3 0
| with (~r0 , tr ) = q0 cos(t+
r z) + (q0 ) cos(t
r + z)
r ) (~
r ) (~

2
 2




d
R
d 
R+

+
, R+ = ~r z and tr = t
, R = ~r + z
| where tr = t
c
2
c
2
 


 

R+
R
q0 cos t c
1 q0 cos t c

=
(195)

40
R+
R
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(r, , t)

 2
 


 2
 
d
d
d
d

2
2r
cos
=
r
+

2r
cos
1800
2
2
2
2
Approximation 1: physical dipole perfect dipole d << r
v
!
r
u
 2


u
d
d
d
1d
t
2
so R = r 1 +
cos r 1 cos r 1
cos
2r
r
r
2r






1
1
1 d
1
d
so

1
cos =
1
cos
R
r
2 r
r
2r

 


 

 
R
r
d
r  d
so cos t
cos t
1
cos
= cos t

cos
c
c
2r
c
2c
then apply cosine addition formula cos(A B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
c
2c
c
d
Approximation 2: perfect dipole: d << d << d <<
d <<
<< 1
f

c




d
d
d
so cos
cos 1 and sin
cos
cos
2c
2c
2c

 
 

 
r  d
r 
q0
1
d
cos t

cos sin t
1+
cos
40
c
2c
c
r
2r
2
cosine rule: R
= r2 +

22

 


 
 
r  d
r  1
d
+
cos t
cos sin t
1
cos
c
2c
c
r
2r
expand and 4 terms cancel pairwise, 4 terms add pairwise

|
|

denote p0 = q0 d as the dipole moment



 
 
p0 cos

r  1
r 
+ cos t
sin t
40 r
c
c
r
c

=
|

Approximation 3: far field or radiation zone: r >> r >>

so we drop the second term

 
p0 cos
r 

sin t
40 c r
c

(196)

(197)
1

c
<<

r
c
(198)

~ r, t),
Now for A(~
~ r, t)
A(~

=
=
|

|
=
=

~ , t)
A(r,

0
4

0
4

d/2

d/2
d/2

d/2

~ r0 , tr )
J(~
dz
R
J~ ~r0 , t
R

R
c

(199)


dz

(200)

take the zeroth order approximation: R r. Justification is at the end of this working.
Z d/2 
r
0
J~ ~r0 , t
dz
(201)
4r d/2
c
Z
d~
p
~
JdV
=
with proof in footnote4
use identity:
dt
0 d~
p
(202)
4r dt



0 d
r
p0 cos t
z
(203)
4r dt
c


0 p0
r

sin t
z
(204)
4r
c

~ , t) is not subjected to Approximation 3. Now we justify the earlier approximation:

Note that A(r,


p
1
1
d
2
R r. Notice that d~
dt brings in p0 = q0 d and if we approximate R r 1 + 2r cos , we will have d
terms which are too small.
The fields are,
~
E

~
A
t
~

1 A
= r

r
r
t
1
1
| note that
gives 2 term which is not radiative, so drop it
r
r

~
=

(208)
(209)

4 Proof:

d~
p
d
=
dt
dt

Z
~
rdV

=
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
=

~
rdV
t

(205)

~ J~
use charge continuity equation:
=
t
Z 

~ J~ ~

rdV

(206)

~ (Jf
~ ) = (
~ J)f
~ + J~ (f
~ )
use product rule:
~ J)x
~ =
~ (xJ)
~ J~ (x)
~
~ (xJ)
~ Jx
so (
=
~ J)~
~ r=
~ (xJ)
~ x+
~ (y J)
~ y+
~ (z J)
~ z J~
so (
Z
~ (xJ)dV
~
and first 3 terms:

x
are zero when we use divergence theorem
and current J~ is inside a sufficiently large volume
Z
~
JdV
(proved)

23

(207)


=
|

A
r
r
t
"
#



 
 
p0 cos sin t rc

0 p0 2
r 
r 

+
z
cos

cos

40 c
r2
r
c
4r
c

recall that z = cos

r sin and c2 =

(210)
(211)

1
0 0

 
~
A
r 

from
so cos cos t
cancels that from
c


t
r
sin t rc
1
| drop cos
term as it is 2
r2
r
 
0 p0 2 sin
r 

cos t
4
r
c
|

(212)

which is a spherical wave expression.

~
B

~ A
~
=


1
Ar

=
(rA )
r r

1 Ar
1
| note that
gives 2 term which is not radiative, so drop it
r
r
 
1   0 p0
r 
=
r
sin sin t

r r
4r
c
 
0 p0 2 sin
r 
=
cos t

4c
r
c

(213)
(214)

(215)
(216)

again a spherical wave expansion. The fields have the following features:
~ and B
~ are in phase and they oscillate with (angular) frequency .
E
~ and B
~ are in the and directions respectively.
The waves are travelling in the r direction while E
~
~
This means E and B are transverse and mutually perpendicular.
The amplitudes are in the ratio
electrodynamics.

~
|E|
~
|B|

= c which we already know from the vacuum solutions of

Finally we can proceed to calculate the Poynting vector.

~
S

=
|
=

1 ~
~
(E B)
0
note that = r



2
 
0 p0 2 sin
r 
cos t
r
c
4
r
c

We are usually more interested in the time-averaged power than the instantaneous power,
Z
1 T ~
~
Sdt
hSitime =
T 0

2
Z 2/
 

0 p0 2 sin
r 
=
cos2 t
dt
r
2 0
c
4 r
c
1
| averaging cos2 over a period gives
2
0 p20 4 sin2
=
r
32 2 c r2

(217)

(218)

(219)
(220)

(221)

Power radiated into a patch of area r2 sin dd = r2 d is

dP



2 4
~ time dA
~ = hSi
~ time  r2 d = 0 p0 sin2 d
= hSi
32 2 c
24

(222)

Z
Total Power = P

dP

(223)

dP
d
d
Z
Z
0 p20 4 2
=
sin3 d
d
32 2 c 0
0
Z
Z 2
d = 2 and
| recall that

(224)

(225)

sin3 d =

4
3

0 p20 4
12c

(226)

This is Larmors formula for a Hertzian dipole.

2.6.3

From Arbitrary Distribution

We consider, in general, some configuration of charge and current localized in some finite volume near
the origin.

Figure 11: The setup for an arbitrary distribution near the origin.
Again we start with the retarded potentials.
Z
1
(~r0 , tr ) 0
(~r, t) =
dV
40
|~r ~r0 |

(227)
p

where cosine rule gives |~r ~r0 | = R =

Approximation 1: point of observation is much further away than source dimension: r0 << r
v
!
u

 0 2



0
u
~
r

~
r
~r ~r0
1
1
~r ~r0
r
t
2
so, R = r 1 +
2 2
r 1 2
so,

1+ 2
r
r
r
R
r
r






R
r r ~r0
r ~r0
0
0
0
0
0
then, (~r , tr ) = ~r , t
~r , t +
(~r , t) + (~
r , t)
+
c
c
c
c
(~r, t)
r
where (~
r0 , t) =
and t = t
t
c

2
1
r ~r0
c
0
Approximation 2: subsequent terms (~r , t)
+ can be dropped if r0 <<
,
2
c
|
/|






Z
1
1
~r ~r0
r ~r0
1+ 2
(~r0 , t) + (~
r0 , t)
dV 0
(228)
40
r
r
c
Z

Z
Z
r ~r0
r ~r0
1
(~r0 , t)dV 0 +
(~r0 , t)dV 0 +
(~
r0 , t)dV 0
(229)
40 r
r
c

|
|
|
|

25

r2 + r02 2~r ~r0

(~r0 , t)dV 0 = Q the total charge

Z
Z
r
r p~(t)
r ~r0
0
0
(~r , t)dV = ~r0 (~r0 , t)dV 0 =
so,
r
r
r
Z
Z
r ~r0
r

d
r

p~(t)
so,
(~
r0 , t)dV 0 =
~r0 (~r0 , t)dV 0 =
c
dt c
c
!

1
Q r p~(t) r p~(t)
+
+
40 r
r2
rc
so,

|
|
=
|

(230)

Approximation 3: the first 2 terms, static monpole and dipole terms and are not radiative
1 r p~(t)
40

rc

(231)

~ r, t),
Now for A(~
~ r, t)
A(~

Z ~ 0
J(~r , tr ) 0
0
dV
4
R
recall that we take the zeroth order approximation: R r
Z 
d~
p
r 0
dV =
also recall the identity:
= p~(t)
J~ ~r0 , t
c
dt
0 p~(t)

=
|
|

4 r

(232)

(233)

We can proceed to calculate the fields,

~ r, t)
E(~

=
|

|
=
|
=
|
|
=

~
~ A

t
~
~ 1 term as it gives 1 term
in , after product rule, we drop the
r
r2



~
0 p~(t)
1 r p~(t)

40
rc
4 r







~ r p~(t) =
~ pr = pr r = pr t r = pr 1 = 1 r p~(t) r
so
r
c
c
t r

0 p~(t)
1 r p~(t)
r
40 c2 r
4 r
1
recall that 2 = 0 0
c

0  
r p~(t) r p~(t)
4r
~ (B
~ C)
~ = B(
~ A
~ C)
~ C(
~ A
~ B)
~
use product rule: A
so that r (
r p~(t)) = r(
r p~(t)) p~(t)(
r r)

0 

r (
r p~(t))
4r

~ r, t)
B(~

(234)

(235)

(236)

(237)

(238)

~ A
~

(239)

~ (f A)
~ = f (
~ A)
~ A
~ (f
~ )
use product rule:
~ 1 will give 1 term and so we drop it
but
r
r2
0 ~
p~(t)
4r
~ p~(t) = (
~ t) p~(t) and
~ t = 1 r
use chain rule:
c
0

r p~(t)
4rc

(240)

|
=

26

(241)

To calculate power, we can choose to align p~(t) along the z-axis,

~ r, t) = E(r,
~ , t)
E(~

=
|
=

0
(
r (
r z)) p(t)
4r
r = and r =
recall z = cos
r sin ,

0 p(t) sin

4
r

~ r, t)
B(~

~ , t)
B(r,

recall that r z = sin

0 p(t) sin

4c
r

(242)

(243)

(244)

(245)

The Poynting vector is,

~
S

dP

Total power, P

=
=
=
=

2

0 p(t)2 sin2
r
=
16 2 c r2
2
~ dA
~ = |S|r
~ 2 sin dd = 0 p(t) sin3 d
S
2
16 c
Z
dP
d
d
Z
Z
0 p(t)2 2
d
sin3 d
16 2 c 0
0
0 p(t)2
4
2
16 2 c
3
2
0 p(t)
6c
1 ~
~ = 0
(E B)
0
c

27

p(t) sin
4 r

(246)
(247)
(248)
(249)
(250)
(251)