INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information technology is the use of computer technology and digital equipment to handle and
process information. For example, information technology is used when hours worked by an
employee is entered into accounting software and, together with his wage rate, his monthly wage
is calculated and a payslip produced.
EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF INFORMATION
Strategic (used to plan the objectives of the business) profitability of each part of the business;
size, growth and competitive structure of the market in which the business operates; investments
made by the business and returns; feasibility reports; market research
Tactical (used to decide how the resources of the business should be employed) staff turnover;
short-term profit and cash flow forecasts; pricing information
Operational (used to carry out day-to-day activities) stock levels; results of quality control
checks
USE OF INPUT DEVICES
Keyboard Used to input data into spreadsheet and database applications (e.g. employee
records, exam scores, etc.); Used to prepare a document (e.g. a letter, book) on word processing
applications
Touch screen Used to input transactional data e.g. buying transport tickets; retrieving cash from
an Automated Teller Machines (ATM)
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Used to read magnetic ink characters on the bottom of
each cheque in a cheque book
Optical Mark Reader Reads paper-based forms marked with a pencil; Used to process multiple
choice exam papers, questionnaires or National Lottery forms
Optical Character Recognition Recognises written characters by software that processes
information obtained by a scanner; Used to transform notes into a word document
Bar Code Readers Used by supermarkets/retailers with Electronic Point of Sale Technology to
compute the total amount owed and produce a bill as well as automatically adjust stock records;
Used as security measures for access to certain areas
Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale Used to print out details of a plastic card transaction;
checks card against a list of lost and stolen cards and ensures that the amount to be paid is within
the credit limit

Magnetic stripe cards Used for identification (e.g. use in bank and cash cards) and for
controlling access (e.g. swipe cards for doors and ticket barriers)
Smart cards Used as credit cards, ID cards and security keys and for information storage
Voice recognition Used with speech simulation by companies to answer phones and provide
information; Used by the handicapped; Used in cases where people need to use their hands
Web data capture Electronic forms on the Internet or an Intranet can be used to collect
responses to questions and the responses imported in electronic format to the required database
______________________________________________________________________________
Modem a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example,
telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information
transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A
modem converts between these two forms.
Antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and
vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio
transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. high frequency AC) to
the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is, the power is
applied to a receiver to be amplified.
Transceiver a device that can both transmit and receive data
Web browser a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information
resources (identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) and may be a web page,
image, video or other piece of content) on the World Wide Web e.g. Google Chrome
Search engine software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide
Web e.g. Google
A web browser is usually a software program that runs on your computer while a search engine
is a software program that runs on a server somewhere else. A browser normally provides access
to a specific search while a search engine stores information and indexes for searchers to find.
Storage media (e.g. hard disks) are hardware used to keep data, instructions and information
from a computer while storage devices record and/or retrieve items to and from storage media
(hard disk drives).
In a network, the server has more power, more storage space and expanded communications
capabilities.

Feature

Usenet

Internet Relay Chat

Interactivity

Asynchronous, delayed

Synchronous, immediate

1 to several hundred lines

1-2 lines

External organization

Hierarchy of newsgroups by subject

Flat list of channels

Internal organization

Subject-oriented threads

Temporally sequenced

Maintenance

By popular vote

User activity

Authorities

Usually unmoderated (no authority)

Operators

Broadcasts

Frequent cross-posting

No multi-channel messages

Length

When you post a message to a newsgroup, the message goes to your local news server, and this
server sends copies of the message to all servers it knows about. The message slowly propagates
through the net, until all the news servers in the world have a copy.
In contrast, some websites have "message boards", which may look like newsgroups. They serve
the same basic purpose, but do not work as well. Message boards have become more popular
than newsgroups, simply because they are easier to find. To use a message board, you just click
on a link from the main site. Message boards belong to a particular website. To use a newsgroup,
you must start up a newsreader, which is a separate program from the web browser.
Here are the major differences between newsgroups and message boards:
Flexibility - You can connect to a newsgroup with any newsreader program. If you do not like
the features of one program, it is fairly easy to switch to another. On a message board, the
features are determined by the site hosting the board. You have no choice.
Speed - When you connect to a newsgroup, your newsreader downloads all of the new messages
automatically. This allows you to quickly flip through several hundred messages, reading only
the items that interest you and skipping others. On a message board, every time you display a
new message, your web browser must connect to the board, and download the message
individually. This usually means a 2-10 second pause between each message you read. It may not
sound like much, but if you subscribe to a busy group, reading 100 messages could take over an
hour!
Robustness - If a news server breaks, the rest of the world can continue to use the newsgroup
through other news servers. Since web message boards are stored on a single server, any time
this server has a problem, the entire board is shut down.
People use social networking sites, podcasts/vodcasts and blogs/vlogs to publish their thoughts
and different forms of media on the Web.

Tablet PCs (and a digital pen) are useful for taking notes in lectures, meetings and conferences
where typing is not practical. It also reduces the risk of RSI and facilitates the input of a drawing.
Handheld computers serve the needs of mobile employees, such as meter readers and parcel
delivery people.
Applications of computers in society:

Education
o Taking online classes
o Research online
o Producing notes (for teachers) and taking notes (for students in class)
Finance
o Software to balance cheque books, pay bills, track personal income and expenses,
manage investments, and evaluate financial plans
o Online banking to access account balances, pay bills and copy monthly
transactions
o Online investing to buy and sell stocks and bonds without a broker
Government
o Allows citizens to file taxes, apply for permits and licenses, pay parking tickets,
buy stamps, report crimes, apply for financial aid and renew vehicle registration
and drivers licenses online
o Emergency police call centres use computers to dispatch calls for fire, police and
medical assistance
o Countries have online databases of criminal records
Heath Care
o To maintain and access patient records
o To monitor patients vital signs in hospital rooms and homes
o To research and diagnose health conditions
o To implement computerized devices, such as pacemakers, that allow patients to
live longer
o To conduct surgeries with greater precision
o Telemedicine and telesurgery
Science
o Implants that mimic functions of body parts
o Use of camera pills (which take pictures inside your body)
Publishing
o Graphics designing
o Creating and editing film
o Making works available for a wider audience via the Web
Travel
o Use of onboard navigation systems

o Use of the Web to reserve a car, hotel and/or flight

o Use of the Web to find directions and maps
Manufacturing
o CAM used in fabrication and assembly to reduce costs, shorten production time
and remain competitive
o Used in oil drilling, power generation, food production and automobile
manufacturing

Users can connect to the internet using:

Dial-up access using a standard telephone line

Broadband connections
o DSL Digital Subscriber Line (telephone lines)
o Cable model (cable television network)
o Fibre to the Premises or FTTP (fibre-optic cables)
o Fixed wireless (dish-shaped antenna to communicate via radio signals)
o Wireless modem (cellular network)
o Radio signals (radio signals)
o Satellite modem (satellite dish)

IP address
-

First group of numbers the network

Last group of numbers the specific computer

Domain name
-

First set of letters the type of internet server e.g. www

Last section of the domain name top-level domain which identifies the type of
organization e.g. .com

The Domain Name System (DNS) is the method that the internet uses to store domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses.
IP addresses and domain names identify computers connected to the internet while URLs are
addresses for specific web sites and web pages.
Two types of search tools are search engines and subject directories.
Search engines locate the web pages while web browsers allow for their access and viewing.
Recent edits of a wiki are collected so that they can be reviewed by someone for accuracy.
A media sharing web site is a type of online social network which allows sharing of media such
as photos, music and videos.

Streaming is the process of transferring data in a continuous and even flow.

A podcast is recorded audio, usually an MP3 file, stored on a Web site that can be downloaded to
a computer or portable media player.
A plug-in or add-on is a program that extends the capability of a browser.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a communications protocol used by some outgoing mail
servers.
Post Office Protocol is a communications protocol used by some incoming mail servers.
To start a chat (in a chat room), you connect to a chat server through a program called a chat
client (usually included in the browser).
To use VoIP or Internet telephony, users need a high-speed Internet connection, Internet
telephone service, a microphone or telephone, Internet telephone software and a sound card or a
telephone adapter.
After purchasing or downloading software, it is installed. Registering is optional and usually
entitles you to product support. Product activation is a technique used by manufacturers to ensure
that the software is not installed on more computers than legally licensed.
Computers with the necessary built-in wireless capability or network or other adaptor can
connect to wireless Internet access points or a WLAN. These may be hot spots (using WiFi,
WiMAX or Bluetooth) or mobile wireless networks (high speed).
Collaborative software includes tools that enable users to share documents via online meetings
and communicate with other connected users. Collaboration via email and document
management systems also allow for collaboration.
Groupware is software that helps groups of people work together on projects and share
information over a network. It enables communication, management of projects and scheduling
of meetings.
Voice mail converts voice messages from analog form to digital form and stores it in a voice
mailbox.
Computers are networked to: facilitate communications, share hardware, software, data and
information, and transfer funds.
XML allows Web programmers to create one version of a Web page that can be displayed in a
form appropriate for a variety of display devices. XML has a focus on content with a primary
purpose of transportation and storage. Developers may customize tags. HTML, however, has a
focus on appearance with a purpose of displaying data. Tags are pre-defined.

Electronic data interchange is a standard which defines how data transmits across telephone lines
or other means.
A Value Added Network is a privately owned wide area network owned by a third-party business
that provides specific networking services not readily available on public networks such as
secure data and information transfer, storage, e-mail, and management reports. The VAN is set
up by a firm in charge of managing the network. Subscriptions are sold to other firms wishing to
use the network. The managers of the VAN perform error checking, editing, routing and protocol
conversion.
Each computer or device on a LAN is called a node.
Client/Server Networks A server or host computer controls access to the hardware, software
and other resources on the network and provides a centralized storage area for programs, data
and information. The computers that rely on the server for resources are called clients. These
are used for large networks.
*The Network OS may only be installed on the server.
Peer-to-Peer Networks Each computer or peer ha equal responsibilities and capabilities,
sharing hardware, data and information with other computers on the network. It is a simple,
inexpensive network that typically contains fewer than 10 computers. The Network OS is
installed on all computers.
(pg 348 of Computing Book)
Internet peer-to-peer Networks or File Sharing Networks Users access each others hard disks
and exchange files (shared files) directly over the Internet. They copy files from someone elses
hard disk to their hard disks.
Network topologies include:

BUS or LINE There is a single central cable (or bus) to which all computers and other
devices connect.
o Bus transmits data, instructions and information in both directions
o Data is broadcast to all nodes but only the one with the correct address acts upon
it; data transmitted includes the address of the receiving device
o Popular on LANs
o Inexpensive as it requires the least amount of cable
o Easy to install
o Computers and other devices can be attached and detached at any point without
disturbing the rest of the network
o Failure of one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus network

o If the bus breaks or becomes inoperable, the entire network remains inoperative
and cable failure is difficult to isolate.
o Network performance degrades under heavy load
RING A cable forms a closed loop with all computers and devices arranged along the
ring.
o Data travels from device to device in one direction until it reaches its destination
o There is no dependence on a central computer or server; each node controls
transmission to and from itself
o Very high transmission rates are possible
o If a computer or device fails, the whole network may fail
o If one node breaks down, transmission between devices is disrupted
o Can span a larger distance than a bus network
o Fast transmission
o Difficult to install
o Used for LANs but also for WANs
STAR All of the computers and devices (notes) on the network connect to a central
device (a hub or a switch), thus forming a star. A hub (may be used to extend the
network) repeats all data, information and instructions that it receives and sends them to
all ports to which it is connected. A switch only sends data, information and instructions
to the address specified. This results in less congestion.
o Consistent performance even when network is being heavily used
o Little or no problems with collisions or intercepting of data since messages are
sent directly to the central computer
o Easy to install and maintain as nodes can be added and removed with little or no
disruption
o If a node fails, only the node is affected making it simple to isolate faults
o If the hub/switch fails, the entire network is inoperable
o Costly to install because of the length of cable required
o Common for WANs in large companies e.g. a mainframe computer at the Head
Office linked to computers at each branch which may be linked in a LAN

Intranets:

Internal networks of organizations to which Internet and Web technologies are applied;
internet facilities are provided using Internet Protocol
Make company available accessible to employees
Facilitate working in groups
Features may include:
o Electronic publishing of organizational materials such as telephone directories,
event calendars, procedure manuals, etc.
o A connection to the internet
o Groupware applications e.g. project management, chat rooms, newsgroups

It is similar to the Internet in that:

o It has a web server
o It supports multimedia web pages coded in HTML
o It is accessible via a web browser
o Users update information by creating and posting a web page
o Saves wasting time browsing aimlessly through thousands of files
o Enables unsuitable material to be screened out

Extranets:

Customers, suppliers or authorised third-parties are allowed to access part of the intranet
E.g. package shipping companies allow customers to print air bills, schedule pickups and
track shipped packages

NETWORK STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS

A network standard defines guidelines that specify the way computer access the medium to
which they are attached, the type(s) of medium used, the speeds used on different types of
networks and the type(s) of physical cable and/or the wireless technology used.
A protocol is a standard that outlines characteristics of how two network devices communicate. It
allows equipment from different suppliers to be networked. It may define:

Data format
Coding schemes
Error handling
Sequencing techniques
Physical connections
Cabling
Mode of transmission

Some network standards are:

Ethernet
o no central computer or device on the network should control when data can be
transmitted
o each node attempts to transmit data when it determines the network is available to
receive communications
o based on a bus topology but may also be used in the star network
o most popular network standard for LANs
o inexpensive and easy to install and maintain
Token Ring
o Computers and devices on the network share or pass a special signal, called a
token, in a unidirectional manner and in a preset order

o The device with the token can transmit data over the network
o Based on the ring but can be used in a start topology
o Token ring networks can connect up to 72 devices and some up to 260
connections
Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
o Defines how data is routed from one end of a network to the other, ensuring the
data arrives correctly
o Describes rules for diving messages into packets; providing addresses for each
packet, checking for an detecting errors, sequencing packets, and regulating the
flow of messages along the network (all known as packet switching)
o Packets contain the data, recipient (destination), origin (sender), and the sequence
information used for reassembly
o Packets travel via routers
802.11 (used by Wi-Fi networks)
o A series of network standards that specifies how two wireless devices
communicate over the air with each other
o Computers or devices with appropriate wireless capabilities communicate via
radio waves with over computers or devices
o A Wi-Fi mesh network allows mesh nodes route data to the next available node
until the data reaches its destination
Bluetooth a protocol
o Defines how two Bluetooth devices use short-range radio waves to transmit data
o Each device contains a small chip that allows communication with other
Bluetooth devices
Ultra-wideband (UWB)
o Specifies how two UWB devices use short-range radio waves to communicate at
high speeds with each other
IrDA
o Used to transfer data wirelessly between computers and other devices via infrared
light waves
o Requires line-of-sight transmission
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) - protocol
o Defines how a network uses radio signals to communicate with a tag or
transponder placed n or attached to an object, an animal or a person
o The tag consists of an antenna and a memory chip containing the information to
be transmitted via radio waves
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
o Specifies how wireless devices communicate over the air in a wide area
o Computer and devices with WiMax wireless capability communicate via radio
waves and a WiMAX tower

Functions of communications software include:

Helping users to establish a connection to another computer or network

Managing the transmission of data, instructions and information
Providing an interface for users to communicate with each other

Communications software includes:

E-mail
FTP
Web browser
Newsgroup and message board
Chat rooms
Instant messaging
Video conferencing
VOIP/ Internet telephony

Types of lines that use the telephone network for data communications:

Dial-up lines A temporary connection uses one or more analog telephone lines for
communications; a modem at the sending eng dials the telephone number of the modem
at the receiving end to establish the connection
Dedicated lines A type of always-on connection that is established between two
communications devices. These usually have higher bandwidths than dial-up lines and
are more reliable as no switches are being operated. In addition, the line is more secure as
it is not shared with other organizations.
o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) lines ISDN is a set of standards for
digital transmission of data over standard copper telephone lines using
multiplexing (carrying of multiple signals at once); capable of sending voice,
video and computer data. These are used with digital modems, network
termination devices and terminal adapters.
o DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) transmits at fast speeds, providing voice and data
communications; uses a line that is not shared by other users in the
neighbourhood
o FTTP (Fiber to the Premises) extremely high speed Internet access to a users
physical permanent location
o T-carrier lines long-distance digital telephone lines that carry multiple signals
over a single communications line and have very fast data transfer rates; homes
and small businesses may use fractional T1 lines
o ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) a service that carries voice, data, video
and multimedia at very high speeds

COMMUNICATIONS DEVICES

Modems (Modems, other than dial-up modems, usually include built-in Wi-Fi
technology)
o Dial-up Modems (also used in fax machines to convert a scanned digitized image
into an analog signal to be sent to a recipients fax machine)
o Digital Modems (including ISDN and DSL modems)
o Cable Modems (sends and receives digital data over the cable television network)
o Wireless Modems (uses the cell phone network to connect to the Internet
wirelessly from a mobile device)
Network (Interface) Cards or Network Adaptors enable a computer or device that does
not have built-in networking capability to access a network; coordinates the transmission
and receipt of data, instructions and information to and from the computer or device
containing the network card; may be for wireless or wired networks; usually follows a
particular network communications standard; must match the type of network and
medium
Wireless Access Points Central communications devices that allow computers and
devices to transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to transfer data wirelessly to a
wired network
Routers Communications devices that forward packets between networks using IP
addresses; transmit data to its correct destination on the network; allow multiple
computers to share a single high-speed Internet connection such as through a cable or
DSL modem; many are protected by built-in firewalls and anti-virus protection; can route
packets of the same protocol over networks with dissimilar architectures (e.g. Ethernet to
token ring)
Gateways or protocol converters Communications devices used to connect networks
using different protocols by repackaging data so that it may be read correctly at the
receiving end

Types of home networks include:

Ethernet network each computer must have network capabilities of a NIC which
connects to a hub
Powerline cable network uses the same lines that bring electricity into the house
Phoneline network uses existing telephone lines in the home

The wireless access point must be connected to the router.

Advantages of networking include:

Convenience as all computers and devices may be connected to the internet at the same
time and share a single high-speed Internet connection
Money is saved as only one set of peripherals need to be bought and can be shared
Multiplayer games may be played with players on other computers

VoIP may be used

It is easier to back up data held on a file server than on many individual machines
It is easier and may be cheaper to store application programs on one computer and make
them available to all users rather than having copies installed on each computer

Disadvantages of networking include:

Users become dependent on them; if the file server develops a fault, users will be unable
to access many files and run application programs
If the network stops operating, it may not be possible to access various hardware and
software resources
A badly managed network may operate less efficiently that stand-alone machines and an
increase in network traffic may degrade performance
Security may be compromised
Factors influencing latency of transmission:

Distance between the two points

Type of transmission media
Number of nodes through which the data must travel over the media
Type of transmission i.e. synchronous or asynchronous
Speed of the modem
Nature of the transmission line

Baseband media transmit one signal at a time while broadband media transmits multiple signals
simultaneously.
Types of transmission media:

Wired
o Twisted pair cable network cabling and telephone systems
o Coaxial cable cable television networking since it can be cabled over longer
distances than that of the twisted pair
o Fibre optic cable used to replace telephone lines; to provide internet access to
home and business users; as the transmission media in high traffic networks
Can carry significantly more signals
Fast data transmission
Less susceptible to noise/interference
Small size
Wireless
o Infrared line-of-sight date transmission
o Broadcast radio distributes radio signals through the air over long distances
o Cellular radio used for mobile communications

o Microwaves radio waves that provide high-speed signal transmission; signals

are sent from one microwave station to another; use line-of-sight transmission;
users include universities, cable TV providers and telephone companies; mobile
telephones use microwave radio links
o Communications satellite a space station that receives microwave signals,
amplifies them and broadcasts them over a wide area; applications include air
navigation, weather forecasting, GPSs and internet communications.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model for Networks
1. Top layer application layer interface between the user and network
2. Presentation layer translates data into a language the receiving computer can process,
and may also perform compression or encryption
3. Session layer establishes and maintains communications sessions
4. Transport layer ensures that data arrives correctly and in proper sequence
5. Network layer routes the message from sender to receiver
6. Data link layer supervises the transmission of the message to the next network node by
specifying network technology and grouping data accordingly
7. Physical layer encodes the packets into a signal that will be recognized by the medium
that will carry them
TCP/IP Stack
1. Application layer HTTP, Telnet, FTP, Email
2. Transport layer TCP, UDP; divides data into packets
3. Network layer IP, Arp; provides source and destination addressing and sequencing and
routing of packets
4. Data link layer NIC
Applications of electronic data communication include: e-mail, supermarket electronic point of
sale (EPOS) terminals, cash dispensers, facsimile, and video conferencing. Data communication
also takes place between the CPU and its peripheral devices.
Types of data communication:

Serial bits are sent via an interface one bit at a time over a single wire from the source
to the destination

Parallel several bits are sent simultaneously over a number of parallel wires; used inside
the computer and for very short distances (a few metres); skew may result

The bit rate is the speed at which data is transmitted serially, measured in bits per second.
The baud rate is the rate at which the signal changes (baud rate x number of bits per signal).

In asynchronous data transmission, one character at a time is sent, with each character being
preceded by a start bit and followed by one or two stop bits.
In synchronous data transmission, timing signals synchronise the transmission at the sending and
receiving end of communication. This is used in LANs.
A parity bit is used as a check against incorrect transmission.
Handshaking is the exchange of signals between devices to establish their readiness to send or
receive data. It is one method of ensuring that both the sender and receiver are ready before
transmission begins.
Modes of Network Operation
Baseband one-channel system where the whole bandwidth is dedicated to one data channel and
one signal is carried at a time; fast but can only operate over short distances
Broadband multi-channel system where several channels are combined onto one carrier signal;
the bandwidth is shared by several data channels
The topology of a network is defined as the structure both the physical layout and how
communication is done of the inter-connections of components of a network.
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA-CD) is a collision system used by
Ethernet networks.
To ease the problem of slow network speeds due to a large number of computers and heavy
traffic, the network can be segmented by inserting a bridge or router between each segment.
Electronic data interchange is the transmission of business data from one computer system to
another computer system via a WAN.
A Virtual Private Network allows a connection (VPN tunnel) to another network using the
Internet providing a secure connection to the company network server, as if they had a private
line.
A firewall is hardware and/or software that protect a networks resources from intrusion by users
on another network such as the Internet. A proxy server, a typical component of the firewall,
screens all incoming and outgoing communications into and out of the network.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol - provides a standard for Web browsers and servers to
communicate. The definition of HTTP is a technical specification of a network protocol that
software must implement. It enables files to be transferred from a web server to a browser in
order to view the web page. In HTTP, information is transferred not downloaded.

HTTP is an application layer network protocol built on top of TCP. HTTP clients (such as Web
browsers) and servers communicate via HTTP request and response messages. It basically
provides an interface between the user and the internet.
FTP works in both directions from server to computer and vice versa. HTTP only works from
server to computer.
Noise is also known as attenuation or interference in terms of characteristics of transmission
media.
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
A project request is sometimes submitted when a new project is desired or needed. Reasons for
developing a (new) system:

Information requirements may have changed and can no longer be met by the old system
Hardware may have become obsolete
Security may have been breached
A fault may have occurred in recent output or processing
Corporate management of some governing body may have mandated a change
Need to be competitive in the market

Persons involved in developing a system:

Representatives from each department in which the proposed system will be used i.e. the
users
Systems analyst
o designs and develops the information system
o convert user requests into technical specifications
o acts as the liaison between users and IT professionals
Programmer
A project leader who is chosen from the project team to manage and control the budget
and schedule of the project
A deliverable is a tangible form of output from any stage in the Systems Development life cycle
and may be in the form of a chart, diagram, report or program file.
Stages
1. Identifying the problem/ Statement of problem
2. Feasibility study
a. FUNCTIONS It measures how suitable the development of a system will be tot
the company. It checks for operational feasibility, schedule feasibility, technical

feasibility and economic feasibility. It is done to determine the exact nature of the
problem or improvement and decide whether it is worth pursuing. It checks to
ensure that the project is worthwhile, that is, whether it can be done and will meet
goals in a timely manner without incurring great costs.
b. DELIVERABLES A feasibility report is produced including the features of the
existing system and the feasibility of a new or modified system.
3. Planning
a. FUNCTIONS
i. Its goal is to deliver an acceptable system to the user in an agreed-upon
time frame, while maintain costs.
ii. It also allocates resources such as money, people and equipment.
b. DELIVERABLES
i. Project Plan This is produced at this stage to record goals, objectives and
expectations of the project called the scope; required activities; the order
of activities; and time and cost estimates for each activity. It is useful in
planning and scheduling a project effectively and assists in the
coordination, monitoring and control of activities according to the plan.
c. TOOLS
i. GHANT Chart This is a bar chart that uses horizontal bars to show
project phases or activities and the time required for each. It shows the
time relationships of a projects activities. It is useful in the control,
monitoring and coordination of activities according to plan.
4. Analysis
a. FUNCTIONS
i. Study current system
ii. Determine user requirements
iii. Recommend solution
b. DELIVERABLES
i. System proposal After the system analyst has thoroughly studied the
current system and determined all user requirements, he/she uses a system
proposal to communicate possible solutions for the project. The solutions
are further analysed and the most feasible solution is recommended.
c. TOOLS The data collection tools (the first four) are used to understand the
requirements of the system and to ensure that they are met.

i. Questionnaires This allows for collection of a standard set of

information from many employees.
ii. Interviews This allows for acquisition of information and facilitates
clarification of responses and feedback.
iii. Observation This helps in the understanding of how tasks are generally
performed.
iv. Review/investigation of printed material The review of company
documents such as organization charts, memos and meeting minutes,
enables systems analysts to learn about the history of the project and the
companys strengths, weaknesses and operations. Regular sources of
information are also consulted for the latest on hardware and software.
v. Process modelling This form of analysis describes processes that
transform inputs into outputs.
1. Entity relationship diagrams These show the logical structure of
a database, that is, the connections among entities or data objects
in a system. It is important for the systems analyst to understand
the relationships between objects that handle data and how they
use the data.
2. Data flow diagrams These show the movement of data between
sources and stores. They help the systems analyst to understand
how data is handled and in which parts of the system. Systems
analysts use these to review processes with users.
3. Decision tables and trees These are used to show the conditions
or rules of processes. They list a variety of conditions and the
actions that correspond to each condition in a table form or
graphically.
vi. Object modelling These describe objects which contain both data
(attributes or properties) and the procedures (operations or methods) that
read or manipulate that data.
5. Design
a. FUNCTIONS
i. Acquire hardware and software Technical specifications must be
identified; vendor proposals must be solicited, tested and evaluated; and a
decision made.
ii. Develop details of system The physical design including designs for the
databases, input and output interfaces and programs are specified.

b. DELIVERABLES These include diagrams and charts showing the structure and
components of the new system. Some are reports, diagrams, mock-ups, layout
charts and dictionary entries.
c. TOOLS
i. CASE tools Computer-aided software engineering tools are designed to
support one or more activities of the SDLC. Features may include project
dictionaries composed on all deliverables, graphics, prototyping, quality
assurance, code generators (creates computer programs from design
specifications) and housekeeping (provides backup and recovery
functions).
ii. Prototyping A prototype is a working model of a proposed system. Users
can work with the prototype to ensure that it meets their needs and
systems designers can see any errors and correct them before the final
design as it is cheaper and easier to make corrections at this stage. It is
actually quicker and easier to implement a solution more quickly when a
prototype was already created. However, difficulties may arise as
prototypes have no documentation.
6. Development
a. FUNCTION Perform programming
b. TOOLS flowcharts, pseudocode, programming languages
7. Implementation (including testing)
a. FUNCTIONS
i. Install and test new system Individual programs should be tested as well
as how they work together. Unit tests, systems tests, integration tests and
acceptance tests are performed. Both valid and invalid data are tested.
ii. Train users This involves showing users exactly how to use the new
hardware and software in the system.
iii. Convert to new system This can be in the form of direct, parallel, phased
or pilot conversion.
b. DELIVERABLES
i. Documentation This is the collection and summarization of data and
information and should be well written, thorough, consistent and
understandable by everyone. A project notebook contains all
documentation of a project. Documentation is referred to when worked
with and modifying current systems. It includes end-user documentation,
and operation and installation manuals.

ii. Information system (software) test plans This is the compilation of all
test data (both valid and invalid) and the responses that should be made.
8. Review and maintenance
a. Perform maintenance activities fixing errors in and improving on a systems
operations; users need to be consulted to decide if the system is performing
according to users expectations; corrective maintenance, adaptive maintenance
and perfective maintenance are carried out
b. Monitor system performance systems must be secure from unauthorized persons
both inside and outside the organisation
c. Assess system security
The project dictionary contains all documentation and deliverables of a project. All components
of DFDs and ERDs have entries in the project dictionary.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
1. Monitoring and control systems Enable the coordination of industrial parts and
processes
2. Data processing systems
a. Input data from day-to-day business activities i.e. transactional data
b. Aims process faster, reduce clerical costs and improve customer service
c. Uses to record a transaction, confirm an action or cause a response and
maintain data
d. Examples to calculate paychecks and print invoices
3. Management information systems An information system that generates, accurate,
timely and organized information so the users can make decisions, solve problems,
supervise activities and track progress
a. Capabilities quickly computing and comparing data to produce meaningful
information often in the form of reports
b. Use to create information that managers and other users need to perform their
jobs
c. Output detailed report (which lists transactions and notes about them);
summarised report (consolidates data to facilitate quick and easy reviewing);
exception report (identifies data outside of a normal condition enabling managers

to focus on situations that require immediate decisions or actions); ad hoc report

(contains information requested in a quick response time)
4. Decision support systems information systems which analyse and summarise internal
and external sources of data for the purpose of making decisions
a. Features statistical analyses, spreadsheets, graphics, models
5. Executive information systems supports strategic information needs of executive
management
a. Input usually external sources like the Internet
b. Output charts and tables that show trends, ratios and statistics
6. Expert systems an information system that captures and stores the knowledge of
human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision making; consists of a
knowledge base and inference rules
a. Uses answering customer questions, training employees and diagnosing
illnesses
7. Data warehouses contain huge databases that store and manage data required to
analyse historical and current transactions and to make decisions
8. Embedded systems microprocessors found in everyday devices
System software programs that control or maintain the operations of the computer and its
devices and serve as the interface between the user, application software and the computers
hardware.
An operating system is a set of programs containing instructions that work together to coordinate
all the activities among computer hardware resources.
Functions of an OS include:

Starting a computer

Providing a user interface

Managing programs

Managing memory

Coordinating tasks

Configuring devices

Administering security

Utilities (systems software that allows a user to perform maintenance type tasks) include:

File manager

Personal firewall

Disk scanner e.g. Disk Cleanup

Disk defragmenter

Backup utility

Antivirus programs

A command line interface is used to configure devices, manage system resources, and
troubleshoot network connections. A technician setting up a server may use command line
interface.
Firewall a piece of hardware and/or software that protects a networks resources from intrusion
by users on another network. They often include proxy servers which are servers outside the
companys network that controls which communications pass into the companys network. A
personal firewall is a utility that detects and protects a personal computer and its data from
unauthorised intrusions.
Identification verifies that the individual is a valid user while authentication verifies that the
individual is the person he or she claims to be.
Biometric devices may not work if persons have illnesses. For example, a cut on your finger
might cause a fingerprint reader to reject you; hand geometry readers may transmit germs; a sore
throat may cause a voice recognition system to reject you.
Encryption is a process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent
unauthorised access via transposition, substitution, expansion, compaction and other ways of
handling data.
The recipient of encrypted data needs an encryption key a programmed formula used to
decrypt ciphertext.
Wireless security measures:

A wireless access point should be configured so that it does not broadcast a network
name.

The security standard WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) should be used.

Access control refers to security measures taken to define and limit who can access and use a
computer, when they can access it and what actions they can take while accessing it. It is the
prevention of unauthorised use of a resource, including the prevention of use of a resource in an
unauthorised manner
Physical access control methods are those which limit access to a place or area where computers
or other restricted objects may be stored or destruction by natural and environmental hazards.
Logical access control methods refer to electronic access controls whose purpose is to limit
access to data files and computer programs to individuals with the genuine authority to access
such information.
Access control methods include:

Physical
o Swipe or key cards
o Biometric readers

Logical
o Passwords
o Encryption

Data integrity refers to the property that data has not been altered or destroyed in an unauthorised
manner. It is the assurance that information can only be accessed or modified by those authorized
to do so. Data integrity may be maintained by access control methods, backing up, and using
uninterruptible power supplies to prevent power surges from affecting data.
Data security is the result of effective protection measures that safeguard data/information from
undesired occurrences and exposure to accidental or intentional disclosure to unauthorised
persons, accidental or malicious alteration, unauthorised copying, loss by theft and/or destruction
by hardware failures, software deficiencies, operating mistakes, or physical damage by fire,
water, smoke, excessive temperature, electrical failure, or sabotage.
Accountability is the property that ensures that the actions of an entity can be traced and that
individuals can be held responsible for their actions such as unauthorised access of data.

Data corruption is the deterioration of computer data as a result of some external agent. Hazards
to data integrity include not only computer-based problems such as viruses and hardware or
software incompatibility, flaws, or failures, but also environmental threats such as power
outages, dust, water, and extreme temperatures. To protect data from corruption, you should
ensure that only authorized people have access to your data and that the physical environment is
safe from environmental hazards.
Data validation makes sure that the data is clean, correct and meaningful, while data verification
ensures that all copies of the data are as good as the original.
Problem solving is a mental process involving a systematic approach to identifying the problem,
analyzing it to gain an understanding of its scope and subsequently finding solutions to it.
A data flow diagram is a graphical representation of how data moves through a system.
It is used to:

Determine the logical requirements of a system to be built

Communicate with users and managers

Analyse existing and proposed systems

A context level diagram is the top level DFD showing only a single major process that defines
boundaries between the system and the entities with which it interacts.
A first level DFD shows the major processes in a system and is derived by the levelling of the
context level diagram.
DFDs are levelled, exploded, decomposed functionally or partitioned to get to lower levels
which contain more information and may give more details on individual processes.

The components of a DFD include:

External entities (sources or sinks/destinations) These are the units from which data is
received or to which data is sent.

Process This refers to an operation performed on the data and is expressed as a verb.

Data store This is the file where data is held.

Data flow This represents movement between entities, processes and stores and is
labelled to describe what data is involved.

Data flow diagramming errors include a:

Black hole process with only input data flow

Miracle a process with only output data flow from it

Data stores or external entities connected directly to each other

Data flow or objects labelled incorrectly e.g. a data flow with a verb or a process with a
noun

Grey hole inputs insufficient to produce outputs

An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure consisting of a sequence of instructions

that solves a problem.
Algorithms are precursors to program development just the representation of logic while data
structure is added during implementation to form a program. Programs must be written in the
structure of some programming language with correct syntax.
Properties of well-defined algorithms:

A general solution to the problem in a finite number of steps

Clearly defined and unambiguous

Flow of control from one process to another (must be clear and logical)

Algorithms may be represented as:

Narrative - This is the use of natural language and natural language rules to construct
sentences and paragraphs which describe the actions to take. Advantages include:
o it can be applied outside of computing,
o It can be understood by most persons
o It requires no special training to construct
The disadvantages of a narrative are that:
o it can be too verbose (too wordy)

o It can be context-sensitive (interpretation varies depending on persons

background and experience)

Flowcharts This is a diagrammatic representation of the sequence of steps needed to

perform a task. Advantages include:
o it is easy to understand by persons at all levels because of the visual nature
o easily seen flow of logic
Disadvantages include:
o They can become large and unwieldy when the programs are long and complex
o When alterations are required the flowchart will have to be completely redrawn.
o Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, production of
flowcharts becomes a complex exercise.

Pseudocode This is a compact and informal high-level description of a computer

programming algorithm that uses the structural conventions of some programming
language, but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading. Advantages
include:
o independent of a particular language so programmers of different languages can
all understand it
o programmers do not have to worry about syntax
o Lay people can help to determine the validity of the logic because it is not that
difficult to understand

The disadvantages of pseudocode are that

o It is very detailed and so requires a high level of concentration to determine the
overall logic
o The loose standards means that one solution may be depicted in several different
ways by different persons

Control structures include:

Sequence one statement follows another and they are executed in that order

Selection the execution of a statement(s) depend on whether previous conditions have

or have not been satisfied

Iteration or looping a statement or section of statements is repeated once some

condition is valid or for a specified number of times. These may be condition-controlled
or counter-controlled.

A programming language is a set of words, abbreviations and symbols that enables a

programmer to communicate instructions to a computer.
Stages in program development include:

Analysing requirements

Designing a solution

Validating the design

Implementing the solution

Testing

Documenting (global and internal comments)

A programming paradigm refers to a way of conceptualizing and structuring the tasks a computer
performs.
Programming paradigms include:

PROCEDURAL
o Programs are conceptualized as a series of steps that indicate how the problem
must be solved
o Include many first, second and third-generational languages e.g. COBOL, C,
Fortran
o Suitable for problems easily solved by linear, step-by-step algorithms such as
transaction processing and problems in mathematics and science especially those
which are largely number crunching
o Procedural languages run quickly and use system resources efficiently
o Not suitable for unstructured problems or those with very complex algorithms as
the order is crucial, making it unsuitable for some problems

OBJECT-ORIENTED
o The solution for a problem can be visualised in terms of objects (representing
abstract or real-world entities) that interact with each other. Objects comprise
methods (procedures what it can do) and properties (what it knows data).
o Includes C+ + and Java
o Suitable for a wide range of problems; once the problem can be envisioned as
having objects which pass messages back and forth

o Helps solutions to be easily visualised as the paradigm is similar to how humans

see the world; encapsulation and inheritance are great advantages
o Strong base classes must be developed to support upgrades and meet needs of the
application; quite a bit of memory and processing resources are required

FUNCTIONAL
o Emphasises the evaluation of expressions rather than the execution of commands
o The modular approach is used whereby larger problems are subdivided into
smaller problems and a single solution is provided
o Includes LISP, Scheme and Haskell
o The high level of abstraction reduces the chances of committing may types of
errors; relatively easy to develop and maintain very large programs; functions are
reusable
o Not suitable for problems with many variables; and errors are hard to find in very
large programs

DECLARATIVE OR LOGICAL
o The problem is described using a set of facts and rules but no solution is specified.
o Includes Prolog and SQL
o Suited for problems relating to words and concepts instead of numbers and
calculations e.g. artificial intelligence applications and database queries
o Offers flexibility when querying facts and rules; allows descriptions of problems
using words
o Has minimum input and output capabilities; not commonly used for production
applications; may be time consuming

Validation aims to check that data is reasonable, sensible, complete and within set boundaries.
Verification aims to check that the data entered is the same as that on the source document.