CHAPTER 9

BOUNDARY LAYER DEVELOPMENT DURING

CONDENSATION

9.1. Introduction
In many engineering applications, the steam generated during processes needs to be
converted into liquid. Often, condensation occurs over a flat wall or over the exterior of
internally cooled pipes. First, the condensation occurs in the form of droplets; however, as the
rate of cooling increases, the buoyancy force becomes much larger than the force due to the
surface tension and a liquid film will form. The liquid film then travels in the direction of the
gravitational force and the heat transfer across this film is the subject of this study.
9.2. Condensation Over a Vertical Plate
Nusselt [1] was the first to consider condensation over a vertical plate in 1916. If a vessel
contains a vapor and temperature of the wall is lowered to below the saturation temperature,
condensation will occur in the form of droplets. If the rate of removal of heat is increased, the
size of the droplets will increase and a film of liquid will begin to move downward due to its
buoyancy as shown in Figure 9.1.
Here, the simplest case is considered because both liquid and vapor are assumed to exist
under equilibrium condition. If the velocity of vapor (gas) in the direction of x is negligible, then,
as an approximation, a velocity profile
y y2

u U2
2

is selected. This velocity profile satisfies the conditions:

(1)

u=0 at y=0,

(2)

u=U at y=,

(3)

u/y=0 at y=.

(9.1)

y
Liquid film
Gas

x
T

Figure 9.1. A schematic of a liquid film during condensation.

Defining i fg as the enthalpy (heat) of evaporation, then, following condensation, this energy
must be removed through the wall. Neglecting the effect of sensible heat, the heat flux q
becomes independent of y. Since the liquid temperature T is equal to the wall temperature Tw at
y=0 and it is equal to the saturation temperature Tsat at y=, a linear temperature profile can
satisfy the conditions:
(1)

T=Tw at y=0,

(2)

T=Tsat at y=,

that is
T Tw

y
Tsat Tw

(9.2)

Then, based on Eq. (9.2), the heat flux leaving the boundary layer through the wall is
q k

T Tw
T
k sat
y

k
Tw Tsat

(9.3)

The heat flux crossing the elemental volume dA=dx1, shown in Figure 9.2, is dQ qdA that
can be written as
2

qdA

k
dA Tw Tsat

(9.4)

y
Liquid film
Gas

x
T

qdx1

dx

A volume element

Figure 9.2. Schematic of a differential element in the condensing liquid film.

The heat transfer coefficient h is defined using the relation
dQ qdA h dx 1(Tw Tsat )

(9.5)

Comparing the last two relations suggests that the heat transfer coefficient is
hk

(9.6)

In order to have a steady flow of liquid down the wall, the weight of flow must be balanced by
shear stress at the wall. Using a force balance, one gets

dx 1g w dx 1
u y y 0 dx 1

(9.7a)

that can be written as

g u
2U

y y 0

(9.7b)

Accordingly, U is related to film thickness through the relation

U

g 2

and then velocity profile becomes

(9.8a)

g 2 y y 2
2
2 2

(9.8b)

The average velocity um for this parabolic velocity profile is

um

2
u max
3

(9.9a)

um

g 2

(9.9b)

and since u max U g 2 / 2 then

The mass flow rate, at any given x within the liquid film is
G um 1

2 g 3

(9.10a)

The mass of fluid condensed across an incremental area dx1, at y=, is

dG

g 2 2
g 2 2
3 d
d
3

(9.10b)

This vapor mass dG must be condensed and the heat must be transferred across the liquid film,
then
dQ dG i fg

(9.11)

where i fg is the change of enthalpy as the saturated vapor becomes liquid. After substituting for
dQ from Eq. (9.5), one gets
kdx
Tw Tsat i fg dG

(9.12)

then the value of dG becomes

dG

k
i fg

dx Tsat Tw

(9.13)

Moreover, earlier analysis, Eq. (9.10b), produced dG g 2 2 d / and then, equating these two
quantities produces
k
i fg

d x Tsat Tw

or

g 2 2
d

(9.14a)

k
d
Tsat Tw

dx i fg g 2

(9.14b)

The integration of this first-order differential equations between x=0 and x results in the
following relation,
x
k
1 4 ( x )

Tsat Tw x
( 0)
4
0
i fg g 2

(9.14c)

and assuming 0 0 , it becomes

( x)4

4 k x

i fg g 2

Tsat Tw

(9.14d)

Then, the liquid film thickness is

4

4 k Tsat Tw x
g 2 i fg

(9.15)

Once is known, the heat transfer equation is obtained from the relation
h

2
3
k 4 g i fg k

4Tsat Tw x

(9.16)

and then in dimensionless form

Nu x

2
3
hx 4 g i fg x

k
4 k Tsat Tw

(9.17)

The average heat transfer coefficient is

L

1
4
h
hdx h
L
3 xL

(9.18)

The assumption of a linear temperature profile in the liquid film ignores the effect of
sensible heat due to the specific heat of liquid. Rohsenow suggested a correction factor to
account for the effect of nonlinearity of temperature in the liquid film, that is, to replace i fg in
the above equation by i fg when


c pl (Tsat Tw )
i fg i fg 1 0.68

i fg

(9.19)

i fg 0.68c pl (Tsat Tw )

Alternatively, one can use a parabolic temperature profile such as

T Tsat b0 b1 ( y / ) b2 ( y / ) 2

(9.20)

in Burmeister [2] and obtain the boundary layer thickness

4 1

4 k Tsat Tw x
1 c pl Tsat Tw
4
4
i fg
l g i fg (l g )

(9.21)

In the same reference, an empirical relation is given for the case

when flow becomes turbulent, it is
3

g 1 / 3 2 / 3 k T T x 2
Re
L
sat
w
0.003
5/3
4

i fg l

(9.22a)

where Re is the Reynolds number. By definition, this Re value is

defined as

Re 4h Tsat Tw x /( l i fg ) .

(9.22b)
For condensation over external surface of a horizontal tube with
diameter D, the following empirical equation is suggested,
1
4

i fg
hD
0.728 Ra

kl
c pl Tsat Tw

(9.23a)

wherein the Rayleigh number Ra is

Ra

l2 g (l g ) Pr D 3
l l2

(9.23b)

9.3. Condensation Over a Vertical Plate When Gas Moving

Now a vapor is moving parallel to a vertical wall, Figure 9.3, and the wall temperature is
lowered to below the saturation temperature. Condensation will occur in the form of droplets and
then a liquid film, see Fig. 9.3 below.

Liquid film

Gas flow
x

T
Gas Boundary
layer

Figure 9.3. Liquid film in the presence of a moving gas.

Consideration is given to the case when U U where U is the gas velocity of the
mainstream and U is the liquid velocity at y=. In general, l / g is large, e.g., for water, at
room temperature, of the order of 50. Furthermore, it is assumed that p=constant, then the force
balance equation is

dx 1(l g ) g ( w )dx 1
where w l (u / y ) y 0 and l (u / y ) y g (u g / y )

(9.24)
assuming equilibrium

condition at y=.
To obtain a solution, as before, consider a parabolic velocity profile, but with a small
modification, as
y
y 2
u U2 a

2

(9.25)

w l (u / y ) y 0 lU (2 / )

(9.26a)

This equation yields

and

 l (u / y ) y lU ( 2 / 2a / )
2 lU (1 a ) /

(9.26b)

For the case when U U , following substitution for shear stress terms, the force balance
relation is
g (l g )
2U 2U

(1 a)
l

(9.27a)

or

2Ua g (l g )

(9.27b)
l

When y=, then the maximum velocity is u max U U (2 a) . Moreover, the mean velocity is
um

1
U 2 y
y 2
udy
dy
a
0
0
2
U

a
a U 1
3

(9.28)

and then the liquid mass flow rate G is

G l um lU(1 a / 3)
l (1 a / 3)[ g (l g )3 ] /( 2a l )

(9.29)

Looking at the gas flow, saturated gas enters the liquid film before condensation is to occur.
Let parameter v be the y-component of velocity vector in the gas phase, then, the mass entering
liquid film is dG g v dx . As an approximation, a particular solution for parallel flow of gas
over a porous wall with suction yields the wall shear stress g vU , see Section 9.4.
Now, the working relation, Eqs. (9.26-29), can be summarized below,
(1)

dG g v dx

(2)

G l (1 a / 3)[ g (l g )3 ] /(2a)
2Ua g (l g )

l
k
dG
dx Tsat Tw
i fg

(3)
(4)
(5)

g vU 2 lU (1 a ) /

This system of five nonlinear relations is to be solved to produce U, G, a, , and v .

9.4. Additional Notes

For parallel flow over a porous wall with suction at the wall, Figure 9.4, it is possible to get
a simple particular solution by assuming u=u(y) independent of x. Since p=constant, then the
governing equations are:

u v

0
x y

(9.29)

u
u 2u
v

x
y y 2

(9.30)

U
u

Gas flow

Figure 9.4. Parallel flow over a porous wall with suction.

Since it is assumed u=u(y) then u/x=0 and v vw constant. The subcstitution in the
momentum equation produces
u 2u

u 0 vw
y y 2
whose solution, using the boundary conditions u(0)=0 and u()= U is

(9.31)

v y
(9.32)
u ( y ) U 1 exp w

Since w (u / y ) y 0 v wU following differentiation of the above equation then

w vwU
This equation serves as an approximation for predicting the shear stress at the liquid-vapor
interface during condensation.

(9.33)

References

1. W. Nusselt, Z. Ver. Duet. Engr. , Vol. 60, 1916, p.541.

2. L. C. Burmeister, Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Wiley, 1993, pp. 518-519.

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