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Reported speech
El estilo indirecto en ingls tiene sus peculiaridades, las cuales es
necesario conocer si quieres dominar la lengua del trabajo y de los
negocios. Si te has encallado en...
[31/12/04]
29.897
2. Verbo might
[ http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-ingles-manual-gramatica-3/verbo-might]
Might".Es difcil para el estudiante extranjero. A veces representa el pasado de
"may". En otras ocasiones puede emplearse con el presente o puede tener un
significado propio. Vamos a examinarlo.
I.
PRESENTE
1 .RequerimientosCorteses:
Como ya se indic, "may" se emplea para presentar requerimi-entos corteses. En
ocasiones se usa "might" a este efecto si queremos expresarnos con aun ms
cortesa.
- Might I have the sauce?
Me permitela salsa?
- Might I suggest that we -leave early?
Puedo sugerir que nos marchemos temprano?
2. Probabilidad:
Puede usarse tambin en el presente con un sentido de probabilidad que es
semejante a "may". Su empleo, sin embargo, indica generalmente una impresin de
duda sobre esta proba-bilidad ms fuerte que "may11.
- He might come, but I should be surprised
Puede que venga, pero me sorprendera
- Of course, she might tell us her secret, but I don't think she will.
Desde luego que podra contarnos su secreto, mas no creo que lo haga.
3. Reprobacin
"Might" se usa tambin en el presente para expresar reprobacin.
- I think you might show less surprise!
i Creo que podras mostrar menos sorpresa!
- You might give me one apple!
Podras darme una manzana!
II.
PASADO
1.
Estilo Indirecto
El estilo indirecto "might" se usa como pasado de "may" para expresar posibilidad,
permiso, etc.
- He says he may come to this caf
3. Verbo to need
[ http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-ingles-manual-gramatica-3/verbo-to-need]
Lo primero que debe quedar bien establecido a propsito de "To ne-ed" es que tiene
dos significados: necesitar y ser menester.
I. NECESITAR - REQUERIR
En este sentido "need" es verbo normal. Se acompaa, por tanto, de "do", "does" y
"did" en frases negativas e interrogativas.
- Do you need a car?
Necesitas un automvil?
- You don't need a car
No necesitas un coche
- Did she need a car?
Necesitaba ella un carro?
Cuando se emplea "need" en este sentido de necesidad, un verbo que siga
inmediatamente despus debe ir en gerundio.
- He needs helping
El necesita ayuda
II. SER MENESTER - OBLIGACIN
Con este sentido no es frecuente el uso de "to need" en frases afirmativas. En frases
interrogativas y negativas podemos con-jugar need - con "do" o sin do para
expresar ligeras diferencias de matiz en el significado.
Se emplea "need" con do, does, principalmente para expresar acciones habituales,
y sin do, does ms bien para referirse a una ocasin particular.
A. Presente.
1. Forma Interrogativa:
- Does one always need to tip?
Es necesario dar siempre propina? (Habitual.)
- Need I tip the maid?
Es necesario que d propina a la doncella?
(Particular)
2. Forma Negativa:
- You should stay at hotels where you don't need to tip.
Deberas alojarte en hoteles donde no tengas que dar
propinas
De que te sonres?
10
- Me lo dio.
- He sent it to me.
- Me lo envi.
11
- A Japanese doctor
- Japanese books
- Japanese women
12
5. Conjunciones en ingls
[ http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-ingles-manual-gramatica-3/conjunciones-ingles]
Estas palabras sirven como enlace entre frases para dar sentido completo a
oraciones complejas.
A. Until. As Soon As.
- The law will not let them work until they reach a certain age.
- They quit school as soon as the law lets them
"Until"indica el punto final de una accin: They waited un-til six o'clock and then
they left. She worked until she was ti red, "As soon as" indica el condenso de una
accin:
- The students began working as soon as the teacher came in.
"Until" puede ser seguido por una expresin de tiempo (un-til six o'clock) o por un
sujeto y verbo (until she was tired). "As soon as" puede solamente ser seguido por
un sujeto y un verbo (as soon as the teacher carne in). El tiempo presente simple es
usado con "until" o "as soon as" cuando este se refiere una ocasin futura:
- She will work until she is tired
- The students will begin working as soon as the teacher comes in.
B. "Unless".
Expresa una condicin negativa; significa "if not" (al menos que, o si no...). Por
tanto la oracin:
- He will kill himself unless I marry him
- Significa lo mismo que:
- He will kill himself if I don't marry him.
Note la forma del verbo en la clausula "unless": esta est en presente simple
afirmativo. El verbo en la clausula principal puede ser tiempo futuro negativo o
afirmativo. Cuando la clusula "if" o "unless" encabeza la oracin, se debe poner
una coma entre las dos clausulas.
- Unless you tell him yourself, he' 11 lose faith in you completely.
Al menos que t mismo se lo digas, el perder por completo la fe en ti.
Sin embargo, cuando la clausula "if" o "unless" est al fi-nal de la oracin no se usa
una coma:
- He'll lose faith in you unless you tell him.
C. In Spite Of and Because Of.
- In spite of my pleasant personality and high intelligence, I was miserable.
- Because of the Tom Buster Body-Building Course, my life was changed.
13
14
INTRODUCTION
Las preposiciones se usan de forma muy diversa; a menudo son idiomticas, y con
frecuencia resulta muy difcil ele-: conviene despus de ciertos verbos y adjetivos. Adems
una palabra usada como preposicin puede emplearse tambin como adverbio con un
significado diferente. En esta leccin como en otras posteriores, estudiaremos ciertas
categoras de preposiciones que si se consideran en grupo presentan una lgica en su uso.
Nos ocuparemos aqu de on, in, at, over y above, en su empleo exclusivo como
preposiciones de lugar.
II. ON Como Preposicin de Lugar.
Significa generalmente que algo toca una superficie exterior.
Onthetable
La eleccin entre in y on puede ser significativa, decimos There are flowers in your garden
porgue los jardines estn, por lo general, cercados. En relacin con la mayora de las sillas
hablamos de sitting on a chair, pero refirindonos a un silln podemos decir in an
armchair porgue estamos rodeatados por.
Al igual que on, in raramente indica movimiento, excepto con unos pocos verbos como t o
put.
-
Ponlo en la caja.
III. AT Como Preposicin de Lugar.
Refirindonos a lugar, a t implica situacin en un punto. Si est usted at en un lugar; no es
preciso que est in ni on, sino sino simplemente all, ligado con el sitio de alguna manera.
15
Se sent a la mesa.
Se usa, pues, at con cosas tratndose de las cuales sera difcil estar in u on.
-
16
Entremos en la abada.
-
17
Most of the kings and queens of England have been crowned inside the building.
Muchos de los reyes y reinas de Inglaterra han sido coronados en el interior de esta iglesia.
-
Podemos emplear inside con un verbo de movimiento, pero puede resultar ambiguo. As: He
walked incide t he house puede significar que entr andando en la casa o que anduvo por el
interior de la casa propiamente dicha. Generalmente por lo tanto, empleamos into para
expresar movimiento hacia el interior (inside).
Inside puede emplearse tambin como nombre.
-
Se sent dentro.
-
18
Can't you imagine the dead kings and queens being carried out of the sunlight?
No te puedes imaginar a los reyes y reinas muertos al ser alejados de la luz del sol?
-
19
No se lo quites.
AWA TOy OFF TO
Ambos pueden emplear se para indicar movimiento hacia un lugar alejado.
-
20
We met at night.
Te ver el domongo.
-
Naci en 1932.
-
21
22
Te ver el sbado.
-
23
24
He heardthe radio in the living room, so he went in and listened to the news.
Los verbos "see" y "hear" usualmente no toman el continuo, pero "look at y "listen to" forman
tanto los tiempos simples como los continuos:
-
tiempo
25
Con estos verbos, incluso el presente perfecto o el presente perfecto continuo pueden ser
usados para mostrar que la accin contina hasta el presente.
- They've worked for this company for a long time, or theyve been working for this company
for a long time.
D. Los verbos de "estado" y "percepcin" que por lo general no forman el presente continuo
no toman tampoco el pre-sente perfecto continuo (Ver comentario l.A.)
- How long have you had your present Job?
- I've known her all my life.
- He's been here for a long time.
IV. SIMPLE PAST VS. PAST CONTINUOUS: GOING TO OR WOULD
26
He didn't know the accident was going to happen or that he would hit the bus stop.
Hay una ligera diferencia de significado entre "was/were going to do" y "would do".
"Was/were going to do" y "would do" son usados como pasados continuos. "Pasado continuo"
aqu significa que nos referimos a un punto en el pasado, cuando el evento est todava en el
futuro; pero mirando atrs desde el presente, este est en el pa-sado. (Si el hombre entr a
su auto a las 3:00 de ayer, y el accidente fue a las 3:30, entonces a las 3:00 de ayer el
acciden-te estaba todava en el futuro- pero ahora, est en el pasado).
27
(La accin de cocinar comenzar antes de las seis en punto y finalizar despus de
las seis, pero a las seis en punto el cocinar estar efectundose.)
B.
May/might be doing es usado aqu para lo que posiblemente podra estar
ocurriendo en algn momento del futuro. Usted no sabe con certeza si estar
pasando o no.
II. FUTURE PERFECT
Will
- The population of the World May
Have double by the year 2100.
Might
A.
El futuro con will es usado para acciones que sern hechas antes que se
alcance cierto punto en el futuro.
B.
May/might en esta forma significa que algo habr sucedido para el tiempo en
que se alcance cierto punto en el futuro.
III. MAY/MIGHT HAVE (DONE)
May/might have done puede ser usado en el pasado tambin. Este significa Tal
vez sucedi esto.
-
We havent received the setter. It might have gotten lost in the mail.
28
verb + ing
(don't) mind
Stop
Love
Start
- Do you remember meeting me last year?
II. GERUND FORM OF "CAN/COULD" AND MUST/HAVE TO/HAD TO".
- I miss being able to relax on weekends
- I hate having to get up early.
"Para expresar habilidad11 con una forma de gerundio, use "being ble to".
"Para expresar necesidad" u "obligacin" con un gerundio; use "having to."
Por tanto:
29
me
him
saw
He
heard
her
them doing it
you
us
it
my
his
remembers her
He misses
can't stand
30
"Have (something) done" indica que la accin (de limpiar) es he-cha por otra persona.
Observe que en este patrn el objeto (my old clothes) siempre se encuentra entre "have" y el
"participio pasado" (cleaned, done, etc.).
IV. WANT PLUS OBJECT PLUS INFINITIVE
- Naturally, she wanted him to get the promotion.
El verbo "want" puede ser seguido por un objeto y un infinitivo (to + base form of verb).
- He wants his mother to feed him.
- He wants his father to take him up.
31
me
you what
told
h i m How
Someone advised her when to + verb
showed i t
where
us
which
them why
VI. MAKE + SOMEONE/SOMETHING + ADJETIVE
-
It is often those things which make them rich that also make them unpleasant.
The products that make the country rich also pollute the air.
En estas oraciones, el adjetivo modifica el objeto directo (them, the country). Note que el
adjetivo va despus del objeto directo
32
ARTICLES
NOUNS
Refer to: people, things, abstract ideas.
1.
Countable Nouns
A student
The student
Four students
Students
Scissors
Police
Pants
33
Uncountable nouns
(Mass Nouns)
General concepts:
Health
Money
Illness
3.
Proper Nouns
Individuals or places:
John
London
Baxter
PREPOSITIONS
Expresses the noun relation with the other parts of the speech, such as by, on, with,
from, after, before, etc.
She put the flowers on the table.
However, in some constructions English prepositions can be put at the end of a
proposition.
The people I came here with
La gente con la que vine
VERBS
Describe actions, emotions and states.
There are three main types:
Main verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
1.
Main Verbs:
Walk
Talk
Expect
Grow
2.
34
be, have, do
Modals:
shall, will
3.
Modals Verbs
Can
Could
May
Might
Must
Ought to
Should Would
Examples:
He can do it
She might do it
You must do it
Tense
A verb or verb phrase referring to the time of the action. A form that takes the verb
depending on the time it is expressing.
There are three basic forms:
Simple tenses
Rashid catches the bus to school most days
Continues tenses
Rashid is catching the bus this morning
Perfect tenses
Rashid has caught the bus right now
Verbs Forms
There are four or five different forms
The base or infinitive form
Talk, expect, grow, talks, expects, grows
Present participle
Talking, expecting, growing
The past tense
Talked, expected, grew
The past participle
Talked, expected, grown
35
Trans. Verbs:
Intransitive Verbs:
A verb that does not have a direct object over which the verb action falls down:
She laughed
She was laughing at him
Active and Passive Voice
The teacher helped Rebecca
Rebecca was helped by the teacher
The two sentences have the same meaning, but in the first one, The teacher` is the
subject while in the second, Rebecca` is the subject, so the focus is different. The
verb in the first sentence is in the active voice. In the second sentence, the verb,
formed with was` is in the passive voice. The direct object of an active verb can be
always be made de subject of a passive verb.
Utility: the passive voice can be very useful when you want to talk about an action or
event, but do not know (or do not want to say) who did it. Example:
Daren stole my pen (active voice).
My pen has been stolen (passive voice).
Phrasal Verbs
Some verbs are used with an adverb or preposition to form a special kind of verb,
called a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are expressions like:
Take in, take off, take over, run down, break in, and so on.
The meaning of a phrasal verb is often very different from the meaning of the simple
verb and the adverb or preposition used on their own.
PUNCTUATION
Marks used to organize writing: the standardized nonalphabetical symbols or
marks that are used to organize writing into clauses, phrases, and sentences, and in
this way make its meaning clear
36
Apostrophe ()
Brackets ( ) or Parenthesis
Brackets are put round a part of a sentence that could be omitted while still leaving
and intelligible statement:
That hose over there (with a blue door) is ours.
C.
Capital letters are used at the beginning of a sentence, and for proper nouns and
titles of people and organizations:
Ms. Robertson, Dr. Smith, South America, British Rail, etc.
D.
Colon (:)
37
Comma (,)
Exclamation Mark
Full Stop
A full stop marks the end of a sentence. Full stops are also used after abbreviations
and initial letters standing for a whole word. Example:
Dec. for December`, fig. for figure`, a.m. for ante
meridiem`.
Abbreviations that include the first and last letters of a word are equally acceptable
with or without the full stop. Example:
38
Hyphen ( - )
Compounds words, like layby` and fire engine`, may often be spelled with a
hyphen between them.
Prefix: words with a prefix such as non - `or anti - `are sometimes spelled with a
hyphen.
Compounds adjectives: when a compound adjective comes before a noun it is often
hyphenated to stress that the constituent parts are not being used independently.
Example:
She has a red-striped jumper.
This is a user-friendly dictionary.
I.
Inverted Commas
A question mark is used at the end of direct questions, but not after reported ones.
Thus you use a question mark at the end of:
Where are you going`? ,
But not after:
he asked where I was going`.
K.
Semicolon (;)
39
40
C.
a or an?
A is the form of the indefinite article used before words that are pronounced with an
initial consonant sound (even if the spelling does not begin with a consonant): a
banana; a hunk; a ewe. An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even
if an unpronounced consonant comes first): an elephant; an heir. The same rule
regarding sound rather than spelling applies to abbreviations: a CD but an LP. The
practice of using an before words beginning with h and an unstressed syllable (for
example, an hotel, an historic occasion) is falling out of use, and it is much more
usual now to hear a hotel and a historic occasion, with the h sounded.
Definite Article
41
Adjective
C.
Indicating Shared Experience: used to refer to objects and concepts
associated with the shared experience of a culture, society, or community.
go to the hospital
E.
Titles And Names: used before titles and some names such as place names
42
F.
Qualifying Names And Titles: used in names and titles before adjectives and
nouns that distinguish somebody from others of the same name or title.
H.
I.
Expressing Rates And Ratios: used to indicate how many units apply to each
or every thing measured.
J.
Indicating Family Relationship: used instead of a possessive such as "your" or
"my" to refer to somebody having a particular family relationship (informal).
K.
L.
Adverb, Adjective
M. Adverb
by how much or by that much: used adverbially to indicate how one amount or
quality changes in relation to another (used before each of two comparative
adjectives or adverbs).
STRUCTURES
1. ONE
Identification
43
I.LV. TOBE
This
is
PREDIC.
NOMINATIVE
a book
2. TWO
SUBJECTS
The
Placing
I.LV. TO BE
is
PREDIC. ADVERBIAL
on the talbe
3. THREE
SUBJECTS
The book
Qualifying
I.LV. TO BE
is
PREDIC. ADJECTIVE
interesting
4. FOUR
SUBJECTS
She
5. FIVE
SUBJECTS
She
6. SIX
SUBJECTS
He
Discribing emotions
INT. LINKING VERB
feels
7. SEVEN
Discribing personal
interactions
SUBJECTS
TRANS. VERB
IND. OBJECT
She
buys
me
8. EIGHT
SUBJECTS
I.LV. TO BE
He
is
9. NINE
Expresing concepts
SUBJECTS
TRANS. VERB
PREDIC. ADJECTIVE
happy
DIRECT
OBJECT
a book
PREDIC.
NOMINATIVE
PREDIC.
NOMINATIVE
a doctor
DIR. OBJ.
OBJEC.
COMPL.
44
considers
him
10. TEN
Discribing events
SUBJECTS
TRANS. VERB
DIR. OBJ.
She
She
She
He
watched
watched
keeps
finds
him
him
the door
english
a good friend
OBJEC.
COMPL.
read
reading
closed
easy
45
DE SUSTITUCION
This is a map
Book
This is a book
Pencil
This is a pencil
Teacher
This is an orange
This is an orange
Envelope
This is an envelope
Exercise
This is an exercise
In the morning
Downtown
(repeat)
We go to class in the morning
We go down town in the morning
Teacher
I study French at home
English
(repeat)
I study English at home
At school
My lesson
Write
(repeat)
Maps
Book
This is a book
Books
46
(repeat)
John
Keys
We
Class
(repeat)
(repeat)
Student
Betty doesn`t speak English
We dont have a class every day
Class
(repeat)
(repeat)
Student
Do you have a brother?
Does John have a sister?
Class
Student
(repeat)
Where
(repeat)
When
Class
(repeat)
Eighteen
Student
47
Class
Student
Student A
Student B
Charles.
Nmero de personas.
2.
Ttulo de la lectura.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
BIBLIOGRAFA
Salvat Ingls
Life Style
AKL Book
American English Course
Libros de Texto Instituto Meyer
48
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