Lecture 2,3: 1-D Steady-State Conduction

Learning outcomes:

Able to obtain temperature profiles for common geometries with

and without heat generation.
Understand the concept of thermal resistance and thermal circuit

2.1 Introduction
Conduction problems may involve multiple directions and timedependent conditions

One-dimensional steady-state models can represent accurately

numerous engineering systems and geometry, including cylindrical &
spherical if T only a function of radial distance

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2.2 The Plane Wall

Consider a simple case of onedimensional conduction in a plane wall,
separating two fluids of different
temperature,
without
internal
generation
Temperature is a function of x

Cold fluid

Ts,1

T,2 ,h2
Ts,2

T,1 ,h1

Must consider
Convection from hot fluid to wall

qx
Hot fluid

Conduction through wall

Convection from wall to cold fluid

x=0

x=L

x
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Conduction - Thermal Resistance

For multilayer wall, heat transfer can be written as:
q k A A

T T
T T
T2 T1
k B A 3 2 k C A 4 3
x A
x B
x C

T1 T4
x A x B x C

k A A k BA k CA

Note: L=x
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Thermal Resistance
We can use the electrical analogy to represent heat transfer
problems using the concept of a thermal circuit (equivalent to
an electrical circuit Ohms Law).
Overall Driving Force Toverall
q

Resistance
R th

Unit for thermal resistance is C/W

Note: If k for various material differ significantly, 2D heat
flow can happen

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Example
Consider a 3m high, 5 m wide and 0.17 m thick wall (k=0.9
W/m.K). The temperature of the inner and outer surface of
the wall are 16C and 2C respectively. Determine the heat
loss through the wall.

Also see problem 2.1, 2.3 (text book)

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Composite Walls
For multilayer, where such cases are mostly 2 or 3D,
approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming 1-D
using the electrical analogy to represent a thermal circuit .

Rtot=R1+R2++Rn

For resistances in series:

q1

q2

T1

For resistances in parallel:

q3

T2

1/Rtot=1/R1+1/R2++1/Rn
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2.3 R value
R value can be used to classify insulation material:
R value

T
q/A

Unit of R is C.m2 /W
Larger R value indicates better insulation

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2.4 Radial systems cylindrical

Consider a hollow cylinder, whose
inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures.
If the wall thickness is small,
temperature gradient in radial
direction is relatively large.
If inner and outer surface
temperatures remain constant, heat
transfer can be modeled as steady
and one-dimensional.
qr kA

r2

r1

dT
; A 2rL
dr

T2
q
dr kdT
T1
2rL

(T1 T4 )
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 ) ln(r4 r3 )

2Lk A
2LkB
2LkC
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qr

Spherical Coordinates
Fouriers law:

dT
qr kA
dr
2 dT
k (4r )
dr

qr

4k (Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
(1 / r1 ) (1 / r2 )

1 1 1

Rth, sph
4k r1 r2

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2.5 Convective Boundary Condition (Plane Wall)

Cold fluid

T,1

T,2 , h2
Ts ,1

qx

T,1 Ts,1

Ts ,2

T,1, h1

Hot fluid

qx

x=0

1 / h1 A

Ts,1 Ts,2
L / kA

Ts,2 T,2
1 / h2 A

T,2

x=L

In terms of overall temperature

difference:
qx
Rtot
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T,1 T,2
Rtot

1
L
1

h1 A kA h2 A
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Convective B.C. (Cylindrical)

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Example
Steam at T=320C flows in a cast iron pipe (k=80 W/m.C.)
where inner D=5 cm and outer D=5.5cm. The pipe is covered
with 3 cm thick glass wool insulation with k=0.05 W/m.C.
Heat is lost to surroundings at T=5C by natural convection
and radiation, with a combined h of 18 W/m2.C. Taking h
inside the pipe as 60 W/m2.C, determine the rate of heat loss
from the steam per unit length of pipe. Also determine
temperature drop across the shell and insulation.

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Example
Foam

plaster

1.5 cm

brick

22 cm

1.5 cm

3cm 2cm

16cm

2cm

A 3-m high and 5-m wide wall

consist of long 16cm x 22cm cross
section horizontal bricks (k=0.72
W/m.C) separated by 3-cm thick
plaster layers (k=0.22 W/m.C).
There are also 2-cm thick plaster
layers on each side of the brick and
a 3-cm thick rigid foam (k=0.026
W/m.C) on the inner side of the wall.
The
indoor
and
outdoor
temperatures are 20C and -10C
respectively, the convection heat
transfer coefficient on the inner and
the outer sides are h1 =10 W/m2.C
and h2=25 W/m2.C. Assuming 1-D
heat transfer and disregarding
radiation, determine the rate of heat
transfer through wall.
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2.6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

We can also write q in terms of an overall heat transfer
coefficient, U
T
q x UAT
Rtotal
where

1
1
U

[(1 / h1 ) (x A / k A ) (xB / k B ) (xC / kC ) (1 / h4 )] Rtot A

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2.7 Critical Insulation Thickness

Adding more insulation to a plane wall always decrease heat
transfer, as A is constant, adding insulation increases thermal
resistance
Additional insulation for cylindrical or spherical geometry
increases conductance resistance, but decreases convection
resistance, so heat transfer may increase or decrease
The rate of heat transfer from an insulated pipe to the
surrounding is
T 1 T
T1 T
q

1
Rcond,ins Rconv ln(r2 / r1 )
2Lk
h(2r2 L)
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Critical Insulation Thickness (cont)

If variation of q with r2 is plotted:
q

Maximum condition is obtained

at dq/dr=0 to get critical radius of
insulation (pg40):

k
rcr ,cylinder
h
qmax

rcr ,sphere

qbare

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2k

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Example
A 3-mm diameter and 5-m long electric wire is wrapped with
a 2-mm thick plastic cover with k=0.15 W/m.C. A current of
10A passes through the wire and voltage drop is 8V. If the
insulated wire is exposed to T of 30C with h=12 W/m2.C,
determine the temperature at the interface of the wire and
plastic cover in steady state. Also, is doubling the thickness of
plastic cover increase or decrease the interface temperature?

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Heat Equation
E in E out E g

Energy Conservation Equation

dE
dt

T T T
T

k
k
k
q c p
x x y y z z
t
3-D net conduction of heat into the CV

If heat transfer is 1-D:

rate of
energy
generation
per unit
volume

time rate of
change of
thermal
energy per
unit volume

d dT
dT
k
q c p
dx dx
dt
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2.8 Heat Source

Thermal energy may be generated or consumed due to
conversion from some other energy form. E.g. nuclear reactor,
electrical conductors, chemically reacting system etc ( q is
volumetric heat)
If thermal energy is generated, a heat source: q is +ve.
E.g. Conversion of electrical to thermal energy:
E g I 2 R e
where I is the current, Re the electrical
q

V
V
resistance, V the volume of the medium
q
If thermal energy is consumed we have a sink:
Endothermic reactions

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is -ve

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Plane Wall with Heat Source

Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane
wall of constant k, with uniform generation, and asymmetric
surface conditions:
Steady state 1D with generation (eq. 1.6) :
d 2T q
0
2
dx
k
Boundary Conditions:
T ( L) Ts,1 ,

T ( L) Ts,2

q 2
General Solution:T x C1x C2
2k
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Plane Wall with Heat Source (cont)

Temperature profile:
q L2 x 2 (Ts, 2 Ts,1 ) x Ts,1 Ts, 2
1 2
T( x )

2k L
2
L
2

Profile is parabolic.
With generation, heat flux not independent of x

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Plane wall (symmetrical distribution)

For plane wall with same specified wall temperature,
temperature profile:
q L2 x 2
1 2 Ts
T( x )
2k L

Maximum T (T0) at mid plane(at x=0),

q L2
T0
Ts
2k

T( x ) T0 x

Ts T0
L

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Example
A plane wall is a composite of 2 materials, A and B. The wall
of material A has uniform heat generation of 1.5 x 106 W/m3,
kA =75 W/m.K and thickness of 50mm. The wall material B
has no heat generation with kB of 150 W/m.K and thickness
of 20mm. The inner surface of material A is well insulated
and the outer surface of material B is cooled by water stream
with T of 30C and h=1000 W/m2.K.
Determine the temperature of the insulated surface and the
temperature of the cooled surface.

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Radial Systems with Heat Source

Heat diffusion equation in the rdirection for steady-state conditions:
Boundary Conditions:
General Solution:

dT
dr

r 0

1 d dT
r
r dr dr

q
0
k

0, T ( ro ) Ts

q 2
T ( r ) r C1 ln r C2
4k

Temperature profile (Eq.2.25a):

qro2
T (r)
4k

At r=0:

r2
1 Ts
r2
o

T , h

q ro2
T0
Ts
4k

L
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Example
A long homogeneous resistance wire (r=0.5cm,
k=13.5 W/m.C) with heat generation of 4.3x107
W/m3. If the outer surface of the wire is 108C,
determine the temperature at the centreline of wire
at steady state.

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2.9 Conduction-Convection(fins/extended surfaces)

To increase convection heat transfer: 1. increase h or 2. increase A
d 2T hP

(T T ) 0
2
dx
kA

d 2 hP

0
2
dx
kA

d 2
2

m
0
2
dx

or

Where

T T

Refer Eq (2.35-2.37) for HT thru fins for various B.C

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Example
A very long copper rod (k=398 W/m.K) with
diameter=5 mm has one end maintained at 100C.
The surface of the rod is exposed to ambient T at
25C with convective heat transfer coefficient of
100W/m2.K. Determine the heat losses from the
rod.

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2.10 Contact Resistance

When two different material with different k brought into contact,
the temperature drop across the interface between materials may
varies approximately, due to surface roughness effects, leading to air
pockets. We can define thermal contact resistance:

1
Rc
hcA
Rc

TA TB
qx

Table 2-3: Typical contact conductance values

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Example
A thin silicon chip and an 8mm thick aluminium substrate
(k=239 W/m.K) are separated by a 0.02mm thick epoxy
joint. The chip and the substrate are each 10 mm on a side,
and their exposed surface are cooled by air at 25C with
h=100 W/m2.K. If the chip dissipates 104 W/m2 under
normal conditions, will it operate below a max allowable
temperature of 85C? Assume a contact resistance of the
surface Rc of 0.9x10-4 m2.K/W.

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Summary
Applying the electric circuit theory to thermal circuit for
plane wall and radial system

Increasing insulation thickness for radial system may

increase or decrease heat transfer
Determine temperature distributions for problems involving

steady-state, one-dimensional conduction with and without

energy generation
Introduction to fins and extended surfaces

Contact resistance involving composite materials

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