Architecture and programming of 8051

MCU's

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Chapter1: Introduction to Microcontrollers

1.1 What are microcontrollers and what are they used

for?

1.2 What is what in microcontroller?

Introduction
It was electricity in the beginning....The people were happy because they
did not know that it was all around them and could be utilized. That was
good. Then Faraday came and a stone has started to roll slowly...
The first machines using a new sort of energy appeared soon. A long time
has passed since then and just when the people finally got used to them
and stopped paying attention to what a new generation of specialists were
doing, someone came to an idea that electrons could be a very convenient
toy being closed in a glass pipe. It was just a good idea at first, but there
was no return. Electonics was born and the stone kept on rolling down the
hill faster and faster...
A new science - new specialists. Blue coats were replaced with white ones
and people who knew something about electronics appeared on the stage.
While the rest of humanity were passively watching in disbelief what was
going on, the plotters split in two groups - software-oriented and
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hardware-oriented. Somewhat younger than their teachers, very

enthusiastic and full of ideas, both of them kept on working but separate
ways. While the first group was developing constantly and gradually, the
hardware-oriented people, driven by success, threw caution to the wind
and invented transistors.
Up till that moment, the things could be more or less kept under control, but
a broad publicity was not aware of what was going on, which soon led to a
fatal mistake! Being naive in belief that cheap tricks could slow down
technology development and development of the world and retrieve the
good all days, mass market opened its doors for the products of Electronics
Industry, thus closing a magic circle. A rapid drop in prices made these
components available for a great variety of people. The stone was falling
freely...
The first integrated circuits and processors appeared soon, which caused
computers and other products of electronics to drop down in price even
more. They could be bought everywhere. Another circle was closed!
Ordinary people got hold of computers and computer era has begun...
While this drama was going on, hobbyists and professionals, also split in
two groups and protected by anonymity, were working hard on their
projects. Then, someone suddenly put a question: Why should not we
make a universal component? A cheap, universal integrated circuit that
could be programmed and used in any field of electronics, device or
wherever needed? Technology has been developed enough as well as the
market. Why not? So it happened, body and spirit were united and the first
integrated circuit was designed and called the MICROCONTROLLER.

1.1 What are microcontrollers and what are they used

for?
Like all good things, this powerful component is basically very simple. It is
made by mixing tested and high- quality "ingredients" (components) as per
following receipt:

1. The simplest computer processor is used as the "brain" of the

future system.
2. Depending on the taste of the manufacturer, a bit of memory, a
few A/D converters, timers, input/output lines etc. are added
3. All that is placed in some of the standard packages.
4. A simple software able to control it all and which everyone can
easily learn about has been developed.
On the basis of these rules, numerous types of microcontrollers were
designed and they quickly became man's invisible companion. Their
incredible simplicity and flexibility conquered us a long time ago and if you
try to invent something about them, you should know that you are probably
late, someone before you has either done it or at least has tried to do it.
The following things have had a crucial influence on development and
success of the microcontrollers:

Powerful and carefully chosen electronics embedded in the

microcontrollers can independetly or via input/output devices
(switches, push buttons, sensors, LCD displays, relays etc.),
control various processes and devices such as industrial
automation, electric current, temperature, engine
performance etc.
Very low prices enable them to be embedded in such
devices in which, until recent time it was not worthwhile to
embed anything. Thanks to that, the world is overwhelmed
today with cheap automatic devices and various smart
appliences.
Prior knowledge is hardly needed for programming. It is
sufficient to have a PC (software in use is not demanding at
all and is easy to learn) and a simple device (called the
programmer) used for loading raedy-to-use programs into
the microcontroller.
So, if you are infected with a virus called electronics, there is nothing left for
you to do but to learn how to use and control its power.
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How does the microcontroller operate?

Even though there is a large number of different types of microcontrollers
and even more programs created for their use only, all of them have many
things in common. Thus, if you learn to handle one of them you will be able
to handle them all. A typical scenario on the basis of which it all functions is
as follows:

1. Power supply is turned off and everything is stillthe program

is loaded into the microcontroller, nothing indicates what is
about to come

Power supply is turned on and everything starts to

happen at high speed! The control logic unit keeps
everything under control. It disables all other
circuits except quartz crystal to operate. While the
preparations are in progress, the first milliseconds
go by.
2. Power supply voltage reaches its maximum and oscillator
frequency becomes stable. SFRs are being filled with bits
reflecting the state of all circuits within the microcontroller. All
pins are configured as inputs. The overall electronis starts
operation in rhythm with pulse sequence. From now on the
time is measured in micro and nanoseconds.
3. Program Counter is set to zero. Instruction from that address
is sent to instruction decoder which recognizes it, after which it
is executed with immediate effect.
4. The value of the Program Counter is incremented by 1 and the
whole process is repeated...several million times per second.

1.2 What is what in the microcontroller?

As you can see, all the operations within the microcontroller are performed
at high speed and quite simply, but the microcontroller itself would not be
so useful if there are not special circuits which make it complete. In
continuation, we are going to call your attention to them.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory used to permanently save
the program being executed. The size of the program that can be written
depends on the size of this memory. ROM can be built in the
microcontroller or added as an external chip, which depends on the type of
the microcontroller. Both options have some disadvantages. If ROM is
added as an external chip, the microcontroller is cheaper and the program
can be considerably longer. At the same time, a number of available pins is
reduced as the microcontroller uses its own input/output ports for
connection to the chip. The internal ROM is usually smaller and more
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expensive, but leaves more pins available for connecting to peripheral

environment. The size of ROM ranges from 512B to 64KB.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of memory used for temporary
storing data and intermediate results created and used during the operation
of the microcontrollers. The content of this memory is cleared once the
power supply is off. For example, if the program performes an addition, it is
necessary to have a register standing for what in everyday life is called the
sum . For that purpose, one of the registers in RAM is called the "sum"
and used for storing results of addition. The size of RAM goes up to a few
KBs.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
The EEPROM is a special type of memory not contained in all
microcontrollers. Its contents may be changed during program execution
(similar to RAM ), but remains permanently saved even after the loss of
power (similar to ROM). It is often used to store values, created and used
during operation (such as calibration values, codes, values to count up to
etc.), which must be saved after turning the power supply off. A
disadvantage of this memory is that the process of programming is
relatively slow. It is measured in miliseconds.

Special Function Registers (SFR)

Special function registers are part of RAM memory. Their purpose is
predefined by the manufacturer and cannot be changed therefore. Since
their bits are physically connected to particular circuits within the
microcontroller, such as A/D converter, serial communication module etc.,
any change of their state directly affects the operation of the microcontroller
or some of the circuits. For example, writing zero or one to the SFR
controlling an input/output port causes the appropriate port pin to be
configured as input or output. In other words, each bit of this register
controls the function of one single pin.
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Program Counter
Program Counter is an engine running the program and points to the
memory address containing the next instruction to execute. After each
instruction execution, the value of the counter is incremented by 1. For this
reason, the program executes only one instruction at a time just as it is
written. Howeverthe value of the program counter can be changed at any
moment, which causes a jump to a new memory location. This is how
subroutines and branch instructions are executed. After jumping, the
counter resumes even and monotonous automatic counting +1, +1, +1
Central Processor Unit (CPU)
As its name suggests, this is a unit which monitors and controls all
processes within the microcontroller and the user cannot affect its work. It
consists of several smaller subunits, of which the most important are:

Instruction decoder is a part of the electronics which

recognizes program instructions and runs other circuits on
the basis of that. The abilities of this circuit are expressed in
the "instruction set" which is different for each microcontroller
family.
Arithmetical Logical Unit (ALU) performs all mathematical
and logical operations upon data.
Accumulator is an SFR closely related to the operation of
ALU. It is a kind of working desk used for storing all data
upon which some operations should be executed (addition,
shift etc.). It also stores the results ready for use in further
processing. One of the SFRs, called the Status Register, is
closely related to the accumulator, showing at any given time
the "status" of a number stored in the accumulator (the
number is greater or less than zero etc.).

A bit is just a word invented to confuse novices at electronics. Joking

aside, this word in practice indicates whether the voltage is present on a
conductor or not. If it is present, the approprite pin is set to logic one (1),
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i.e. the bits value is 1. Otherwise, if the voltage is 0 V, the appropriate pin is
cleared (0), i.e. the bits value is 0. It is more complicated in theory where a
bit is referred to as a binary digit, but even in this case, its value can be
either 0 or 1.
Input/output ports (I/O Ports)
In order to make the microcontroller useful, it is necessary to connect it to
peripheral devices. Each microcontroller has one or more registers (called
a port) connected to the microcontroller pins.

Why do we call them input/output ports? Because it is possible to

change a pin function according to the user's needs. These
registers are the only registers in the microcontroller the state of
which can be checked by voltmeter!
Oscillator

Even pulses generated by the oscillator enable harmonic and

synchronous operation of all circuits within the microcontroller. It
is usually configured as to use quartz-crystal or ceramics
resonator for frequency stabilization. It can also operate without
elements for frequency stabilization (like RC oscillator). It is
important to say that program instructions are not executed at the
rate imposed by the oscillator itself, but several times slower. It
happens because each instruction is executed in several steps.
For some microcontrollers, the same number of cycles is needed
to execute any instruction, while it's different for other
microcontrollers. Accordingly, if the system uses quartz crystal
with a frequency of 20MHz, the execution time of an instruction is
not expected 50nS, but 200, 400 or even 800 nS, depending on
the type of the microcontroller!
Timers/Counters
Most programs use these miniature electronic "stopwatches" in their
operation. These are commonly 8- or 16-bit SFRs the contents of which is
automatically incremented by each coming pulse. Once the register is
completely loaded, an interrupt is generated!
If these registers use an internal quartz oscillator as a clock source, then it
is possible to measure the time between two events (if the register value is
T1 at the moment measurement has started, and T2 at the moment it has
finished, then the elapsed time is equal to the result of subtraction T2-T1 ).
If the registers use pulses coming from external source, then such a timer
is turned into a counter.
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This is only a simple explanation of the operation itself. Its somehow more
complicated in practice.

A register or a memory cell is an electronic circuit which can memorize the

state of one byte. Besides 8 bits available to the user, each register has
also a number of addressing bits. It is important to remember that:

All registers of ROM as well as those of RAM referred to as

general-purpose registers are mutually equal and nameless.
During programming, each of them can be assigned a name,
which makes the whole operation much easier.
All SFRs are assigned names which are different for different
types of the microcontrollers and each of them has a special
function as their name suggests.
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Watchdog timer
The Watchdog Timer is a timer connected to a completely separate RC
oscillator within the microcontroller.
If the watchdog timer is enabled, every time it counts up to the program
end, the microcontroller reset occurs and program execution starts from the
first instruction. The point is to prevent this from happening by using a
special command. The whole idea is based on the fact that every program
is executed in several longer or shorter loops.
If instructions resetting the watchdog timer are set at the appropriate
program locations, besides commands being regularly executed, then the
operation of the watchdog timer will not affect the program execution.
If for any reason (usually electrical noise in industry), the program counter
"gets stuck" at some memory location from which there is no return, the
watchdog will not be cleared, so the registers value being constantly
incremented will reach the maximum et voila! Reset occurs!
Power Supply Circuit
There are two things worth attention concerning the microcontroller power
supply circuit:

Brown out is a potentially dangerous state which occurs at the

moment the microcontroller is being turned off or when power
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supply voltage drops to the lowest level due to electric noise. As

the microcontroller consists of several circuits which have
different operating voltage levels, this can cause its out of control
performance. In order to prevent it, the microcontroller usually has
a circuit for brown out reset built-in. This circuit immediately resets
the whole electronics when the voltage level drops below the
lower limit.
Reset pin is usually referred to as Master Clear Reset (MCLR)
and serves for external reset of the microcontroller by applying
logic zero (0) or one (1) depending on the type of the
microcontroller. In case the brown out is not built in the
microcontroller, a simple external circuit for brown out reset can
be connected to this pin.
Serial communication

Parallel connections between the microcontroller and peripherals

established over I/O ports are the ideal solution for shorter
distances up to several meters. However, in other cases, when it
is necessary to establish communication between two devices on
longer distances it is obviously not possible to use parallel
connections. Then, serial communication is the best solution.
Today, most microcontrollers have several different systems for serial
communication built in as a standard equipment. Which of them will be
used depends on many factors of which the most important are:

How many devices the microcontroller has to exchange data

with?
How fast the data exchange has to be?
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 What is the distance between devices?

Is it necessary to send and receive data simultaneously?
One of the most important things concerning serial communication is the
Protocol which should be strictly observed. It is a set of rules which must be
applied in order that devices can correctly interpret data they mutually
exchange. Fortunately, the microcontrollers automatically take care of this,
so the work of the programmer/user is reduced to a simple write (data to be
sent) and read (received data).

A byte consists of 8 bits grouped together. If a bit is a digit then it is logical

that bytes are numbers. All mathematical operations can be performed
upon them, just like upon common decimal numbers, which is carried out in
the ALU. It is important to remember that byte digits are not of equal
significance. The largest value has the leftmost bit called the most
significant bit (MSB). The rightmost bit has the least value and is therefore
called the least significant bit (LSB). Since 8 digits (zeros and ones) of one
byte can be combined in 256 different ways, the largest decimal number
which can be represented by one byte is 255 (one combination represents
zero).
Program
Unlike other integrated circuits which only need to be connected to other
components and turn the power supply on, the microcontrollers need to be
programmed first. This is a so called "bitter pill" and the main reason why
hardware-oriented electronics engineers stay away from microcontrollers. It
is a trap causing huge losses because the process of programming the
microcontroller is basically very simple.
In order to write a program for the microcontroller, several "low-level"
programming languages can be used such as Assembly, C and Basic (and
their versions as well). Writing program procedure consists of simple writing
instructions in the order in which they should be executed. There are also
many programs running in Windows environment used to facilitate the work
providing additional visual tools.
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This book describes the use of Assembly because it is the simplest

language with the fastest execution allowing entire control on what is going
on in the circuit.

Interrupt - electronics is usually more faster than physical processes it

should keep under control. This is why the microcontroller spends most of
its time waiting for something to happen or execute. In other words, when
some event takes place, the microcontroller does something. In order to
prevent the microcontroller from spending most of its time endlessly
checking for logic state on input pins and registers, an interrupt is
generated. It is the signal which informs the central processor that
something attention worthy has happened. As its name suggests, it
interrupts regular program execution. It can be generated by different
sources so when it occurs, the microcontroller immediately stops operation
and checks for the cause. If it is needed to perform some operations, a
current state of the program counter is pushed onto the Stack and the
appropriate program is executed. It's the so called interrupt routine.
Stack is a part of RAM used for storing the current state of the program
counter (address) when an interrupt occurs. In this way, after a subroutine
or an interrupt execution, the microcontroller knows from where to continue
regular program execution. This address is cleared after returning to the
program because there is no need to save it any longer, and one location
of the stack is automatically availale for further use. In addition, the stack
can consist of several levels. This enables subroutines nesting, i.e. calling
one subroutine from another.

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2.1 What is 8051 Standard?

Microcontroller manufacturers have been competing for a long time for
attracting choosy customers and every couple of days a new chip with a
higher operating frequency, more memory and upgraded A/D converters
appeared on the market.
However, most of them had the same or at least very similar architecture
known in the world of microcontrollers as 8051 compatible. What is all this
about?
The whole story has its beginnings in the far 80s when Intel launched the
first series of microcontrollers called the MCS 051. Even though these
microcontrollers had quite modest features in comparison to the new ones,
they conquered the world very soon and became a standard for what
nowadays is called the microcontroller.
The main reason for their great success and popularity is a skillfully chosen
configuration which satisfies different needs of a large number of users
allowing at the same time constant expansions (refers to the new types of
microcontrollers). Besides, the software has been developed in great
extend in the meantime, and it simply was not profitable to change anything
in the microcontrollers basic core. This is the reason for having a great
number of various microcontrollers which basically are solely upgraded
versions of the 8051 family. What makes this microcontroller so special and
universal so that almost all manufacturers all over the world manufacture it
today under different name?

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As seen in figure above, the 8051 microcontroller has nothing impressive in

appearance:

4 Kb of ROM is not much at all.

128b of RAM (including SFRs) satisfies the user's basic
needs.
4 ports having in total of 32 input/output lines are in most
cases sufficient to make all necessary connections to
peripheral environment.
The whole configuration is obviously thought of as to satisfy the needs of
most programmers working on development of automation devices. One of
its advantages is that nothing is missing and nothing is too much. In other
words, it is created exactly in accordance to the average users taste and
needs. Another advantages are RAM organization, the operation of Central
Processor Unit (CPU) and ports which completely use all recourses and
enable further upgrade.

2.2 Pinout Description

Pins 1-8: Port 1 Each of these pins can be configured as an input or an
output.

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Pin 9: RS A logic one on this pin disables the microcontroller and clears
the contents of most registers. In other words, the positive voltage on this
pin resets the microcontroller. By applying logic zero to this pin, the
program starts execution from the beginning.
Pins10-17: Port 3 Similar to port 1, each of these pins can serve as
general input or output. Besides, all of them have alternative functions:
Pin 10: RXD Serial asynchronous communication input or Serial
synchronous communication output.
Pin 11: TXD Serial asynchronous communication output or Serial
synchronous communication clock output.
Pin 12: INT0 Interrupt 0 input.
Pin 13: INT1 Interrupt 1 input.
Pin 14: T0 Counter 0 clock input.
Pin 15: T1 Counter 1 clock input.
Pin 16: WR Write to external (additional) RAM.
Pin 17: RD Read from external RAM.
Pin 18, 19: X2, X1 Internal oscillator input and output. A quartz crystal
which specifies operating frequency is usually connected to these pins.
Instead of it, miniature ceramics resonators can also be used for frequency
stability. Later versions of microcontrollers operate at a frequency of 0 Hz
up to over 50 Hz.
Pin 20: GND Ground.
Pin 21-28: Port 2 If there is no intention to use external memory then these
port pins are configured as general inputs/outputs. In case external
memory is used, the higher address byte, i.e. addresses A8-A15 will
appear on this port. Even though memory with capacity of 64Kb is not
used, which means that not all eight port bits are used for its addressing,
the rest of them are not available as inputs/outputs.
Pin 29: PSEN If external ROM is used for storing program then a logic
zero (0) appears on it every time the microcontroller reads a byte from
memory.
Pin 30: ALE Prior to reading from external memory, the microcontroller
puts the lower address byte (A0-A7) on P0 and activates the ALE output.
After receiving signal from the ALE pin, the external register (usually
74HCT373 or 74HCT375 add-on chip) memorizes the state of P0 and uses
it as a memory chip address. Immediately after that, the ALU pin is returned
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its previous logic state and P0 is now used as a Data Bus. As seen, port
data multiplexing is performed by means of only one additional (and cheap)
integrated circuit. In other words, this port is used for both data and
address transmission.
Pin 31: EA By applying logic zero to this pin, P2 and P3 are used for data
and address transmission with no regard to whether there is internal
memory or not. It means that even there is a program written to the
microcontroller, it will not be executed. Instead, the program written to
external ROM will be executed. By applying logic one to the EA pin, the
microcontroller will use both memories, first internal then external (if exists).
Pin 32-39: Port 0 Similar to P2, if external memory is not used, these pins
can be used as general inputs/outputs. Otherwise, P0 is configured as
address output (A0-A7) when the ALE pin is driven high (1) or as data
output (Data Bus) when the ALE pin is driven low (0).
Pin 40: VCC +5V power supply.

2.3 Input/Output Ports (I/O Ports)

All 8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each comprising 8 bits which can
be configured as inputs or outputs. Accordingly, in total of 32 input/output
pins enabling the microcontroller to be connected to peripheral devices are
available for use.
Pin configuration, i.e. whether it is to be configured as an input (1) or an
output (0), depends on its logic state. In order to configure a microcontroller
pin as an output, it is necessary to apply a logic zero (0) to appropriate I/O
port bit. In this case, voltage level on appropriate pin will be 0.
Similarly, in order to configure a microcontroller pin as an input, it is
necessary to apply a logic one (1) to appropriate port. In this case, voltage
level on appropriate pin will be 5V (as is the case with any TTL input). This
may seem confusing but don't loose your patience. It all becomes clear
after studying simple electronic circuits connected to an I/O pin.

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21

Input/Output (I/O) pin

Figure above illustrates a simplified schematic of all circuits within
the microcontroler connected to one of its pins. It refers to all the
pins except those of the P0 port which do not have pull-up
resistors built-in.

Output pin
A logic zero (0) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE
transistor is turned on, thus connecting the appropriate pin to
ground.

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Input pin
A logic one (1) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE
transistor is turned off and the appropriate pin remains connected
to the power supply voltage over a pull-up resistor of high
resistance.
Logic state (voltage) of any pin can be changed or read at any
moment. A logic zero (0) and logic one (1) are not equal. A logic
one (0) represents a short circuit to ground. Such a pin acts as an
output.
A logic one (1) is loosely connected to the power supply voltage
over a resistor of high resistance. Since this voltage can be easily
reduced by an external signal, such a pin acts as an input.
Port 0
The P0 port is characterized by two functions. If external memory is used
then the lower address byte (addresses A0-A7) is applied on it. Otherwise,
all bits of this port are configured as inputs/outputs.
The other function is expressed when it is configured as an output. Unlike
other ports consisting of pins with built-in pull-up resistor connected by its
end to 5 V power supply, pins of this port have this resistor left out. This
apparently small difference has its consequences:

If any pin of this port is configured as an input then it acts as if it

floats. Such an input has unlimited input resistance and
indetermined potential.
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When the pin is configured as an output, it acts as an open

drain. By applying logic 0 to a port bit, the appropriate pin will be
connected to ground (0V). By applying logic 1, the external output
will keep on floating. In order to apply logic 1 (5V) on this output
pin, it is necessary to built in an external pull-up resistor.

Only in case P0 is used for addressing external memory, the

microcontroller will provide internal power supply source in order
to supply its pins with logic one. There is no need to add external
pull-up resistors.
Port 1
P1 is a true I/O port, because it doesn't have any alternative functions as is
the case with P0, but can be cofigured as general I/O only. It has a pull-up
resistor built-in and is completely compatible with TTL circuits.
Port 2
P2 acts similarly to P0 when external memory is used. Pins of this port
occupy addresses intended for external memory chip. This time it is about
the higher address byte with addresses A8-A15. When no memory is
added, this port can be used as a general input/output port showing
features similar to P1.
Port 3
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All port pins can be used as general I/O, but they also have an alternative
function. In order to use these alternative functions, a logic one (1) must be
applied to appropriate bit of the P3 register. In tems of hardware, this port is
similar to P0, with the difference that its pins have a pull-up resistor built-in.
Pin's Current limitations
When configured as outputs (logic zero (0)), single port pins can receive a
current of 10mA. If all 8 bits of a port are active, a total current must be
limited to 15mA (port P0: 26mA). If all ports (32 bits) are active, total
maximum current must be limited to 71mA. When these pins are configured
as inputs (logic 1), built-in pull-up resistors provide very weak current, but
strong enough to activate up to 4 TTL inputs of LS series.

As seen from description of some ports, even though all of them

have more or less similar architecture, it is necessary to pay
attention to which of them is to be used for what and how.
For example, if they shall be used as outputs with high voltage
level (5V), then P0 should be avoided because its pins do not
have pull-up resistors, thus giving low logic level only. When using
other ports, one should have in mind that pull-up resistors have a
relatively high resistance, so that their pins can give a current of
several hundreds microamperes only.

2.4 Memory Organization

The 8051 has two types of memory and these are Program Memory and
Data Memory. Program Memory (ROM) is used to permanently save the
program being executed, while Data Memory (RAM) is used for temporarily
storing data and intermediate results created and used during the operation
of the microcontroller. Depending on the model in use (we are still talking
about the 8051 microcontroller family in general) at most a few Kb of ROM
and 128 or 256 bytes of RAM is used. However

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All 8051 microcontrollers have a 16-bit addressing bus and are capable of
addressing 64 kb memory. It is neither a mistake nor a big ambition of
engineers who were working on basic core development. It is a matter of
smart memory organization which makes these microcontrollers a real
programmers goody.
Program Memory
The first models of the 8051 microcontroller family did not have internal
program memory. It was added as an external separate chip. These models
are recognizable by their label beginning with 803 (for example 8031 or
8032). All later models have a few Kbyte ROM embedded. Even though
such an amount of memory is sufficient for writing most of the programs,
there are situations when it is necessary to use additional memory as well.
A typical example are so called lookup tables. They are used in cases
when equations describing some processes are too complicated or when
there is no time for solving them. In such cases all necessary estimates
and approximates are executed in advance and the final results are put in
the tables (similar to logarithmic tables).

How does the microcontroller handle external memory depends on the EA

pin logic state:

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EA=0 In this case, the microcontroller completely ignores internal program

memory and executes only the program stored in external memory.
EA=1 In this case, the microcontroller executes first the program from builtin ROM, then the program stored in external memory.
In both cases, P0 and P2 are not available for use since being used for
data and address transmission. Besides, the ALE and PSEN pins are also
used.
Data Memory
As already mentioned, Data Memory is used for temporarily storing data
and intermediate results created and used during the operation of the
microcontroller. Besides, RAM memory built in the 8051 family includes
many registers such as hardware counters and timers, input/output ports,
serial data buffers etc. The previous models had 256 RAM locations, while
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for the later models this number was incremented by additional 128
registers. However, the first 256 memory locations (addresses 0-FFh) are
the heart of memory common to all the models belonging to the 8051
family. Locations available to the user occupy memory space with
addresses 0-7Fh, i.e. first 128 registers. This part of RAM is divided in
several blocks.
The first block consists of 4 banks each including 8 registers denoted by
R0-R7. Prior to accessing any of these registers, it is necessary to select
the bank containing it. The next memory block (address 20h-2Fh) is bitaddressable, which means that each bit has its own address (0-7Fh). Since
there are 16 such registers, this block contains in total of 128 bits with
separate addresses (address of bit 0 of the 20h byte is 0, while address of
bit 7 of the 2Fh byte is 7Fh). The third group of registers occupy addresses
2Fh-7Fh, i.e. 80 locations, and does not have any special functions or
features.
Additional RAM
In order to satisfy the programmers constant hunger for Data Memory, the
manufacturers decided to embed an additional memory block of 128
locations into the latest versions of the 8051 microcontrollers. However, its
not as simple as it seems to be The problem is that electronics
performing addressing has 1 byte (8 bits) on disposal and is capable of
reaching only the first 256 locations, therefore. In order to keep already
existing 8-bit architecture and compatibility with other existing models a
small trick was done.
What does it mean? It means that additional memory block shares the
same addresses with locations intended for the SFRs (80h- FFh). In order
to differentiate between these two physically separated memory spaces,
different ways of addressing are used. The SFRs memory locations are
accessed by direct addressing, while additional RAM memory locations are
accessed by indirect addressing.

28

29

Memory expansion
In case memory (RAM or ROM) built in the microcontroller is not sufficient,
it is possible to add two external memory chips with capacity of 64Kb each.
P2 and P3 I/O ports are used for their addressing and data transmission.

From the users point of view, everything works quite simply when properly
connected because most operations are performed by the microcontroller
itself. The 8051 microcontroller has two pins for data read RD#(P3.7) and
30

PSEN#. The first one is used for reading data from external data memory
(RAM), while the other is used for reading data from external program
memory (ROM). Both pins are active low. A typical example of memory
expansion by adding RAM and ROM chips (Hardward architecture), is
shown in figure above.
Even though additional memory is rarely used with the latest versions of
the microcontrollers, we will describe in short what happens when memory
chips are connected according to the previous schematic. The whole
process described below is performed automatically.

When the program during execution encounters an

instruction which resides in external memory (ROM), the
microcontroller will activate its control output ALE and set the
first 8 bits of address (A0-A7) on P0. IC circuit 74HCT573
passes the first 8 bits to memory address pins.
A signal on the ALE pin latches the IC circuit 74HCT573 and
immediately afterwards 8 higher bits of address (A8-A15)
appear on the port. In this way, a desired location of
additional program memory is addressed. It is left over to
read its content.
Port P0 pins are configured as inputs, the PSEN pin is
activated and the microcontroller reads from memory chip.
Similar occurs when it is necessary to read location from external RAM.
Addressing is performed in the same way, while read and write are
performed via signals appearing on the control outputs RD (is short for
read) or WR (is short for write).
Addressing
While operating, the processor processes data as per program instructions.
Each instruction consists of two parts. One part describes WHAT should be
done, while the other explains HOW to do it. The latter part can be a data
(binary number) or the address at which the data is stored. Two ways of
addressing are used for all 8051 microcontrollers depending on which part
of memory should be accessed:
31

Direct Addressing
On direct addressing, the address of memory location containing data to be
read is specified in instruction. The address may contain a number being
changed during operation (variable). For example:
Since the address is only one byte in size (the largest number is 255), only
the first 255 locations of RAM can be accessed this way. The first half of
RAM is available for use, while another half is reserved for SFRs.
MOV A,33h; Means: move a number from address 33 hex.
to accumulator
Indirect Addressing
On indirect addressing, a register containing the address of another
register is specified in instruction. Data to be used in the program is stored
in the letter register. For example:
Indirect addressing is only used for accessing RAM locations available for
use (never for accessing SFRs). This is the only way of accessing all the
latest versions of the microcontrollers with additional memory block (128
locations of RAM). Simply put, when the program encounters instruction
including @ sign and if the specified address is higher than 128 ( 7F
hex.), the processor knows that indirect addressing is used and skips
memory space reserved for SFRs.
MOV A,@R0; Means: Store the value from the register
whose address is in the R0 register
into accumulator
On indirect addressing, registers R0, R1 or Stack Pointer are used for
specifying 8-bit addresses. Since only 8 bits are avilable, it is possible to
access only registers of internal RAM this way (128 locations when
speaking of previous models or 256 locations when speaking of latest
models of microcontrollers). If an extra memory chip is added then the 16bit DPTR Register (consisting of the registers DPTRL and DPTRH) is used

32

for specifying address. In this way it is possible to access any location in

the range of 64K.

2.5 Special Function Registers (SFRs)

Special Function Registers (SFRs) are a sort of control table used for
running and monitoring the operation of the microcontroller. Each of these
registers as well as each bit they include, has its name, address in the
scope of RAM and precisely defined purpose such as timer control,
interrupt control, serial communication control etc. Even though there are
128 memory locations intended to be occupied by them, the basic core,
shared by all types of 8051 microcontrollers, has only 21 such registers.
Rest of locations are intensionally left unoccupied in order to enable the
manufacturers to further develop microcontrollers keeping them compatible
with the previous versions. It also enables programs written a long time ago
for microcontrollers which are out of production now to be used today.

A Register (Accumulator)
33

A register is a general-purpose register used for storing intermediate results

obtained during operation. Prior to executing an instruction upon any
number or operand it is necessary to store it in the accumulator first. All
results obtained from arithmetical operations performed by the ALU are
stored in the accumulator. Data to be moved from one register to another
must go through the accumulator. In other words, the A register is the most
commonly used register and it is impossible to imagine a microcontroller
without it. More than half instructions used by the 8051 microcontroller use
somehow the accumulator.
B Register
Multiplication and division can be performed only upon numbers stored in
the A and B registers. All other instructions in the program can use this
register as a spare accumulator (A).

During the process of writing a program, each register is called by

its name so that their exact addresses are not of importance for
the user. During compilation, their names will be automatically
replaced by appropriate addresses.
R Registers (R0-R7)

34

This is a common name for 8 general-purpose registers (R0, R1,

R2 ...R7). Even though they are not true SFRs, they deserve to
be discussed here because of their purpose. They occupy 4
banks within RAM. Similar to the accumulator, they are used for
temporary storing variables and intermediate results during
operation. Which one of these banks is to be active depends on
two bits of the PSW Register. Active bank is a bank the registers
of which are currently used.
The following example best illustrates the purpose of these registers.
Suppose it is necessary to perform some arithmetical operations upon
numbers previously stored in the R registers: (R1+R2) - (R3+R4).
Obviously, a register for temporary storing results of addition is needed.
This is how it looks in the program:
MOV A,R3; Means: move number from R3 into accumulator
ADD A,R4; Means: add number from R4 to accumulator
(result remains in accumulator)
MOV R5,A; Means: temporarily move the result from
accumulator into R5
MOV A,R1; Means: move number from R1 to accumulator
ADD A,R2; Means: add number from R2 to accumulator
35

SUBB A,R5; Means: subtract number from R5 (there are

R3+R4)
Program Status Word (PSW) Register

PSW register is one of the most important SFRs. It contains several status
bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. Besides, this register contains
Carry bit, Auxiliary Carry, two register bank select bits, Overflow flag, parity
bit and user-definable status flag.
P - Parity bit. If a number stored in the accumulator is even then this bit
will be automatically set (1), otherwise it will be cleared (0). It is mainly
used during data transmit and receive via serial communication.
- Bit 1. This bit is intended to be used in the future versions of
microcontrollers.
OV Overflow occurs when the result of an arithmetical operation is larger
than 255 and cannot be stored in one register. Overflow condition causes
the OV bit to be set (1). Otherwise, it will be cleared (0).
RS0, RS1 - Register bank select bits. These two bits are used to select
one of four register banks of RAM. By setting and clearing these bits,
registers R0-R7 are stored in one of four banks of RAM.
RS1

RS2

S P AC E I N R AM

Bank0 00h-07h

Bank1 08h-0Fh

Bank2 10h-17h

Bank3 18h-1Fh

F0 - Flag 0. This is a general-purpose bit available for use.

AC - Auxiliary Carry Flag is used for BCD operations only.
CY - Carry Flag is the (ninth) auxiliary bit used for all arithmetical
operations and shift instructions.
Data Pointer Register (DPTR)
36

DPTR register is not a true one because it doesn't physically exist. It

consists of two separate registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and (Data
Pointer Low). For this reason it may be treated as a 16-bit register or as
two independent 8-bit registers. Their 16 bits are primarly used for external
memory addressing. Besides, the DPTR Register is usually used for storing
data and intermediate results.

Stack Pointer (SP) Register

A value stored in the Stack Pointer points to the first free stack address and
permits stack availability. Stack pushes increment the value in the Stack
Pointer by 1. Likewise, stack pops decrement its value by 1. Upon any
reset and power-on, the value 7 is stored in the Stack Pointer, which means
that the space of RAM reserved for the stack starts at this location. If
another value is written to this register, the entire Stack is moved to the
new memory location.
37

P0, P1, P2, P3 - Input/Output Registers

If neither external memory nor serial communication system are used then
4 ports with in total of 32 input/output pins are available for connection to
peripheral environment. Each bit within these ports affects the state and
performance of appropriate pin of the microcontroller. Thus, bit logic state is
reflected on appropriate pin as a voltage (0 or 5 V) and vice versa, voltage
on a pin reflects the state of appropriate port bit.
As mentioned, port bit state affects performance of port pins, i.e. whether
they will be configured as inputs or outputs. If a bit is cleared (0), the
appropriate pin will be configured as an output, while if it is set (1), the
appropriate pin will be configured as an input. Upon reset and power-on, all
port bits are set (1), which means that all appropriate pins will be
configured as inputs.

I/O ports are directly connected to the microcontroller pins.

Accordingly, logic state of these registers can be checked by
voltmeter and vice versa, voltage on the pins can be checked by
inspecting their bits!

2.6 Counters and Timers

As you already know, the microcontroller oscillator uses quartz crystal for
its operation. As the frequency of this oscillator is precisely defined and
very stable, pulses it generates are always of the same width, which makes
them ideal for time measurement. Such crystals are also used in quartz
watches. In order to measure time between two events it is sufficient to
count up pulses coming from this oscillator. That is exactly what the timer
does. If the timer is properly programmed, the value stored in its register
will be incremented (or decremented) with each coming pulse, i.e. once per
each machine cycle. A single machine-cycle instruction lasts for 12 quartz
38

oscillator periods, which means that by embedding quartz with oscillator

frequency of 12MHz, a number stored in the timer register will be changed
million times per second, i.e. each microsecond.
The 8051 microcontroller has 2 timers/counters called T0 and T1. As their
names suggest, their main purpose is to measure time and count external
events. Besides, they can be used for generating clock pulses to be used in
serial communication, so called Baud Rate.
Timer T0
As seen in figure below, the timer T0 consists of two registers TH0 and
TL0 representing a low and a high byte of one 16-digit binary number.

Accordingly, if the content of the timer T0 is equal to 0 (T0=0) then both

registers it consists of will contain 0. If the timer contains for example
number 1000 (decimal), then the TH0 register (high byte) will contain the
number 3, while the TL0 register (low byte) will contain decimal number
232.

39

Formula used to calculate values in these two registers is very simple:

TH0 256 + TL0 = T
Matching the previous example it would be as follows:
3 256 + 232 = 1000

Since the timer T0 is virtually 16-bit register, the largest value it can store is
65 535. In case of exceeding this value, the timer will be automatically
cleared and counting starts from 0. This condition is called an overflow. Two
registers TMOD and TCON are closely connected to this timer and control
its operation.
TMOD Register (Timer Mode)
The TMOD register selects the operational mode of the timers T0 and T1.
As seen in figure below, the low 4 bits (bit0 - bit3) refer to the timer 0, while
the high 4 bits (bit4 - bit7) refer to the timer 1. There are 4 operational
modes and each of them is described herein.

Bits of this register have the following function:

GATE1 enables and disables Timer 1 by means of a signal

brought to the INT1 pin (P3.3):
o
o

1 - Timer 1 operates only if the INT1 bit is set.

0 - Timer 1 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT1 bit.

C/T1 selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 1:

o
o

1 - Timer counts pulses brought to the T1 pin (P3.5).

0 - Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.
40

 T1M1,T1M0 These two bits select the operational mode of

the Timer 1.
T1M1

T1M0

MODE

DESCRIPTION

13-bit timer

16-bit timer

8-bit auto-reload

Split mode

GATE0 enables and disables Timer 1 using a signal brought

to the INT0 pin (P3.2):
1 - Timer 0 operates only if the INT0 bit is set.
0 - Timer 0 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT0 bit.

o
o

C/T0 selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 0:

1 - Timer counts pulses brought to the T0 pin (P3.4).
0 - Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.

o
o

T0M1,T0M0 These two bits select the oprtaional mode of the

Timer 0.
T0M1

T0M0

MODE

DESCRIPTION

13-bit timer

16-bit timer

8-bit auto-reload

Split mode

Timer 0 in mode 0 (13-bit timer)

This is one of the rarities being kept only for the purpose of compatibility
with the previuos versions of microcontrollers. This mode configures timer 0
as a 13-bit timer which consists of all 8 bits of TH0 and the lower 5 bits of
TL0. As a result, the Timer 0 uses only 13 of 16 bits. How does it operate?
Each coming pulse causes the lower register bits to change their states.
After receiving 32 pulses, this register is loaded and automatically cleared,
while the higher byte (TH0) is incremented by 1. This process is repeated
until registers count up 8192 pulses. After that, both registers are cleared
and counting starts from 0.

41

Timer 0 in mode 1 (16-bit timer)

Mode 1 configures timer 0 as a 16-bit timer comprising all the bits of both
registers TH0 and TL0. That's why this is one of the most commonly used
modes. Timer operates in the same way as in mode 0, with difference that
the registers count up to 65 536 as allowable by the 16 bits.

42

Timer 0 in mode 2 (Auto-Reload Timer)

Mode 2 configures timer 0 as an 8-bit timer. Actually, timer 0 uses only one
8-bit register for counting and never counts from 0, but from an arbitrary
value (0-255) stored in another (TH0) register.
The following example shows the advantages of this mode. Suppose it is
necessary to constantly count up 55 pulses generated by the clock.
If mode 1 or mode 0 is used, It is necessary to write the number 200 to the
timer registers and constantly check whether an overflow has occured, i.e.
whether they reached the value 255. When it happens, it is necessary to
rewrite the number 200 and repeat the whole procedure. The same
procedure is automatically performed by the microcontroller if set in mode
2. In fact, only the TL0 register operates as a timer, while another (TH0)
register stores the value from which the counting starts. When the TL0
register is loaded, instead of being cleared, the contents of TH0 will be
reloaded to it. Referring to the previous example, in order to register each
43

55th pulse, the best solution is to write the number 200 to the TH0 register
and configure the timer to operate in mode 2.

Timer 0 in Mode 3 (Split Timer)

Mode 3 configures timer 0 so that registers TL0 and TH0 operate as
separate 8-bit timers. In other words, the 16-bit timer consisting of two
registers TH0 and TL0 is split into two independent 8-bit timers. This mode
is provided for applications requiring an additional 8-bit timer or counter.
The TL0 timer turns into timer 0, while the TH0 timer turns into timer 1. In
addition, all the control bits of 16-bit Timer 1 (consisting of the TH1 and TL1
register), now control the 8-bit Timer 1. Even though the 16-bit Timer 1 can
still be configured to operate in any of modes (mode 1, 2 or 3), it is no
longer possible to disable it as there is no control bit to do it. Thus, its
operation is restricted when timer 0 is in mode 3.

44

The only application of this mode is when two timers are used and the 16bit Timer 1 the operation of which is out of control is used as a baud rate
generator.
Timer Control (TCON) Register
TCON register is also one of the registers whose bits are directly in control
of timer operation.
Only 4 bits of this register are used for this purpose, while rest of them is
used for interrupt control to be discussed later.

TF1 bit is automatically set on the Timer 1 overflow.

45

 TR1 bit enables the Timer 1.

o
o

1 - Timer 1 is enabled.
0 - Timer 1 is disabled.

o
o

1 - Timer 0 is enabled.
0 - Timer 0 is disabled.

TF0 bit is automatically set on the Timer 0 overflow.

TR0 bit enables the timer 0.
How to use the Timer 0 ?
In order to use timer 0, it is first necessary to select it and configure the
mode of its operation. Bits of the TMOD register are in control of it:

Referring to figure above, the timer 0 operates in mode 1 and counts

pulses generated by internal clock the frequency of which is equal to 1/12
the quartz frequency.
Turn on the timer:

46

The TR0 bit is set and the timer starts operation. If the quartz crystal with
frequency of 12MHz is embedded then its contents will be incremented
every microsecond. After 65.536 microseconds, the both registers the timer
consists of will be loaded. The microcontroller automatically clears them
and the timer keeps on repeating procedure from the beginning until the
TR0 bit value is logic zero (0).
How to 'read' a timer?
Depending on application, it is necessary either to read a number stored in
the timer registers or to register the moment they have been cleared.
- It is extremely simple to read a timer by using only one register configured
in mode 2 or 3. It is sufficient to read its state at any moment. That's all!
- It is somehow complicated to read a timer configured to operate in mode
2. Suppose the lower byte is read first (TL0), then the higher byte (TH0).
The result is:
TH0 = 15 TL0 = 255
Everything seems to be ok, but the current state of the register at the
moment of reading was:
TH0 = 14 TL0 = 255
47

In case of negligence, such an error in counting (255 pulses) may occur for
not so obvious but quite logical reason. The lower byte is correctly read
(255), but at the moment the program counter was about to read the higher
byte TH0, an overflow occurred and the contents of both registers have
been changed (TH0: 1415, TL0: 2550). This problem has a simple
solution. The higher byte should be read first, then the lower byte and once
again the higher byte. If the number stored in the higher byte is different
then this sequence should be repeated. It's about a short loop consisting of
only 3 instructions in the program.
There is another solution as well. It is sufficient to simply turn the timer off
while reading is going on (the TR0 bit of the TCON register should be
cleared), and turn it on again after reading is finished.
Timer 0 Overflow Detection
Usually, there is no need to constantly read timer registers. It is sufficient to
register the moment they are cleared, i.e. when counting starts from 0. This
condition is called an overflow. When it occurrs, the TF0 bit of the TCON
register will be automatically set. The state of this bit can be constantly
checked from within the program or by enabling an interrupt which will stop
the main program execution when this bit is set. Suppose it is necessary to
provide a program delay of 0.05 seconds (50 000 machine cycles), i.e. time
when the program seems to be stopped:
First a number to be written to the timer registers should be calculated:

Then it should be written to the timer registers TH0 and TL0:

48

When enabled, the timer will resume counting from this number. The state
of the TF0 bit, i.e. whether it is set, is checked from within the program. It
happens at the moment of overflow, i.e. after exactly 50.000 machine
cycles or 0.05 seconds.
How to measure pulse duration?

49

Suppose it is necessary to measure the duration of an operation,

for example how long a device has been turned on? Look again at
the figure illustrating the timer and pay attention to the function of
the GATE0 bit of the TMOD register. If it is cleared then the state
of the P3.2 pin doesn't affect timer operation. If GATE0 = 1 the
timer will operate until the pin P3.2 is cleared. Accordingly, if this
pin is supplied with 5V through some external switch at the
moment the device is being turned on, the timer will measure
duration of its operation, which actually was the objective.
How to count up pulses?
Similarly to the previous example, the answer to this question again lies in
the TCON register. This time it's about the C/T0 bit. If the bit is cleared the
timer counts pulses generated by the internal oscillator, i.e. measures the
time passed. If the bit is set, the timer input is provided with pulses from the
P3.4 pin (T0). Since these pulses are not always of the same width, the
timer cannot be used for time measurement and is turned into a counter,
therefore. The highest frequency that could be measured by such a counter
is 1/24 frequency of used quartz-crystal.
Timer 1
Timer 1 is identical to timer 0, except for mode 3 which is a hold-count
mode. It means that they have the same function, their operation is
controlled by the same registers TMOD and TCON and both of them can
operate in one out of 4 different modes.

50

2.7 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver and

Transmitter)
One of the microcontroller features making it so powerful is an integrated
UART, better known as a serial port. It is a full-duplex port, thus being able
to transmit and receive data simultaneously and at different baud rates.
Without it, serial data send and receive would be an enormously
complicated part of the program in which the pin state is constantly
changed and checked at regular intervals. When using UART, all the
programmer has to do is to simply select serial port mode and baud rate.
When it's done, serial data transmit is nothing but writing to the SBUF
register, while data receive represents reading the same register. The
microcontroller takes care of not making any error during data
transmission.

51

Serial port must be configured prior to being used. In other words, it is

necessary to determine how many bits is contained in one serial word,
baud rate and synchronization clock source. The whole process is in
control of the bits of the SCON register (Serial Control).
Serial Port Control (SCON) Register

SM0 - Serial port mode bit 0 is used for serial port mode
selection.
SM1 - Serial port mode bit 1.
SM2 - Serial port mode 2 bit, also known as multiprocessor
communication enable bit. When set, it enables
multiprocessor communication in mode 2 and 3, and
eventually mode 1. It should be cleared in mode 0.
REN - Reception Enable bit enables serial reception when
set. When cleared, serial reception is disabled.
TB8 - Transmitter bit 8. Since all registers are 8-bit wide, this
bit solves the problem of transmiting the 9th bit in modes 2
and 3. It is set to transmit a logic 1 in the 9th bit.
RB8 - Receiver bit 8 or the 9th bit received in modes 2 and
3. Cleared by hardware if 9th bit received is a logic 0. Set by
hardware if 9th bit received is a logic 1.
TI - Transmit Interrupt flag is automatically set at the moment
the last bit of one byte is sent. It's a signal to the processor
that the line is available for a new byte transmite. It must be
cleared from within the software.
RI - Receive Interrupt flag is automatically set upon one byte
receive. It signals that byte is received and should be read
quickly prior to being replaced by a new data. This bit is also
cleared from within the software.
As seen, serial port mode is selected by combining the SM0 and SM2 bits:
52

SM0

SM1

MODE

DESCRIPTION

B AU D R ATE

8-bit Shift Register

1/12 the quartz frequency

8-bit UART

Determined by the timer 1

9-bit UART

9-bit UART

1/32 the quartz frequency (1/64 the quar

frequency)
Determined by the timer 1

In mode 0, serial data are transmitted and received through the

RXD pin, while the TXD pin output clocks. The bout rate is fixed at
1/12 the oscillator frequency. On transmit, the least significant bit
(LSB bit) is sent/received first.
TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register.
In fact, this process starts after any instruction being performed upon this
register. When all 8 bits have been sent, the TI bit of the SCON register is
automatically set.

53

RECEIVE - Data receive through the RXD pin starts upon the two following
conditions are met: bit REN=1 and RI=0 (both of them are stored in the
SCON register). When all 8 bits have been received, the RI bit of the
SCON register is automatically set indicating that one byte receive is
complete.

Since there are no START and STOP bits or any other bit except data sent
from the SBUF register in the pulse sequence, this mode is mainly used
when the distance between devices is short, noise is minimized and
operating speed is of importance. A typical example is I/O port expansion
by adding a cheap IC (shift registers 74HC595, 74HC597 and similar).
Mode 1

54

In mode 1, 10 bits are transmitted through the TXD pin or

received through the RXD pin in the following manner: a START
bit (always 0), 8 data bits (LSB first) and a STOP bit (always 1).
The START bit is only used to initiate data receive, while the
STOP bit is automatically written to the RB8 bit of the SCON
register.
TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register.
End of data transmission is indicated by setting the TI bit of the SCON
register.

RECEIVE - The START bit (logic zero (0)) on the RXD pin initiates data
receive. The following two conditions must be met: bit REN=1 and bit RI=0.

55

Both of them are stored in the SCON register. The RI bit is automatically
set upon data reception is complete.

The Baud rate in this mode is determined by the timer 1 overflow.

Mode 2

In mode 2, 11 bits are transmitted through the TXD pin or

received through the RXD pin: a START bit (always 0), 8 data bits
(LSB first), a programmable 9th data bit and a STOP bit (always
1). On transmit, the 9th data bit is actually the TB8 bit of the
SCON register. This bit usually has a function of parity bit. On
receive, the 9th data bit goes into the RB8 bit of the same register
(SCON).The baud rate is either 1/32 or 1/64 the oscillator
frequency.
56

TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register.

End of data transmission is indicated by setting the TI bit of the SCON
register.

RECEIVE - The START bit (logic zero (0)) on the RXD pin initiates data
receive. The following two conditions must be met: bit REN=1 and bit RI=0.
Both of them are stored in the SCON register. The RI bit is automatically
set upon data reception is complete.

Mode 3
Mode 3 is the same as Mode 2 in all respects except the baud rate. The
baud rate in Mode 3 is variable.

The parity bit is the P bit of the PSW register. The simplest way to
check correctness of the received byte is to add a parity bit to it.
Simply, before initiating data transmit, the byte to transmit is
stored in the accumulator and the P bit goes into the TB8 bit in
order to be a part of the message. The procedure is opposite on
receive, received byte is stored in the accumulator and the P bit is
compared with the RB8 bit. If they are the same- everything is
OK!
57

Baud Rate
Baud Rate is a number of sent/received bits per second. In case the UART
is used, baud rate depends on: selected mode, oscillator frequency and in
some cases on the state of the SMOD bit of the SCON register. All the
necessary formulas are specified in the table:
B AU D R ATE

BITSMOD

Mode 0

Fosc. / 12

Mode 1

1 Fosc.
16 12 (256-TH1)

BitSMOD

Mode 2

Fosc. / 32
Fosc. / 64

1
0

Mode 3

1 Fosc.
16 12 (256-TH1)

Timer 1 as a clock generator

Timer 1 is usually used as a clock generator as it enables various baud
rates to be easily set. The whole procedure is simple and is as follows:

First, enable Timer 1 overflow interrupt.

Configure Timer T1 to operate in auto-reload mode.
Depending on needs, select one of the standard values from
the table and write it to the TH1 register. That's all.
B AU D R ATE

FOSC. (MHZ)

BIT SMO

11.0592

12

14.7456

150

40 h

30 h

00 h

300

A0 h

98 h

80 h

75 h

52 h

600

D0 h

CC h

C0 h

BB h

A9 h

1200

E8 h

E6 h

E0 h

DE h

D5 h

2400

F4 h

F3 h

F0 h

EF h

EA h

F3 h

EF h

EF h

4800
4800

FA h

F8 h

9600

FD h

FC h

16

20
0

1
F5 h

0
0
58

9600
19200

F5 h
FD h

FC h

38400

FE h

76800

FF h

Multiprocessor Communication
As you may know, additional 9th data bit is a part of message in mode 2
and 3. It can be used for checking data via parity bit. Another useful
application of this bit is in communication between two or more
microcontrollers, i.e. multiprocessor communication. This feature is enabled
by setting the SM2 bit of the SCON register. As a result, after receiving the
STOP bit, indicating end of the message, the serial port interrupt will be
generated only if the bit RB8 = 1 (the 9th bit).
This is how it looks like in practice:
Suppose there are several microcontrollers sharing the same interface.
Each of them has its own address. An address byte differs from a data byte
because it has the 9th bit set (1), while this bit is cleared (0) in a data byte.
When the microcontroller A (master) wants to transmit a block of data to
one of several slaves, it first sends out an address byte which identifies the
target slave. An address byte will generate an interrupt in all slaves so that
they can examine the received byte and check whether it matches their
address.

59

Of course, only one of them will match the address and immediately clear
the SM2 bit of the SCON register and prepare to receive the data byte to
come. Other slaves not being addressed leave their SM2 bit set ignoring
the coming data bytes.

2.8 8051 Microcontroller Interrupts

There are five interrupt sources for the 8051, which means that they can
recognize 5 different events that can interrupt regular program execution.
Each interrupt can be enabled or disabled by setting bits of the IE register.
Likewise, the whole interrupt system can be disabled by clearing the EA bit
of the same register. Refer to figure below.
Now, it is necessary to explain a few details referring to external interruptsINT0 and INT1. If the IT0 and IT1 bits of the TCON register are set, an
interrupt will be generated on high to low transition, i.e. on the falling pulse
edge (only in that moment). If these bits are cleared, an interrupt will be
continuously executed as far as the pins are held low.

60

IE Register (Interrupt
Enable)

EA - global interrupt enable/disable:

o
o

0 - disables all interrupt requests.

1 - enables all individual interrupt requests.

o
o

0 - UART system cannot generate an interrupt.

1 - UART system enables an interrupt.

ES - enables or disables serial interrupt:

ET1 - bit enables or disables Timer 1 interrupt:
o
o

0 - Timer 1 cannot generate an interrupt.

1 - Timer 1 enables an interrupt.
61

 EX1 - bit enables or disables external 1 interrupt:

o
o

0 - change of the pin INT0 logic state cannot generate an interrupt.

1 - enables an external interrupt on the pin INT0 state change.

o
o

0 - Timer 0 cannot generate an interrupt.

1 - enables timer 0 interrupt.

ET0 - bit enables or disables timer 0 interrupt:

EX0 - bit enables or disables external 0 interrupt:
o
o

0 - change of the INT1 pin logic state cannot generate an interrupt.

1 - enables an external interrupt on the pin INT1 state change.

Interrupt Priorities
It is not possible to forseen when an interrupt request will arrive. If several
interrupts are enabled, it may happen that while one of them is in progress,
another one is requested. In order that the microcontroller knows whether
to continue operation or meet a new interrupt request, there is a priority list
instructing it what to do.
The priority list offers 3 levels of interrupt priority:

1. Reset! The apsolute master. When a reset request arrives,

everything is stopped and the microcontroller restarts.
2. Interrupt priority 1 can be disabled by Reset only.
3. Interrupt priority 0 can be disabled by both Reset and interrupt
priority 1.
The IP Register (Interrupt Priority Register) specifies which one of existing
interrupt sources have higher and which one has lower priority. Interrupt
priority is usually specified at the beginning of the program. According to
that, there are several possibilities:

If an interrupt of higher priority arrives while an interrupt is in

progress, it will be immediately stopped and the higher
priority interrupt will be executed first.
If two interrupt requests, at different priority levels, arrive at
the same time then the higher priority interrupt is serviced
first.

62

 If the both interrupt requests, at the same priority level, occur

one after another, the one which came later has to wait until
routine being in progress ends.
If two interrupt requests of equal priority arrive at the same
time then the interrupt to be serviced is selected according to
the following priority list:
1. External interrupt INT0
2. Timer 0 interrupt
3. External Interrupt INT1
4. Timer 1 interrupt
5. Serial Communication Interrupt
IP Register (Interrupt Priority)
The IP register bits specify the priority level of each interrupt (high or low
priority).

PS - Serial Port Interrupt priority bit

o
o

Priority 0
Priority 1

PT1 - Timer 1 interrupt priority

o
o

Priority 0
Priority 1

o
o

Priority 0
Priority 1

PX1 - External Interrupt INT1 priority

PT0 - Timer 0 Interrupt Priority
o
o

Priority 0
Priority 1

o
o

Priority 0
Priority 1

PX0 - External Interrupt INT0 Priority

Handling Interrupt
63

When an interrupt request arrives the following occurs:

1. Instruction in progress is ended.

2. The address of the next instruction to execute is pushed on
the stack.
3. Depending on which interrupt is requested, one of 5 vectors
(addresses) is written to the program counter in accordance to
the table below:
4.
INTERRUPT SOURCE

V E C T O R ( AD D R E S S )

IE0

3h

TF0

Bh

TF1

1B h

RI, TI

23 h

All addresses are in hexadecimal format

5. These addresses store appropriate subroutines processing

interrupts. Instead of them, there are usually jump instructions
specifying locations on which these subroutines reside.
6. When an interrupt routine is executed, the address of the next
instruction to execute is poped from the stack to the program
counter and interrupted program resumes operation from
where it left off.
From the moment an interrupt is enabled, the microcontroller is on
alert all the time. When an interrupt request arrives, the program
execution is stopped, electronics recognizes the source and the
program jumps to the appropriate address (see the table above).
This address usually stores a jump instruction specifying the start
of appropriate subroutine. Upon its execution, the program
resumes operation from where it left off.
Reset
64

Reset occurs when the RS pin is supplied with a positive pulse in duration
of at least 2 machine cycles (24 clock cycles of crystal oscillator). After that,
the microcontroller generates an internal reset signal which clears all SFRs,
except SBUF registers, Stack Pointer and ports (the state of the first two
ports is not defined, while FF value is written to the ports configuring all
their pins as inputs). Depending on surrounding and purpose of device, the
RS pin is usually connected to a power-on reset push button or circuit or to
both of them. Figure below illustrates one of the simplest circuit providing
safe power-on reset.

Basically, everything is very simple: after turning the power on,

electrical capacitor is being charged for several milliseconds
throgh a resistor connected to the ground. The pin is driven high
during this process. When the capacitor is charged, power supply
voltage is already stable and the pin remains connected to the
ground, thus providing normal operation of the microcontroller.
Pressing the reset button causes the capacitor to be temporarily
discharged and the microcontroller is reset. When released, the
whole process is repeated
Through the program- step by step...
65

Microcontrollers normally operate at very high speed. The use of 12 Mhz

quartz crystal enables 1.000.000 instructions to be executed per second.
Basically, there is no need for higher operating rate. In case it is needed, it
is easy to built in a crystal for high frequency. The problem arises when it is
necessary to slow down the operation of the microcontroller. For example
during testing in real environment when it is necessary to execute several
instructions step by step in order to check I/O pins' logic state.
Interrupt system of the 8051 microcontroller practically stops operation of
the microcontroller and enables instructions to be executed one after
another by pressing the button. Two interrupt features enable that:

Interrupt request is ignored if an interrupt of the same priority

level is in progress.
Upon interrupt routine execution, a new interrupt is not
executed until at least one instruction from the main program
is executed.
In order to use this in practice, the following steps should be done:

1. External interrupt sensitive to the signal level should be

enabled (for example INT0).
2. Three following instructions should be inserted into the
program (at the 03hex. address):

What is going on? As soon as the P3.2 pin is cleared (for example, by
pressing the button), the microcontroller will stop program execution and
jump to the 03hex address will be executed. This address stores a short
interrupt routine consisting of 3 instructions.

66

The first instruction is executed until the push button is realised (logic one
(1) on the P3.2 pin). The second instruction is executed until the push
button is pressed again. Immediately after that, the RETI instruction is
executed and the processor resumes operation of the main program. Upon
execution of any program instruction, the interrupt INT0 is generated and
the whole procedure is repeated (push button is still pressed). In other
words, one button press - one instruction.

2.9 8051 Microcontroller Power Consumption Control

Generally speaking, the microcontroller is inactive for the most part and just
waits for some external signal in order to takes its role in a show. This can
cause some problems in case batteries are used for power supply. In
extreme cases, the only solution is to set the whole electronics in sleep
mode in order to minimize consumption. A typical example is a TV remote
controller: it can be out of use for months but when used again it takes less
than a second to send a command to TV receiver. The AT89S53 uses
approximately 25mA for regular operation, which doesn't make it a poversaving microcontroller. Anyway, it doesnt have to be always like that, it can
easily switch the operating mode in order to reduce its total consumption to
approximately 40uA. Actually, there are two power-saving modes of
operation:Idle and Power Down.

67

Idle mode
Upon the IDL bit of the PCON register is set, the microcontroller turns off
the greatest power consumer- CPU unit while peripheral units such as
serial port, timers and interrupt system continue operating normally
consuming 6.5mA. In Idle mode, the state of all registers and I/O ports
remains unchanged.

68

In order to exit the Idle mode and make the microcontroller operate
normally, it is necessary to enable and execute any interrupt or reset. It will
cause the IDL bit to be automatically cleared and the program resumes
operation from instruction having set the IDL bit. It is recommended that
first three instructions to execute now are NOP instructions. They don't
perform any operation but provide some time for the microcontroller to
stabilize and prevents undesired changes on the I/O ports.
Power Down mode
By setting the PD bit of the PCON register from within the program, the
microcontroller is set to Power down mode, thus turning off its internal
oscillator and reduces power consumption enormously. The microcontroller
can operate using only 2V power supply in power- down mode, while a total
power consumption is less than 40uA. The only way to get the
microcontroller back to normal mode is by reset.
While the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the state of all SFR
registers and I/O ports remains unchanged. By setting it back into the
normal mode, the contents of the SFR register is lost, but the content of
internal RAM is saved. Reset signal must be long enough, approximately
10mS, to enable stable operation of the quartz oscillator.
PCON register

The purpose of the Register PCON bits is:

SMOD Baud rate is twice as much higher by setting this bit.

GF1 General-purpose bit (available for use).
GF1 General-purpose bit (available for use).
GF0 General-purpose bit (available for use).
PD By setting this bit the microcontroller enters the Power
Down mode.
69

 IDL By setting this bit the microcontroller enters

the Idle mode.

Chapter 3 : The 8051 Instruction Set

3.1 Types of instructions

3.2 Description of the 8051 instructions
Introduction
The process of writing program for the microcontroller mainly consists of
giving instructions (commands) in the specific order in which they should be
executed in order to carry out a specific task. As electronics cannot
understand what for example an instruction if the push button is pressedturn the light on means, then a certain number of simpler and precisely
defined orders that decoder can recognise must be used. All commands
are known as INSTRUCTION SET. All microcontrollers compatibile with the
8051 have in total of 255 instructions, i.e. 255 different words available for
program writing.
At first sight, it is imposing number of odd signs that must be known by
heart. However, It is not so complicated as it looks like. Many instructions
are considered to be different, even though they perform the same
operation, so there are only 111 truly different commands. For example:
ADD A,R0, ADD A,R1, ... ADD A,R7 are instructions that perform the same
operation (additon of the accumulator and register). Since there are 8 such
registers, each instruction is counted separately. Taking into account that all
instructions perform only 53 operations (addition, subtraction, copy etc.)
and most of them are rarely used in practice, there are actually 20-30
abbreviations to be learned, which is acceptable.

3.1 Types of instructions

Depending on operation they perform, all instructions are divided in several
groups:

Arithmetic Instructions
Branch Instructions
70

 Data Transfer Instructions

Logic Instructions
Bit-oriented Instructions
The first part of each instruction, called MNEMONIC refers to the operation
an instruction performs (copy, addition, logic operation etc.). Mnemonics
are abbreviations of the name of operation being executed. For example:

INC R1 - Means: Increment register R1 (increment register

R1);
LJMP LAB5 - Means: Long Jump LAB5 (long jump to the
address marked as LAB5);
JNZ LOOP - Means: Jump if Not Zero LOOP (if the number
in the accumulator is not 0, jump to the address marked as
LOOP);
The other part of instruction, called OPERAND is separated from
mnemonic by at least one whitespace and defines data being processed by
instructions. Some of the instructions have no operand, while some of them
have one, two or three. If there is more than one operand in an instruction,
they are separated by a comma. For example:

RET - return from a subroutine;

JZ TEMP - if the number in the accumulator is not 0, jump to
the address marked as TEMP;
ADD A,R3 - add R3 and accumulator;
CJNE A,#20,LOOP - compare accumulator with 20. If they
are not equal, jump to the address marked as LOOP;
Arithmetic instructions
Arithmetic instructions perform several basic operations such as addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication etc. After execution, the result is stored
in the first operand. For example:
ADD A,R1 - The result of addition (A+R1) will be stored in the accumulator.
AR I THM ETIC INSTRUC TIONS
71

Mnemonic

Description

Byte

ADD A,Rn

Adds the register to the accumulator

ADD A,direct

Adds the direct byte to the accumulator

ADD A,@Ri

Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator

ADD A,#data

Adds the immediate data to the accumulator

ADDC A,Rn

Adds the register to the accumulator with a carry

flag

ADDC A,direct

Adds the direct byte to the accumulator with a carry

flag

ADDC A,@Ri

Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a

carry flag

ADDC A,#data

Adds the immediate data to the accumulator with a

carry flag

SUBB A,Rn

Subtracts the register from the accumulator with a

borrow

SUBB A,direct

Subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with

a borrow

SUBB A,@Ri

Subtracts the indirect RAM from the accumulator

with a borrow

SUBB A,#data

Subtracts the immediate data from the accumulator

with a borrow

INC A

Increments the accumulator by 1

INC Rn

Increments the register by 1

INC Rx

Increments the direct byte by 1

INC @Ri

Increments the indirect RAM by 1

DEC A

Decrements the accumulator by 1

DEC Rn

Decrements the register by 1

DEC Rx

Decrements the direct byte by 1

DEC @Ri

Decrements the indirect RAM by 1

INC DPTR

Increments the Data Pointer by 1

MUL AB

Multiplies A and B

DIV AB

Divides A by B

72

Decimal adjustment of the accumulator according to

BCD code

DA A

Branch Instructions
There are two kinds of branch instructions:
Unconditional jump instructions: upon their execution a jump to a new
location from where the program continues execution is executed.
Conditional jump instructions: a jump to a new program location is
executed only if a specified condition is met. Otherwise, the program
normally proceeds with the next instruction.
B R AN C H I N S T R U C T I O N S
Mnemonic

Description

Byte C

ACALL addr11

Absolute subroutine call

LCALL addr16

Long subroutine call

RET

Returns from subroutine

RETI

Returns from interrupt subroutine

AJMP addr11

Absolute jump

LJMP addr16

Long jump

SJMP rel

Short jump (from 128 to +127 locations relative to the

following instruction)

JC rel

Jump if carry flag is set. Short jump.

JNC rel

Jump if carry flag is not set. Short jump.

JB bit,rel

Jump if direct bit is set. Short jump.

JBC bit,rel

Jump if direct bit is set and clears bit. Short jump.

JMP @A+DPTR

Jump indirect relative to the DPTR

JZ rel

Jump if the accumulator is zero. Short jump.

JNZ rel

Jump if the accumulator is not zero. Short jump.

CJNE A,direct,rel

Compares direct byte to the accumulator and jumps if not

equal. Short jump.

CJNE A,#data,rel

Compares immediate data to the accumulator and jumps

if not equal. Short jump.

73

CJNE
Rn,#data,rel

Compares immediate data to the register and jumps if not

equal. Short jump.

CJNE
@Ri,#data,rel

Compares immediate data to indirect register and jumps if

not equal. Short jump.

DJNZ Rn,rel

Decrements register and jumps if not 0. Short jump.

DJNZ Rx,rel

Decrements direct byte and jump if not 0. Short jump.

NOP

No operation

Data Transfer Instructions

Data transfer instructions move the content of one register to another. The
register the content of which is moved remains unchanged. If they have the
suffix X (MOVX), the data is exchanged with external memory.
D ATA T R AN S F E R I N S T R U C T I O N S
Mnemonic

Description

Byte C

MOV A,Rn

Moves the register to the accumulator

MOV A,direct

Moves the direct byte to the accumulator

MOV A,@Ri

Moves the indirect RAM to the accumulator

MOV A,#data

Moves the immediate data to the accumulator

MOV Rn,A

Moves the accumulator to the register

MOV Rn,direct

Moves the direct byte to the register

MOV Rn,#data

Moves the immediate data to the register

MOV direct,A

Moves the accumulator to the direct byte

MOV direct,Rn

Moves the register to the direct byte

MOV direct,direct

Moves the direct byte to the direct byte

MOV direct,@Ri

Moves the indirect RAM to the direct byte

MOV
direct,#data

Moves the immediate data to the direct byte

MOV @Ri,A

Moves the accumulator to the indirect RAM

MOV @Ri,direct

Moves the direct byte to the indirect RAM

MOV @Ri,#data

Moves the immediate data to the indirect RAM

MOV
DPTR,#data

Moves a 16-bit data to the data pointer

3
74

MOVC
A,@A+DPTR

Moves the code byte relative to the DPTR to the

accumulator (address=A+DPTR)

MOVC A,@A+PC

Moves the code byte relative to the PC to the accumulator

(address=A+PC)

MOVX A,@Ri

Moves the external RAM (8-bit address) to the accumulator

MOVX A,@DPTR

Moves the external RAM (16-bit address) to the

accumulator

MOVX @Ri,A

Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (8-bit address)

MOVX @DPTR,A

Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (16-bit

address)

PUSH direct

Pushes the direct byte onto the stack

POP direct

Pops the direct byte from the stack/td>

XCH A,Rn

Exchanges the register with the accumulator

XCH A,direct

Exchanges the direct byte with the accumulator

XCH A,@Ri

Exchanges the indirect RAM with the accumulator

XCHD A,@Ri

Exchanges the low-order nibble indirect RAM with the

accumulator

Logic Instructions
Logic instructions perform logic operations upon corresponding bits of two
registers. After execution, the result is stored in the first operand.
LOGIC INSTRUCTIONS
Mnemonic

Description

Byte

ANL A,Rn

AND register to accumulator

ANL A,direct

AND direct byte to accumulator

ANL A,@Ri

AND indirect RAM to accumulator

ANL A,#data

AND immediate data to accumulator

ANL direct,A

AND accumulator to direct byte

ANL direct,#data

AND immediae data to direct register

ORL A,Rn

OR register to accumulator

ORL A,direct

OR direct byte to accumulator

ORL A,@Ri

OR indirect RAM to accumulator

1
75

Cy

ORL direct,A

OR accumulator to direct byte

ORL direct,#data

OR immediate data to direct byte

XRL A,Rn

Exclusive OR register to accumulator

XRL A,direct

Exclusive OR direct byte to accumulator

XRL A,@Ri

Exclusive OR indirect RAM to accumulator

XRL A,#data

Exclusive OR immediate data to accumulator

XRL direct,A

Exclusive OR accumulator to direct byte

XORL direct,#data

Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte

CLR A

Clears the accumulator

CPL A

Complements the accumulator (1=0, 0=1)

SWAP A

Swaps nibbles within the accumulator

RL A

Rotates bits in the accumulator left

RLC A

Rotates bits in the accumulator left through carry

RR A

Rotates bits in the accumulator right

RRC A

Rotates bits in the accumulator right through carry

Bit-oriented Instructions
Similar to logic instructions, bit-oriented instructions perform logic
operations. The difference is that these are performed upon single bits.
B I T-O R I E N T E D I N S T R U C T I O N S
Mnemonic

Description

Byte

CLR C

Clears the carry flag

CLR bit

Clears the direct bit

SETB C

Sets the carry flag

SETB bit

Sets the direct bit

CPL C

Complements the carry flag

CPL bit

Complements the direct bit

ANL C,bit

AND direct bit to the carry flag

ANL C,/bit

AND complements of direct bit to the carry flag

ORL C,bit

OR direct bit to the carry flag

76

Cy

ORL C,/bit

OR complements of direct bit to the carry flag

MOV C,bit

Moves the direct bit to the carry flag

MOV bit,C

Moves the carry flag to the direct bit

3.2 Description of all 8051 instructions

Here is a list of the operands and their meanings:

A - accumulator;
Rn - is one of working registers (R0-R7) in the currently
active RAM memory bank;
Direct - is any 8-bit address register of RAM. It can be any
general-purpose register or a SFR (I/O port, control register
etc.);
@Ri - is indirect internal or external RAM location addressed
by register R0 or R1;
#data - is an 8-bit constant included in instruction (0-255);
#data16 - is a 16-bit constant included as bytes 2 and 3 in
instruction (0-65535);
addr16 - is a 16-bit address. May be anywhere within 64KB
of program memory;
addr11 - is an 11-bit address. May be within the same 2KB
page of program memory as the first byte of the following
instruction;
rel - is the address of a close memory location (from -128 to
+127 relative to the first byte of the following instruction). On
the basis of it, assembler computes the value to add or
subtract from the number currently stored in the program
counter;
bit - is any bit-addressable I/O pin, control or status bit; and
C - is carry flag of the status register (register PSW).
ACALL addr11 - Absolute subroutine call
addr11: Subroutine address
77

Description: Instruction unconditionally calls a subroutine located at the

specified code address. Therefore, the current address and the address of
called subroutine must be within the same 2K byte block of the program
memory, starting from the first byte of the instruction following ACALL.
Syntax: ACALL [subroutine name];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, subroutine address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0123h

After execution: PC=0345h
ADD A,Rn - Adds the register Rn to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
Description: Instruction adds the register Rn (R0-R7) to the accumulator.
After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADD A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
78

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=2Eh (46 dec.) R4=12h (18 dec.)

After execution: A=40h (64 dec.) R4=12h
ADD A,@Ri - Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator. Address
of indirect RAM is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). After addition, the
result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADD A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh

Before execution: A= 16h (22 dec.) SUM= 33h (51 dec.)
After execution : A= 49h (73 dec.)
ADD A,direct - Adds the direct byte to the accumulator

79

A: accumulator
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)
Description: Instruction adds the direct byte to the accumulator. As it is
direct addressing, the direct can be any SFR or general-purpose register
with address 0-7 Fh. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADD A, register name;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: SUM= 33h (51 dec.) A= 16h (22 dec.)

After execution: SUM= 33h (73 dec.) A= 49h (73 dec.)
ADDC A,Rn - Adds the register to the accumulator with a carry flag
A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
Description: Instruction adds the accumulator with a carry flag and Rn
register (R0-R7). After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADDC A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

80

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) R0= AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1
ADD A,#data - Adds the immediate data to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Data: constant within 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction adds data (0-255) to the accumulator. After
addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADD A,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= 16h (22 dec.)

After execution: A= 49h (73 dec.)
ADDC A,direct - Adds the direct byte to the acumulator with a carry flag
A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction adds the direct byte to the accumulator with a
carry flag. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or
general purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127dec.). The result is
stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADDC A, register address;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

81

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) TEMP = AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1
ADDC A,@Ri - Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a carry flag
A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a
carry flag. RAM address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). After
addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ADDC A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) SUM = AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1
ADDC A,#data - Adds the immediate data to the accumulator with a carry
flag
A: accumulator
Data: constant with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction adds data (0-255) to the accumulator with a carry
flag. After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

82

Syntax: ADDC A,#data;

Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) C=1

After execution: A= 6Dh (109 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1
AJMP addr11 - Absoulte jump
addr11: Jump address
Description: Program continues execution after executing a jump to the
specified address. Similar to the ACALL instruction, the jump must be
executed within the same 2K byte block of program memory starting from
the first byte of the instruction following AJMP.
Syntax: AJMP address (label);
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

83

Before execution: PC=0345h SP=07h

After execution: PC=0123h SP=09h
ANL A,Rn - AND register to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the
accumulator and Rn register. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ANL A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

R5= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
84

ANL A,direct - AND direct byte to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the
accumulator and drect register. As it is direct addressing, the register can
be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (o-127 dec.).
The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ANL A,direct;
Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
ANL A,@Ri - AND indirect RAM to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the
accumulator and register. As it is indirect addressing, the register address
is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the
accumulator.
Syntax: ANL A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

85

Register address SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)
R0= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
ANL A,#data - AND immediate data to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the
accumulator and data. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ANL A,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
ANL direct,A - AND accumulator to direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator

86

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between direct byte

and accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or
general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is
stored in the direct byte.
Syntax: ANL register address,A;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: MASK= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
ANL direct,#data - AND immediate data to direct byte
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)
Data: constant in the range between 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between direct byte
and data. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or
general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is
stored in the direct byte.
Syntax: ANL register address ,#data;
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

87

Before execution: X= C3h (11000011 Bin.) MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.)

After execution: MASK= 41h (01000001 Bin.)
ANL C,bit - AND direct bit to the carry flag
C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the direct
bit and the carry flag.
BIT

C AN D B I T

Syntax: ANL C, bit address;

Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)

C=1
88

After execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)

C=0
ANL C,/bit - AND complements of direct bit to the carry flag
C: carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between inverted
addressed bit and the carry flag. The result is stored in the carry flag.
BIT

BIT

C AN D B I T

Syntax: ANL C,/[bit address];

Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)

C=1
After execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)
C=1
CJNE A,direct,rel - Compares direct byte to the accumulator and jumps if
not equal
A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
addr: jump address

89

Description: Instruction first compares the number in the accumulator with

the directly addressed byte. If they are equal, the program proceeds with
execution. Otherwise, a jump to the specified address will be executed.
This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new
location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations
relative to the first following instruction).
Syntax: CJNE A,direct,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0145h A=27h

After execution: if MAX27: PC=0123h
If MAX=27: PC=0146h
CJNE A,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to the accumulator and
jumps if not equal
A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction first compares the number in the accumulator with
the immediate data. If they are equal, the program proceeds with
execution. Otherwise, a jump to the specified address will be executed.
This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new
90

location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations
relative to the first following instruction).
Syntax: CJNE A,X,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0445h

After execution: If A33: PC=0423h
If A=33: PC=0446h
CJNE Rn,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to the register Rn and
jumps if not equal
Rn: Any R register (R0-R7)
Data: Constant in the range of 0 - 255 (0-FFh)
addr: Jump address
Description: Instruction first compares immediate data to the register Rn. If
they are equal, the program proceeds with execution. Otherwise, a jump to
the specified address will be executed. This is a short jump instruction,
which means that the address of a new location must be relatively near the

91

current one (-128 to + 127 locations relative to the first following

instruction).
Syntax: CJNE Rn,data,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0345h

After execution: If R544h: PC=0323h
If R5=44h: PC=0346h
CJNE @Ri,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to indirectly addressed
register and jumps if not equal
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Data: Constant in the range of 0 - 255 (0-FFh)
Description: This instruction first compares immediate data to indirectly
addressed register. If they are equal, the program proceeds with execution.
Otherwise, a jump to the specified address in the program will be executed.
This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new
location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations
relative to the next instruction).
Syntax: CJNE @Ri,data,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;
92

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Register Address SUM=F3h

PC=0345h R0=F3h
After execution: If SUM44h: PC=0323h
If SUM=44h: PC=0346h
CLR A - Clears the accumulator
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction clears the accumulator.
Syntax: CLR A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

After execution: A=0

93

CLR C - clears the carry flag

C: Carry flag
Description: Instruction clears the carry flag.
Syntax: CLR C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: C=0

CLR bit - clears the direct bit
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction clears the specified bit.
Syntax: CLR [bit address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.3=1 (input pin)

After execution: P0.3=0 (output pin)
CPL A - Complements the accumulator
A: accumulator

94

Description: Instruction complements all the bits in the accumulator

(1==>0, 0==>1).
Syntax: CPL A;
Bytes: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= (00110110)

After execution: A= (11001001)
CPL bit - Complements the direct bit
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction coplements the specified bit of RAM (0==>1,
1==>0).
Syntax: CPL [bit address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.3=1 (input pin)

After execution: P0.3=0 (output pin)
CPL C - Complements the carry flag
C: Carry flag
Description: Instruction complements the carry flag (0==>1, 1==>0).
95

Syntax: CPL C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: C=1

After execution: C=0
DA A - Decimal adjust accumulator
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction adjusts the contents of the accumulator to
correspond to a BCD number after two BCD numbers have been added by
the ADD and ADDC instructions. The result in form of two 4-digit BCD
numbers is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: DA A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=56h (01010110) 56 BCD

B=67h (01100111) 67BCD
After execution: A=BDh (10111101)
After BCD conversion: A=23h (00100011), C=1 (Overflow)
(C+23=123) = 56+67
96

DEC A - Decrements the accumulator by 1

A: accumulator
Description: Instruction decrements the value in the accumulator by 1. If
there is a 0 in the accumulator, the result of the operation is FFh. (255 dec.)
Syntax: DEC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=E4h

After execution: A=E3h
DEC Rn - Decrements the register Rn by 1
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
Description: Instruction decrements the value in the Rn register by 1. If
there is a 0 in the register, the result of the operation will be FFh. (255 dec.)
Syntax: DEC Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: R3=B0h

After execution: R3=AFh
DEC direct - Decrements the direct byte by 1
97

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction decrements the value of directly addressed
register by 1. As it is direct addressing, the register must be within the first
255 locations of RAM. If there is a 0 in the register, the result will be FFh.
Syntax: DEC [register address];
Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: CNT=0

After execution: CNT=FFh
DIV AB - Divides the accumulator by the register B
A: accumulator
B: Register B
Description: Instruction divides the value in the accumulator by the value
in the B register. After division the integer part of result is stored in the
accumulator while the register contains the remainder. In case of dividing
by 1, the flag OV is set and the result of division is unpredictable. The 8-bit
quotient is stored in the accumulator and the 8-bit remainder is stored in
the B register.
Syntax: DIV AB;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV;
EXAMPLE:

98

Before execution: A=FBh (251dec.) B=12h (18 dec.)

After execution: A=0Dh (13dec.) B=11h (17dec.)
1318 + 17 =251
DEC @Ri - Decrements the indirect RAM by 1
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: This instruction decrements the value in the indirectly
addressed register of RAM by 1. The register address is stored in the Ri
register (R0 or R1). If there is a 0 in the register, the result will be FFh.
Syntax: DEC @Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address CNT = 4Fh R0=4Fh

Before execution: CNT=35h
After execution: CNT= 34h
DJNZ direct,rel - Decrements direct byte by 1 and jumps if not 0
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
addr: Jump address
Description: This instruction first decrements value in the register. If the
result is 0, the program proceeds with execution. Otherwise, a jump to the
specified address in the program will be executed. As it is direct
addressing, the register must be within the first 255 locations of RAM. This
99

is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location
must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations relative to
the first following instruction).
Syntax: DJNZ direct,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0445h

After execution: If CNT0: PC=0423h
If CNT=0: PC=0446h
DJNZ Rn,rel - Decrements the Rn register by 1 and jumps if not 0
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
addr: jump address
Description: This instruction first decrements the value in the Rn register.
If the result is 0, the program proceeds with execution. Otherwise, a jump
to the specified address in the program will be executed. This is a short
jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be

100

relatively near the current one (- 128 to +127 locations relative to the first
following instruction).
Syntax: DJNZ Rn, [jump address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0445h

After execution: If R10: PC=0423h
If R1=0: PC=0446h
INC Rn - Increments the Rn register by 1
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
Description: Instruction increments the value in the Rn register by 1. If the
register includes the number 255, the result of the operation will be 0.
Syntax: INC Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

101

Before execution: R4=18h

After execution: R4=19h
INC A - Increments the accumulator by 1
A: accumulator
Description: This instruction increments the value in the accumulator by 1.
If the accumulator includes the number 255, the result of the operation will
be 0.
Syntax: INC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=E4h

After execution: A=E5h
INC @Ri - Increments the value of indirectly addressed register of RAM by
1
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: This instruction increments the value in the directly
addressed register of RAM by 1. The register address is stored in the Ri
102

Register (R0 or R1). If the register includes the number 255, the result of
the operation will be 0.
Syntax: INC @Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address CNT = 4Fh

Before execution: CNT=35h R1=4Fh
After execution: CNT=36h
INC direct - Increments the direct byte by 1
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction increments the direct byte by 1. If the register
includes the number 255, the result of the operation will be 0. As it is direct
addressing, the register must be within the first 255 RAM locations.
Syntax: INC direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

103

Before execution: CNT=33h

After execution: CNT=34h
JB bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is set
addr: Jump address
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: If the bit is set, a jump to the specified address will be
executed. Otherwise, if the value of bit is 0, the program proceeds with the
next instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the
address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +
127 locations relative to the first following instruction).
Syntax: JB bit, [jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If P0.5=0: PC=0324h
If P0.5=1: PC=0345h
INC DPTR - Increments the Data Pointer by 1
DPTR: Data Pointer
Description: Instruction increments the value of the 16-bit data pointer by
1. This is the only 16-bit register upon which this operation can be
performed.
104

Syntax: INC DPTR;

Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: DPTR = 13FF (DPH = 13h DPL = FFh )

After execution: DPTR = 1400 (DPH = 14h DPL = 0)
JC rel - Jump if carry flag is set
addr: Jump address
Description: Instruction first checks if the carry flag is set. If set, a jump to
the specified address is executed. Otherwise, the program proceeds with
the next instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the
address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129 to +
127 locations relative to the first following instruction).
Syntax: JC [jump address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

105

Before instruction: PC=0323h

After instruction: If C=0: PC=0324h
If C=1: PC=0345h
JBC bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is set
Bit: any bit of RAM
addr: Jump Address
Description: This instruction first checks if the bit is set. If set, a jump to
the specified address is executed and the bit is cleared. Otherwise, the
program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump
instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be
relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first
following instruction).
Syntax: JBC bit, [jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

106

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If TEST0.4=1: PC=0345h, TEST0.4=0
If TEST0.4=0: PC=0324h, TEST0,4=0
JNB bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is not set
addr: Jump address
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: If the bit is cleared, a jump to the specified address will be
executed. Otherwise, if the bit value is 1, the program proceeds with the
first following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that
the address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129
to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).
Syntax: JNB bit,[jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

107

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If P0.5=1: PC=0324h
If P0.5=0: PC=0345h
JMP @A+DPTR - Jump indirect relative to the DPTR
A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer
Description: This instruction causes a jump to the address calculated by
adding value stored in the accumulator to the 16-bit number in the DPTR
Register. It is used with complex program branching where the accumulator
affects jump address, for example when reading a table. Neither
accumulator nor DPTR register are affected.
Syntax: JMP @A+DPTR;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

108

Before execution: PC=223 DPTR=1400h

After execution: PC = 1402h if A=2
PC = 1404h if A=4
PC = 1406h if A=6
Note:
As instructions AJMP LABELS occupy two locations each, the values in the
accumulator specifying them must be different from each other by 2.
JNZ rel - Jump if accumulator is not zero
addr: Jump Address
Description: This instruction checks if the value stored in the accumulator
is 0. If not, a jump to the specified address will be executed. Otherwise, the
program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump
instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be
relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first
following instruction).
Syntax: JNZ [jump address]:
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

109

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If A=0: PC=324h
If A0: PC=283h
JNC rel - Jump if carry flag is not set
addr: Jump Address
Description: This instruction first checks whether the carry flag is set. If
not, a jump to the specified address will be executed. Otherwise, the
program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump
instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be
relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first
following instruction).
Syntax: JNC [jump address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

110

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If C=0: PC=360h
If C=1: PC=324h
LCALL addr16 - Long subroutine call
addr16: Subroutine Address
Description: This instruction unconditionally calls a subroutine located at
the specified address. The current address and the start of the subroutine
called can be located anywhere within the memory space of 64K.
Syntax: LCALL [subroutine name];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, address (15-8), address (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0123h

After execution: PC=1234h
111

JZ rel - Jump if accumulator is zero

addr: Jump Address
Description: The instruction checks whether the value stored in the
accumulator is 0. If yes, a jump to the specified address will be executed.
Otherwise, the program proceeds with the following instruction. This is a
short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location
must be relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to
the first following instruction).
Syntax: JZ [jump address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0323h

After execution: If A0: PC=324h
If A=0: PC=283h
MOV A,Rn - Moves the Rn register to the accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
A: accumulator
Description: The instruction moves the Rn register to the accumulator.
The Rn register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:
112

Before execution: R3=58h

After execution: R3=58h A=58h
LJMP addr16 - Long jump
addr16: jump address
Description: Instruction causes a jump to the specified 16-bit address.
Syntax: LJMP [jump address];
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, address (15-8), address (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0123h

After execution: PC=1234h
MOV A,@Ri - Moves the indirect RAM to the accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the indirectly addressed register of RAM to
the accumulator. The register address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or
R1). The result is stored in the accumulator. The register is not affected.
113

Syntax: MOV A,@Ri;

Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address SUM=F2h R0=F2h

Before execution: SUM=58h
After execution: A=58h SUM=58h
MOV A,direct - Moves the direct byte to the accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to the accumulator. As it is
direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction,
the register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV A,direct;
Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Rx=68h

After execution: Rx=68h A=68h
MOV Rn,A - Moves the accumulator to the Rn register
114

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

A: accumulator
Desription: Instruction moves the accumulator to the Rn register. The
accumulator is not affected.
Syntax: MOV Rn,A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=58h

After execution: R3=58h A=58h
MOV A,#data - Moves the immediate data to the accumulator
A: accumulator
Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Desription: Instruction moves the immediate data to the accumulator.
Syntax: MOV A,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: A=28h

MOV Rn,#data - Moves the immediate data to the Rn register
Rn: any R register (R0-R7) Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
115

Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the Rn register.

Syntax: MOV Rn,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: R5=32h

MOV Rn,direct - Moves the direct byte to the Rn register
Rn: Any R registar (R0-R7)
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to the Rn register. As it is
direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction,
the register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV Rn,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: SUM=58h

After execution: SUM=58h R3=58h
MOV direct,Rn - Moves the Rn register to the direct byte

116

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)
Description: Instruction moves the Rn register to the direct byte. As it is
direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction,
the register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV direct,Rn;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: R3=18h

After execution: R3=18h CIF=18h
MOV direct,A - Moves the accumulator to the direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to the direct byte. As it is
direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction,
the register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV direct,A;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

117

Before execution: A=98h

After execution: A=98h REG=98h
MOV direct,@Ri - Moves the indirect RAM to the direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction moves the indirectly adressed register of RAM to
the direct byte. The register is not affected.
Syntax: MOV direct,@Ri;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address SUM=F3

Before execution: SUM=58h R1=F3
After execution: SUM=58h TEMP=58h
MOV direct1,direct2 - Moves the direct byte to the direct byte
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to another direct byte. As it
is direct addressing, both registers can be any SFRs or general-purpose
registers with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). The direct1 is not affected.

118

Syntax: MOV direct1,direct2;

Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct1 address, direct2 address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP=58h

After execution: TEMP=58h SUM=58h
MOV @Ri,A - Moves the accumulator to the indirect RAM
A: accumulator
Ri: register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to the indirectly addressed
register of RAM. The register address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or
R1). After executing the instruction, the accumulator is not affected.
Syntax: MOV @Ri,A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address SUM=F2h

Before execution: R0=F2h A=58h
After execution: SUM=58h A=58h
MOV direct,#data - Moves the immediate data to the direct byte
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
119

Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the direct byte. As it

is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.).
Syntax: MOV direct,#data;
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: TEMP=22h

MOV @Ri,#data - Moves the immediate data to the indirect RAM
Ri: Register R0 or R1
Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the idirectly
addressed register of RAM. The register address is stored in the Ri register
(R0 or R1).
Syntax: MOV @Ri,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address TEMP=E2h

Before execution: R1=E2h
After execution: TEMP=44h
MOV @Ri,direct - Moves the direct byte to the indirect RAM
120

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Ri: Register R0 or R1
Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to a register the address of
which is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). After executing the instruction,
the direct byte is not affected.
Syntax: MOV @Ri,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address TEMP=E2h

Before execution: SUM=58h R1=E2h
After execution: SUM=58h TEMP=58h
MOV bit,C - Moves the carry flag to the direct bit
C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction moves the carry flag to the direct bit. After
executing the instruction, the carry flag is not affected.
Syntax: MOV bit,C;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

121

After execution: If C=0 P1.2=0

If C=1 P1.2=1
MOV C,bit - Moves the direct bit to the carry flag
C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction moves the direct bit to the carry flag. After
executing the instruction, the bit is not affected.
Syntax: MOV C,bit;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: If P1.4=0 C=0

If P1.4=1 C=1
MOVC A,@A+DPTR - Moves the code byte relative to the DPTR to the
accumulator
A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer
Description: Instruction first adds the 16-bit DPTR register to the
accumulator. The result of addition is then used as a memory address from
which the 8-bit data is moved to the accumulator.
Syntax: MOVC A,@A+DPTR;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

122

Before execution:
DPTR=1000:
A=0
A=1
A=2
A=3
After execution:
A=66h
A=77h
A=88h
A=99h
Note: DB (Define Byte) is a directive in assembly language used to define
constant.
MOV DPTR,#data16 - Loads the data pointer with a 16-bit constant
Data: constant in the range of 0-65535 (0-FFFFh)
DPTR: Data Pointer
Description: Instruction stores a 16-bit constant to the DPTR register. The
8 high bits of the constant are stored in the DPH register, while the 8 low
bits are stored in the DPL register.
Syntax: MOV DPTR,#data;
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, constant (15-8), constant (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

123

After execution: DPH=12h DPL=34h

MOVX A,@Ri - Moves the external RAM (8-bit address) to the accumulator
Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction reads the content of a register in external RAM
and moves it to the accumulator. The register address is stored in the Ri
register (R0 or R1).
Syntax: MOVX A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register Address: SUM=12h

Before execution: SUM=58h R0=12h
After execution: A=58h
Note:
SUM Register is stored in external RAM which is 256 bytes in size.
MOVC A,@A+PC - Moves the code byte relative to the PC to the
accumulator
A: accumulator
PC: Program Counter
Description: Instruction first adds the 16-bit PC register to the accumulator
(the current program address is stored in the PC register). The result of
124

addition is then used as a memory address from which the 8-bit data is
moved to the accumulator.
Syntax: MOVC A,@A+PC;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

After the subroutine "Table" has been executed, one of four values is stored
in the accumulator:
Before execution:
A=0
A=1
A=2
A=3
After execution:
A=66h
A=77h
A=88h
A=99h
Note: DB (Define Byte) is a directive in assembly language used to define
constant.
MOVX @Ri,A - Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (8-bit address)
125

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to a register stored in
external RAM. Its address is stored in the Ri register.
Syntax: MOVX @Ri,A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=34h

Before execution: A=58 R1=34h
After execution: SUM=58h
NOTE:
Register SUM is located in external RAM which is 256 bytes in size.
MOVX A,@DPTR - Moves the external memory (16-bit address) to the
accumulator
A: accumulator
DPRTR: Data Pointer
Description: Instruction moves the content of a register in external
memory to the accumulator. The 16-bit address of the register is stored in
the DPTR register (DPH and DPL).
Syntax: MOVX A,@DPTR;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

126

Register address: SUM=1234h

Before execution: DPTR=1234h SUM=58
After execution: A=58h
Note:
Register SUM is located in external RAM which is up to 64K in size.
MUL AB - Multiplies A and B
A: accumulator
B: Register B
Description: Instruction multiplies the value in the accumulator with the
value in the B register. The low-order byte of the 16-bit result is stored in
the accumulator, while the high byte remains in the B register. If the result
is larger than 255, the overflow flag is set. The carry flag is not affected.
Syntax: MUL AB;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=80 (50h) B=160 (A0h)

After execution: A=0 B=32h
AB=80160=12800 (3200h)
MOVX @DPTR,A - Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (16-bit
address)
A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer
127

Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to a register stored in

external RAM. The 16-bit address of the register is stored in the DPTR
register (DPH and DPL).
Syntax: MOVX @DPTR,A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=1234h

Before execution: A=58 DPTR=1234h
After execution: SUM=58h
Note:
Register SUM is located in RAM which is up to 64K in size.
ORL A,Rn - OR register to the accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
accumulator and Rn register. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ORL A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

128

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

R5= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= D7h (11010111 Bin.)
NOP - No operation
Description: Instruction doesnt perform any operation and is used when
additional time delays are needed.
Syntax: NOP;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Such a sequence provides a negative pulse which lasts exactly 5 machine

cycles on the P2.3. If a 12 MHz quartz crystal is used then 1 cycle lasts
1uS, which means that this output will be a low-going output pulse for 5 uS.
ORL A,@Ri - OR indirect RAM to the accumulator
Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
accumulator and a register. As it is indirect addressing, the register address
is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the
accumulator.

129

Syntax: ANL A,@Ri;

Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: TEMP=FAh

Before execution: R1=FAh
TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)
A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)
ORL A,direct - OR direct byte to the accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
accumulator and a register. As it is direct addressing, the register can be
any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.).
The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: ORL A,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

130

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

LOG= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)
ORL direct,A - OR accumulator to the direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between a register
and accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or
general- purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is
stored in the register.
Syntax: ORL [register address], A;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)
ORL A,#data - OR immediate data to the accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
accumulator and the immediate data. The result is stored in the
accumulator.
Syntax: ORL A, #data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

131

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

After execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)
ORL C,bit - OR direct bit to the carry flag
C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the direct bit
and the carry flag. The result is stored in the carry flag.
Syntax: ORL C,bit;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= C6h (11001010 Bin.)

C=0
After execution: C=1
ORL direct,#data - OR immediate data to direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
immediate data and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the direct
byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0127 dec.). The result is stored in the direct byte.

132

Syntax: ORL [register address],#data;

Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

After execution: A= D2h (11010010 Bin.)
POP direct - Pop the direct byte from the stack
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction first reads data from the location being pointed to
by the Stack. The data is then copied to the direct byte and the value of the
Stack Pointer is decremented by 1. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte
can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127
dec.).
Syntax: POP direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Address Value

030h 20h
031h 23h
SP==> 032h 01h
DPTR=0123h (DPH=01, DPL=23h)
133

After execution: Address Value

SP==> 030h 20h
031h 23h
032h 01h
ORL C,/bit - OR complements of direct bit to the carry flag
C: carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the
addressed inverted bit and the carry flag. The result is stored in the carry
flag.
BIT

BIT

C AN D B I T

Syntax: ORL C,/bit;

Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= C6h (11001010 Bin.)

C=0
After execution: C=0
RET - Return from subroutine
Description: This instruction ends every subroutine. After execution, the
program proceeds with the instruction following an ACALL or LCALL.

134

Syntax: RET;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

PUSH direct - Pushes the direct byte onto the stack

Data: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Address currently pointed to by the Stack Pointer is first
incremented by 1 and afterwards the data from the register Rx is copied to
it. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or generalpurpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.)
135

Syntax: PUSH direct;

Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Address Value

SP==> 030h 20h
DPTR=0123h (DPH=01, DPL=23h)
After execution: Address Value
030h 20h
031h 23h
SP==> 032h 01h
RL A - Rotates the accumulator one bit left
A: accumulator
Description: Eight bits in the accumulator are rotated one bit left, so that
the bit 7 is rotated into the bit 0 position.
Syntax: RL A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

After execution: A=85h (10000101 Bin.)

136

RETI - Return from interrupt

Description: This instruction ends every interrupt routine and informs
processor about it. After executing the instruction, the program proceeds
from where it left off. The PSW is not automatically returned its pre-interrupt
status.
Syntax: RETI;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
RR A - Rotates the accumulator one bit right
A: accumulator
Description: All eight bits in the accumulator are rotated one bit right so
that the bit 0 is rotated into the bit 7 position.
Syntax: RR A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

After execution: A= 61h (01100001 Bin.)

137

RLC A - Rotates the accumulator one bit left through the carry flag
A: accumulator
Description: All eight bits in the accumulator and carry flag are rotated one
bit left. After this operation, the bit 7 is rotated into the carry flag position
and the carry flag is rotated into the bit 0 position.
Syntax: RLC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

C=0
After execution: A= 85h (10000100 Bin.)
C=1

138

SETB C - Sets the carry flag

C: Carry flag
Description: Instruction sets the carry flag.
Syntax: SETB C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

After execution: C=1

RRC A - Rotates the accumulator one bit right through the carry flag
A: accumulator
Description: All eight bits in the accumulator and carry flag are rotated one
bit right. After this operation, the carry flag is rotated into the bit 7 position
and the bit 0 is rotated into the carry flag position.
Syntax: RRC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

139

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

C=0
After execution: A= 61h (01100001 Bin.)
C=0

SJMP rel - Short Jump (relative address)

addr: Jump Address
Description: Instruction enables jump to the new address which should be
in the range of -128 to +127 locations relative to the first following
instruction.
Syntax: SJMP [jump address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

140

Before execution: PC=323

After execution: PC=345
SETB bit - Sets the direct bit
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction sets the specified bit. The register containing that
bit must belong to the group of the so called bit addressable registers.
Syntax: SETB [bit address];
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.1 = 34h (00110100)

pin 1 is configured as an output
After execution: P0.1 = 35h (00110101)
pin 1 is configured as an input
SUBB A,direct - Subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with a
borrow

141

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

A: accumulator
Description: Instruction subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with
a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the lower bit then the carry flag
is set. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or
general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). The result is
stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: SUBB A,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=C9h, DIF=53h, C=0

After execution: A=76h, C=0
SUBB A,Rn - Subtracts the Rn register from the accumulator with a borrow
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction subtracts the Rn register from the accumulator
with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the lower bit then the carry
flag is set. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: SUBB A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;
EXAMPLE:

142

Before execution: A=C9h, R4=54h, C=1

After execution: A=74h, C=0
Note:
The result is different (C9 - 54=75) because the carry flag is set (C=1)
before the instruction starts execution.
SUBB A,#data - Subtracts the immediate data from the accumulator with a
borrow
A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction subtracts the immediate data from the
accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the lower bit
then the carry flag is set. The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: SUBB A,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=C9h, C=0

After execution: A=A7h, C=0
SUBB A,@Ri - Subtracts the indirect RAM from the accumulator with a
borrow
Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
143

Description: Instruction subtracts the indirectly addressed register of RAM

from the accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the
lower bit then the carry flag is set. As it is indirect addressing, the register
address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the
accumulator.
Syntax: SUBB A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: MIN=F4

Before execution: A=C9h, R1=F4h, MIN=04, C=0
After execution: A=C5h, C=0
XCH A,Rn - Exchanges the Rn register with the accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction causes the accumulator and Rn register to
exchange data. The content of the accumulator is moved to the Rn register
and vice versa.
Syntax: XCH A,Rn;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

144

Before execution: A=C6h, R3=29h

After execution: R3=C6h, A=29h
SWAP A - Swaps nibbles within the accumulator
A: accumulator
Description: A nibble refers to a group of 4 bits within one register (bit0bit3 and bit4-bit7). This instruction interchanges high and low nibbles of the
accumulator.
Syntax: SWAP A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=E1h (11100001)bin.

After execution: A=1Eh (00011110)bin.

XCH A,@Ri - Exchanges the indirect RAM with the accumulator

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the contents of accumulator to the
indirectly addressed register of RAM and vice versa. As it is indirect
addressing, the register address is stored in the register Ri (R0 or R1).
Syntax: XCH A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
145

EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=E3

Before execution: R0=E3, SUM=29h, A=98h
After execution: A=29h, SUM=98h
XCH A,direct - Exchanges the direct byte with the accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction moves the contents of the accumulator into the
direct byte and vice versa. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be
any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.).
Syntax: XCH A,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=FFh, SUM=29h

After execution: SUM=FFh A=29h
XRL A,Rn - Exclusive OR register to accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
accumulator and the Rn register. The result is stored in the accumulator.

146

Syntax: XRL A,Rn;

Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

R3= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)
XCHD A,@Ri - Exchanges the low-order nibble indirect RAM with the
accumulator
Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: This instruction interchanges the low-order nibbles (bits 0-3)
of the accumulator with the low-order nibbles of the indirectly addressed
register of RAM. High-order nibbles of the accumulator and register are not
affected. This instruction is mainly used when operating with BCD values.
As it is indirect addressing, the register address is stored in the register Ri
(R0 or R1).
Syntax: XCHD A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

147

Register address: SUM=E3

Before execution: R0=E3 SUM=29h A=A8h,
After execution: A=A9h, SUM=28h

XRL A,@Ri - Exclusive OR indirect RAM to the accumulator

Ri: Register R0 or R1
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
accumulator and the indirectly addressed register. As it is indirect
addressing, the register address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The
result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: XRL A,@Ri;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: TEMP=FAh, R1=FAh

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)
A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)
XRL A,direct - Exclusive OR direct byte to the accumulator

148

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
accumulator and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the register can
be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.).
The result is stored in the accumulator.
Syntax: XRL A,direct;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

LOG= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)
XRL direct,A - Exclusive OR accumulator to the direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
direct byte and the accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register can
be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.).
The result is stored in the register.
Syntax: XRL direct,A;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

149

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)
XRL A,#data - Exclusive OR immediate data to the accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
accumulator and the immediate data. The result is stored in the
accumulator.
Syntax: XRL A,#data;
Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

X= 11h (00010001 Bin.)
After execution: A= D3h (11010011 Bin.)
XRL direct,#data - Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the
immediate data and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the register

150

can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127

dec.). The result is stored in the register.
Syntax: XRL direct,#data;
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)

X=12h (00010010 Bin.)
After execution: A= D0h (11010000 Bin.)

Architecture and programming of 8051

MCU's

TOC
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Chapter 4 : AT89S8253 Microcontroller

4.1 AT89S8253 Microcontroller ID

4.2 Pin Description
4.3 AT89S8253 Microcontroller Memory Organisation
4.4 SFRs (Special Function Registers)
151

4.5 Watchdog Timer (WDT)

4.6 Interrupts
4.7 Counters and Timers
4.8 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter)

4.9 SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface)

4.10 Power Consumption Control

Introduction
It has been more than 20 years since the first version of the 8051
microcontroller was launched. During that time it has undergone various
upgrades and improvements. Today, the 8051 microcontroller is being
manufactured across the globe by many manufacturers and under different
names. Of course, the latest versions are by far more advanced than the
original one. Many of them has the label 8051 compatible, 8051
compliantor 8051 family in order to emphasize their noble heritage.
These tags imply that microcontrollers have similar architecture and are
programmed in a similar way using the same instruction set. Practically, if
you know how to handle one microcontroller belonging to this family, you
will be able to handle any of them. In other words, several hundreds of
different models are at your disposal.
This book covers one of them called the AT89S8253, manufactured by
Atmel. Why this particular one? Because it is widely used, cheap and uses
Flash memory for storing programs. The last feature mentioned makes it
ideal for experimentation due to the fact that program can be loaded and
erased from it for many times. Besides, thanks to the built-in SPI System
(Serial Programing Interface), the program can be loaded to the
microcontroller even after embedding the chip in the target device.

4.1 The AT89S8253 microcontroller ID

Compatible with 8051 family.
12Kb of Flash Memory for storing programs.
o

Program is loaded via SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface).

152

Program may be loaded/erased up to 1000 times.

2Kb of EEPROM Memory.

Power supply voltage: 4-6V.
Operating clock frequency: 0-24MHz.
256 bytes of internal RAM for storing variables.
32 input/output pins.
Three 16-bit timers/counters.
9 interrupt sources.
2 additional power saving modes (low-power idle and powerdown mode).
Programmable UART serial communication.
Programmable watchdog timer.
Three-level program memory lock

The AT89S53 comes in the following packages:

153

154

4.2 Pinout Description

VCC Power supply voltage (4-6V)
GND Ground ( Negative supply pole)
Port 0 (P0.0-P0.7) If configured as outputs, each of these pins can be
connected to up to 8 TTL inputs. If configured as inputs, the pins can be
used as high-impedance inputs as their potential is not defined relative to
ground, i.e. they are floating. If additional (external) memory is used, these
pins are used for accessing it. Signal on the ALE pin determines what and
when will be transferred to this port.
Port 1 (P1.0-P1.7) If configured as outputs, each of these pins can be
connected to up to 4 TTL inputs. When configured as inputs, these pins act
as standard TTL inputs, that is, each of them is internally connected to the
positive supply voltage via a resistor of relatively high impedance. Power
supply voltage provided on these inputs is 5V. Also, the Port 1 pins have
alternate functions as shown in the table below:
PORT PIN

A L TE R N ATE F U N C T I O N

P1.0

T2 (Timer 2 input)

P1.1

T2EX (Timer 2 control input)

P1.4

SS (SPI system control input)

P1.5

MOSI (SPI system I/O)

155

P1.6

MISO (SPI system I/O)

P1.7

SCK (SPI system clock signal)

Port 2 (P2.0-P2.7) Whether configured as an input or an output, this port

acts the same as Port 1. If external memory is used, the high byte of the
address (A8-A15) comes out on the Port 2 which is thus used for
addressing it.
Port 3 (P3.0-P3.7) Similar to P1, Port 3 pins can be used as general inputs
or outputs. They also have additional functions to be explained later in the
chapter.
PORT PIN

A LTE R N ATE F U N C T I O N

P3.0

RXD (serial input)

P3.1

TXD (serial output)

P3.2

INT0 (external interrupt 0)

P3.3

INT1 (external interrupt 1)

P3.4

T0 (Timer 0 external input)

P3.5

T1 (Timer 1 external input)

P3.6

WR (External data memory write signal)

P3.7

RD (External data memory read signal)

RST Logic one (1) on this pin causes the microcontroller to be reset.
ALE/PROG In normal operation, the ALE pin is activated at a constant rate
of 1/16 the oscillator frequency and can be used for external clocking and
timing purposes. When external memory is used, a signal from this pin is
used to latch the low byte of an address (A0-A7) from P0. During the
process of writing a program to the microcontroller, this pin also serves as a
control input.
PSEN This pin provides a signal used for accessing external program
memory (ROM).
EA/VPP When this pin is connected to ground, the microcontroller reads
program instructions from external program memory. If internal program
memory is used, which is the common case, this pin should be connected
to the positive power supply voltage (VCC). During the process of
programming internal Flash mamory, this pin is supplied with +12V.

156

XTAL 1 This is internal oscillator input. It is used for the purpose of

synchronizing the operation of the microcontroller with some other circuit or
for connecting external oscillator when used.
XTAL 2 This pin is connected to internal oscillator output. Therefore, it is
out of use when using external oscillator.

4.3 The AT89S8253 Microcontroller Memory

Organization
Program Memory (ROM)
Program memory (ROM) with a capacity of 12Kb is designed in FLASH
technology, which enables programs to be loaded and erased a large
number of times. It is programmed via embedded SPI module (Serial
Peripheral Interface). If necessary, it is possible to add external ROM
memory chip, although 12Kb of ROM is usually more than enough.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM memory consists of 3 blocks containing 128 registers each. Its
structure falls into the 8051 standard:

128 general-purpose registers;

128 memory locations reserved for SFRs. Even though only
some of them are trully used, free locations shouldnt be
used for storing variables; and
128 additional registers available for use (have no special
purpose). Since they have the same addresses as SFRs,
they are accessed by indirect addressing.

157

EEPROM Memory
EEPROM is a special type of memory having features of both RAM and
ROM. The contents of the EEPROM may be changed during operation, but
remains permanently saved even after the loss of power. The AT89S8253
microcontroller has in total of 2K of EEPROM, that is 2048 locations.
Memory Expansion
All mentioned above about ROM and RAM memory expansion remains in
force when it comes to the AT89S8253 microcontroller as it is based on the
8051 core. In other words, both memories can be added as external chips
with the capacity of up to 64Kb. The process of addressing is also the
same as in the 8051 standard.
158

Types of addressing
Similar to all microcontrollers compatible with the 8051, there are two ways
of addressing:

Direct addressing (for example: MOV A,30h); and

Indirect addressing (for example: MOV A,@R0).

4.4 Special Function Registers (SFRs)

The AT89S8253 microcontroller has in total of 40 Special Function
Registers. For the sake of the compatibility with the previous 8051 models,
the core registers (22 in total) are the same for all of them, while the others
were added later for the purpose of controlling upgraded functions of the
microcontroller.

As shown in the table above, each of these registers has its name and
specific address in RAM. Unoccupied locations are intended for the future
upgraded versions of the microcontroller and shouldnt be used. As their
159

name suggests, these registers are mostly in control of one specific circuit
within the microcontroller such as timers or SPI etc. and they will be
discussed later in the book. This chapter covers only those SFRs
controlling more than one circuit within the microcontroller.
Accumulator (ACC)
The accumulator, otherwise marked as ACC or A, belongs to the core
registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Its contents is not modified.

B register
The B register also belongs to the core registers of the 8051
microcontroller. Bits of this register are not modified. It is used during
multiply and divide operations (MUL and DIV instructions) to store the
operands upon which these operations are performed.

PSW register (Program Status Word Register)

The PSW register belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller.
Bits of this register are not modified.

SP registar (Stack Pointer Register)

The SP register belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller.
Bits of this register are not modified.
160

Registers P0, P1, P2, P3

Each bit of these registers corresponds to one of the port pins having the
same name. These registers are therefore used for comminication with
peripheral environment which is carried out by sending data from registers
to the corresponding pins and vice versa. They belong to the core registers
of the 8051 microcontroller and their bits are not modified.

R registers (R0 - R7)

They belong to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Their bits are
not modified.

161

AUXR register (Auxiliary register)

The AUXR register contains only two active bits:

DISALE
o
o

0 - ALE is activated at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency.

1 - ALE is active only during execution of MOVX or MOVC instructions.

Intel_Pwd_Exit
0 - When the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the program
proceeds with execution on high-to-low transition (1-0).
o
1 - When the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the program
proceeds with execution on low-to-high transition (0-1).
o

CLKREG register (Clock Register) X2

0 - The oscillator frequency (the XTAL1 pin) is divided by 2

before used as a clock (machine cycle lasts for 6 such
periods).
162

 1 - Quartz oscillator is used as a clock generator. This

enables the quartz crystal of two times lower frequency (for
example 6MHz instead of 12MHz) to be used for the same
operating rate of the microcontroller.
Data Pointers
Data Pointers are not true registers as they dont physically exist. They
consist of two separate registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and DPL (Data
Pointer Low). All 16 bits are used for addressing external and internal
EEPROM memory. The DPS bit of the EECON register determines the
registers to be used as data pointers:
DPS=0 -> Data pointer consists of DP0L and DP0H registers and is marked
as DPTR0.

DPS=1 -> Data pointer consists of DP1L and DP1H registers and is marked
as DPTR1.

163

Handling EEPROM memory

2 Kb of on-chip EEPROM memory enables this microcontroller to store
data created during operation which must be permanently saved. In other
words, all data stored in this memory remains permanently saved even
after the loss of power. Minimum 100 000 writing cycles can be executed.
This memory is easily used since there are only a few control bits enabling
it.
EEPROM write and read is under control of the EECON special function
register. Since the process of programming EEPROM is relatively slow
(write to one register takes approximately 4mS), a small hardware trick is
done in order to speed it up. When the EELD bit of the EECON register is
set, the data is not directly written to the EEPROM registers, but loaded in
a small buffer (temporary memory) with a capacity of 32 bytes. When this
bit is cleared, the first data following it will be normally written to the
EEPROM (takes 4 mS) along with all registers currently loaded in the
buffer. Thus, it takes only 4mS to write all 32 bytes instead of 128mS
otherwise required in a single byte writing.
EEPROM memory is handled in the same way as external memory. For
this reason, a special instruction for additional memory chip (MOVX) is also
used for EEPROM write and read. The EEMEN bit of the EECON register
164

determines whether the data is to be written/read from additional memory

chip or on-chip EEPROM memory.

EECON register
Bits of the EECON register controls the operation of EEPROM memory:

WRTINH
The WRTINH bit is read-only. When the power supply voltage is too low for
programming EEPROM, hardware automatically clears this bit, which
means that write to EEPROM cannot be completed or is aborted if in
progress.
RDY/BSY
165

The RDY/BSY bit is read-only.

0 - Write in progress (takes approximately 4mS).

1 - Write complete (data is written to EEPROM).
DPS

0 - Address for EEPROM write/read is stored in the DP0H

and DP0L registers.
1 - Address for EEPROM write/read is stored in the DP1H
and DP1L registers.

EEMEN

0 - Instruction MOVX is used for accessing external memory

chip.
1 - Instruction MOVX is used for accessing internal
EEPROM memory. If the register address is larger than 2K,
the microcontroller will access external memory chip.

EEMWE
When set, the EEMWE bit enables write to EEPROM using the MOVX
instruction. After completing EEPROM write, the bit must be cleared from
within the program.
EELD
When set, the EELD bit enables up to 32 bytes to be written
simultaneously. The bit is set and the MOVX instruction writes data to
EEPROM (buffer is loaded). The bit is cleared before writing the last data.
When the last MOVX is executed, the entire buffer is automatically loaded
to EEPROM for 4mS.

4.5 Watchdog Timer (WDT)

The watchdog timer uses pulses generated by the quartz oscillator for its
operation. It is disabled after reset and during Power Down Mode, thus
having no effect on the program execution. If enabled, every time it counts
up to the program end, the microcontroller reset occurs and program
execution starts from the first instruction. Reset condition indicates that the
program doesnt work properly for some reason. The point is to prevent this
from happening by setting instruction to reset the watchdog timer at the
166

appropriate program location. Practically, the whole this process is in

control of several bits of the WDTCON register.
Three bits (PS2, PS1 and PS0), which are in control of the prescaler,
determine the most important feature of the watchdog timer- nominal time,
i.e. time required to count up a full cycle.
The values contained in the table below are applied only when the 12MHz
quartz oscillator is used.
P R E S C AL E R B I T S

N O M I N AL T I M E

PS2

PS1

PS0

16ms

32ms

64ms

128ms

256ms

512ms

1024ms

2048ms

WDTCON Register (Watchdog Control Register)

PS2,PS1,PS0
These three bits are in control of the prescaler and determine the nominal
time of the watchdog timer. If the program doesnt clear the WSWRST bit
during that time, the watchdog timer will reset the microcontroller. When all
three bits are cleared to 0, the watchdog timer has a nominal period of 16K
machine cycles. When all three bits are set to 1, the nominal period is
2048K machine cycles.
WDIDLE
The WDIDLE bit enables/disables the watchdog timer in Idle mode:
167

 0 - Watchdog timer is enabled in Idle mode (lowconsumption mode).

1 - Watchdog timer is disabled in Idle mode.
DISRTO
The DISRTO bit enables/disables reset of peripheral circuits connected to
the RST pin:

0 - Watchdog controls the state of the input reset pin. At the

moment of reset, this pin acts for a moment as an output and
generates a logic one (1). It causes the microcontroller and
all other circuits connected to the RST pin to be reset.
1 - Reset triggered by the watchdog timer doesnt affect the
state of the reset pin. At the moment the watchdog timer
resets the microcontroller, the reset pin remains configured
as an input.
HWDT
The HWDT bit selects hardware or software mode for the watchdog timer:

0 - Watchdog is in software mode and can be enabled or

disabled by the WDTEN bit.
1 - Watchdog is in hardware mode. To enable it, the
sequence 1E/E1(hex) should be written to the WDTRST
register. Only reset condition can disable the watchdog timer.
In order to prevent the WCDT from resetting the
microcontroller when the nominal time expires, the same
sequence 1E/E1hex must be constantly repeated.
WSWRST
When set, this bit resets the watchdog timer in software mode (bit
HWDT=0). In order to enable the microcontroller to operate without being
interrupted, this bit must regularly be cleared from within the program. After
being set, the watchdog timer is cleared by hardware, counting starts from
zero and the bit is automatically cleared.
If the watchdog timer is in hardware mode, setting this bit has no effect on
the watchdog timer operation.
168

WDTEN
The WDTEN bit enables/disables the watchdog timer in software mode
(HWDT=0):

0 - Watchdog disabled.
1 - Watchdog enabled.
When the watchdog timer is in hardware mode (HWDT=1), this bit is readonly and reflects the status of the watchdog timer (whether it is enabled or
disabled).

The WDTEN bit doesnt clear the watchdog timer, it only

enables/disables it. This means that the current state of the
counter remains unchanged as long as WDTEN=0.

4.6 Interrupts
The AT89S8253 has in total of six interrupt sources, which means that it
can recognize up to 6 different events that can interrupt regular program
execution. Each of these interrupts can be individually enabled or disabled
by setting bits of the IE register, whereas the whole interrupt system can be
disabled by clearing the EA bit of the same register.
Since this microcontroller has embedded Timer T2 and SPI (they don't fall
under the 8051 Standard) which can generate an interrupt, it was
necessary to make some changes in registers controlling interrupt system.
Besides, there is a new interrupt vector (address 2B), i.e. program memory
address from which the program proceeds with execution when the Timer
T2 generates an interrupt. All these changes are made on the previously
unused bits. This enables all programs written for the previous versions of
the microcontrollers to be used in this one too without being modified. This
is why the 8051-based microcontrollers are so popular.

169

IE register (Interrupt Enable Register)

EA bit enables or disables all interrupt sources (globally):

0 - disables all interrupts (even enabled).

1 - enables specific interrupts.
ET2 bit enables or disables Timer T2 interrupt:

0 - Timer T2 interrupt disabled.

1 - Timera T2 interrupt enabled.
ES bit enables or disables serial communication (UART and SPI) interrupts:
170

 0 - UART and SPI interrupt disabled.

1 - UART and SPI interrupts enabled.
ET1 bit enables or disables Timer T1 interrupt:

0 - Timer T1 interrupt disabled.

1 - Timer T1 interrupt enabled.
EX1 bit enables or disables external interrupt through the INT0 pin:

0 - Interrupt on the INT0 pin disabled.

1 - Interrupt on the INT0 pin enabled.
ET0 bit enables or disables Timer T0 interrupt:

0 - Timer T0 interrupt disabled.

1 - Timer T0 interrupt enabled.
EX0 bit enables or disables external interrupt through the INT1 pin:

0 - Interrupt on the INT1 pin disabled.

1 - Interrupt on the INT1 pin enabled.
Interrupt Priorities
When several interrupts are enabled, it may happen that while one of them
is in progress, another one is requested. In such situations, the
microcontroller needs to know whether to proceed with the execution of
current interrupt routine or to meet a new interrupt request. For this reason,
there is a priority list on the basis of which the microcontroller knows what
to do. The previous versions of the microcontrollers differentiate between
two priority levels defined in the IP register.
As for the AT89S8253 microcontroller, there is an additional SFR register
IPH which enables all the interrupts to be assigned 1 out of 4 priorities
(excluding reset). Here is a list of priorities:

1. Reset. If a reset request arrives, all processes are stopped

and the microcontroller restarts.
2. The high priority interrupt (3) can be disabled by reset only.
171

3. The low priority interrupt (2, 1 or 0) can be disabled by any

high priority interrupt and reset.
It is usually defined at the beginning of the program which one of the
existing interrupt sources have high and which one has low priority level.
According to this, the following occurs:

If two interrupt requests, at different priority levels, arrive at

the same time then the higher priority interrupt is always
serviced first.
If the both interrupt requests, at the same priority level, occur
one after another, the one which came later has to wait until
routine being in progress ends.
If two interrupt requests of equal priority arrive at the same
time then the interrupt to be serviced is selected according to
the following priority list :
1. External interrupt INT0
2. Timer T0 interrupt
3. External interrupt INT1
4. Timer T1 interrupt
5. Serial communication interrupt
6. Timer T2 Interrupt
IP register (Interrupt Priority Register)

Bits of this register determine the interrupt source priority.

PT2 Timer T2 interrupt priority:

0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
PS Serial port interrupt priority:
172

 0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
PT1 Timer T1 interrupt priority:

0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
PX1 External interrupt INT1 priority:

0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
PT0 Timer T0 interrupt priority:

0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
PX0 External interrupt INT0 priority:

0 - Priority 0
1 - Priority 1
IPH Register (Interrupt Priority High)

PT2H Timer T2 interrupt priority

PSH Serial port interrupt priority
PT1H Timer T1interrupt priority
PX1H External interrupt INT1 priority
PT0H Timer T0 interrupt priority
PX0H External interrupt INT0 Priority
Bits of this register can be combined with appropriate bits of the IP register.
This is how a new priority list with 4 interrupt priority levels (5 including
reset) is obtained.
IP BIT

IPH BIT

INTERRUPTS

173

Priority 0 (lowest)

Priority 1 (low)

Priority 2 (high)

Priority 3 (highest)

Processing interrupt
When an interrupt request arrives, the microcontroller automatically detects
the interrupt source and the following occurs:

1. Instruction in progress is ended;

2. The address of the next instruction to execute is pushed onto
the stack;
3. Depending on which interrupt is requested, one of five vectors
(addresses) is written to the program counter according to the
table below:
INTERRUPT SOURCE

J U M P AD D R E S S

IE0

3h

TF0

Bh

IE1

13h

TF1

1Bh

RI, TI, SPIF

23h

TF2, EXF2

2Bh
All addresses are in hex format

Appropriate subroutines processing interrupts are stored at these

addresses. Instead of them, there are usually jump instructions specifying
locations at which these subroutines reside.
4. When an interrupt routine is executed, the address of the next instruction
to be executed is popped from the stack to the program counter and the
program proceeds from where it left off.

4.7 Counters and Timers

Timers T0 and T1
174

The AT89S8253 has three timers/counters marked as T0, T1 and T2.

Timers T0 and T1 completely fall under the 8051 Standard. There are no
changes in their operation.
Timer T2
Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer/counter installed only in new versions of the 8051
family. Unlike timers T0 and T1, this timer consists of 4 registers. Two of
them, TH2 and TL2, are connected serially in order to form a larger 16-bit
timer register. Like timers 0 and 1, it can operate either as a timer or as an
event counter. Another two registers, RCAP2H and RCAP2L, are also
serially connected and operate as capture registers. They are used to
temporarily store the contents of the counter register.
The main adventage of this timer compared to timers 0 and 1 is that all
read and swap operations are easily performed using one instruction.
Similar to T0 and T1, it has four different modes of operation to be
described later in this chapter.

175

T2CON (Timer/Counter 2 Control Register)

This register contains bits controlling the operation of timer 2.

TF2 bit is automatically set on timer 2 overflow. In order to detect the next
overflow, this bit must be cleared from within the program. If bits RCLK and
TCLK are set, overflow has no effect on the TF2 bit.
EXF2 bit is automatically set when a capture or a reload is caused by a
negative transition on the T2EX pin. It generates an interrupt (if enabled),
unless the DCEN bit of the T2CON register is set. The EXF2 bit must be
cleared from within the program.
RCLK is receive clock bit which determines which timer is to be used as
receive clock for serial port:
176

 1 - T2 is used as receive clock for serial port.

0 - T1 is used as receive clock for serial port.
TCLK is transmit clock bit which determines which timer is to be used as
transmit clock for serial port:

1 - T2 is used as transmit clock for serial port.

0 - T1 is used as transmit clock for serial port.

EXEN2 is timer 2 external enable bit used to include the T2EX pin in timer
2 operation:

1 - Signal on the T2EX pin affects timer 2 operation.

0 - Signal on the T2EX pin is ignored.

TR2 is timer 2 run control bit used to enable/disable timer 2:

1 - Timer 2 enabled.
0 - Timer 2 disabled.

C/T2 is timer/counter 2 select bit used to select pulses to be counted by

counter/timer 2:

1 - 16-bit register (T2H and T2L) counts pulses on the C/T2

pin (counter).
0 - 16-bit register (T2H and T2L) counts pulses from the
oscillator (timer).

CP/RL2 is timer 2 capture/reload bit used to define transfer direction:

1 - If EXEN=1, pulse on the T2EX pin will cause a number to

be transferred from counter to capture register.
0 - Under the same condition, signal on the T2EX pin will
cause a number to be transferred from capture to counter
register.

Timer T2 in Capture mode

If the CP/RL2 bit of the T2CON register is set, timer 2 operates according
to the figure below. This is so called Capture mode in which the value of
the counter register (consisting of RCAP2H and RCAP2L) can be
captured and copied to the capture register (consisting of RCAP2H and
RCAP2L), thus not affecting the counting process. This is how it operates:

177

1. First, it is necessary to write a number from which the counting

starts to a 16-bit register (TH2+TL2).
2. Timer 2 is enabled by setting the TR2 bit of the TCON register.
Each coming pulse increments the number stored in the 16-bit
register by 1. When both registers are loaded (decimal number
65536), the first next pulse causes an overflow, reset occurs
and counting starts from zero.
Settings:

178

Timer T2 in auto-reload mode

The auto-reload mode configures timer 2 as a 16-bit timer or event counter
with automatic reload. It is controlled by the DCEN bit of the T2MOD
register. Setting the DCEN bit enables timer 2 to count up or down from the
specified value. The T2EX pin controls the counting direction:

T2OE - Enables timer 2 to operate as independent clock generator.

DCEN - When set, it enables counting in either direction- "up" and "down".

179

As seen in figure above, unlike Capture mode, the contents of the capture
register (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is now copied in the opposite direction upon
an overflow occurs, from capture (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to counter register
(TH2, TL2).
Settings of Auto Reload mode are shown in the table below:

180

All previously mentioned about timer 2 is in force only if the T2MOD

register hasn't been changed, i.e. if DCEN = 0. Otherwise, timer/counter is
enabled to count in either direction, which depends on the T2EX pin:
T2EX = 0 Timer 2 counts down
T2EX = 1 Timer 2 counts up

181

On counting up, the whole procedure is similar to the previous mode with
one exception referring to the function of the EXF2 bit.
On counting down, an overflow occurs when values stored in the counter
and capture registers match. It causes the TF2 bit as well as all bits of
registers T2H and T2L to be set while the counter keeps on counting down:
65535, 65534,65533...
In either case, the EXF2 bit is assigned a new function. When an overflow
occurs, this bit inverts the signal and cannot be used for generating an
interrupt anymore. Instead, it serves as supplementary bit (the 17th bit) of
the counter register, making this counter virtually a 17-bit register.
Timer T2 as a baud rate generator
The Timer T2 can be used as a baud rate generator and a clock generator
simultaneously. If the RCLK or TCLK bit of the register TCON is set, timer
T2 turns into a clock generator, so called Baud Rate generator). This mode
is very similar to auto-reload mode. The baud rate is computed using the
following formula:
182

There are a few details to be aware of:

1. This formula works only if the internal oscillator is used as a

clock generator (in this mode, clock is divided by 2, instead of
12)
2. Overflow has no effect on the TF2 bit and does not generate
an interrupt.
3. Whether the EXEN2 bit is set or not, the T2EX pin logic state
has no effect on the timer. It means that the T2EX pin can be
used as an external interrupt source in this mode.
4. Timer should be disabled (TR2=0) prior to writing or reading
from registers TH2 and TL2. Otherwise, an error in serial
communication might occur.
Timer T2 as a clock generator
As previously mentioned, timer T2 can also be used as a clock generator.
In all previous examples, the P1.0 pin (marked as T2 in figures) is used as
an alternative clock generator for this timer, i.e. it acts as an input. Besides,
it can also output pulses. By using a 16MHz quartz crystal, the frequency of
pulses it generates ranges from 61Hz to 4MHz with a 50% duty-cycle.
To configure this pin as an output, the C/T2 bit of the T2CON register must
be cleared, whereas the T2OE bit of the T2MOD register must be set. The
TR2 bit enables the timer and the pin outputs rectangular waves the
frequency of which ca be calculated using the formula below:

183

4.8 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

(UART)
The Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) has the same
features as that of the standard 8051 microcontrollers. It means that it can
operate in 1 out of 4 different modes, which is controlled by bits SM0 and
SM1 of the SCON register.

Multiprocessor Communication
Multiprocessor communication (the SM2 bit of the SCON register is set)
enables automatic address recognition by allowing the serial port to
examine the adress of each incoming command. The process of writing a
program is much easier therefore as the microcontrollers sharing the same
interface don't have to check each address received via the serial port.
Let's make it clear.
Two special function registers, SADDR and SADEN, enable multiprocessor
communication. Each device has an individual address that is specified in
the SADDR register, while the so called mask address is written to the
SADEN register. The mask address contains don't care bits which provide
the flexibility to address one or more slaves at a time. In other words, it
defines which bits of the SADDR register are to be used and which are to
be ignored.

When the master wants to transmit data to one of several slaves, it first
sends out an address byte which identifies the target device. An address
184

byte differs from a data byte in that the 9th bit is 1 in an address byte and 0
in a data byte. After receiving the address byte, all slaves check whether it
matches their address. The adressed slave clears its SM2 bit and prepares
to receive the data bytes to come. The slaves that weren't addressed leave
their SM2 bits set and ignores the coming data bytes.
The most simple example is a mini-network comprising only 3
microcontrollers:
Microcontroller A is the master and communicates with devices B and C.
Microcontroller B: SADDR = 1100 0000
SADEN = 1111 1101
Address = 1100 00X0
Microcontroller C: SADDR = 1100 0000
SADEN = 1111 1110
Address = 1100 000X

Although both microcontrollers B and C are assigned the same address

(1100 0000), the mask in register SADEN is used to differentiate between
them. It enables the master to communicate with both of them separately or
at the same time:
185

If transmit address is 1100 0010, the data will be sent to slave device B.
If transmit address is 1100 0001 the data will be sent to slave device C.
If transmit address is 1100 0000 the data will be sent to both slave devices.

4.9 SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface)

In addition to UART system, the AT89S8253 has also another system for
serial communication which doesnt fall into the 8051 Standard. It is SPI
system which provides a high-speed synchronous data transfer between
the microcontroller and one or more peripheral devices or between multiple
microcontrollers. Here, one microcontroller is always considered main and
is called master therefore. It defines rate, transfer direction (whether data is
to be transferred or received) and data format. The other is slave device
which is in subordinated position, which further means that it cannot start
data transfer, but has to adjust to conditions set by the master device.
The data are transferred via full duplex connection using 3 conductors
connected to pins MISO (P1.6), MOSI (P1.5) and SCK (P1.7). The forth
pin-control pin SS- is not used on the master side and may be used as a
general-purpose input/output therefore, while on the slave side it must have
voltage level 0. When the SS pin on the slave side is set, its SPI system is
deactivated and the MOSI pin can be used as a general-purpose input.

186

As shown on the schematic, pins MISO and MOSI are configured

differently in the master and slave device (as inputs or outputs), which is
determined by the MSTR bit of the SPCR register.

Knowing abbraviations makes connection easier:

MISO - master in, slave out; MOSI - master out, slave in; SCK serial clock; SS - slave select;
Similar to many other circuits within the microcontroller, the SPI system can
also be configured to operate in several modes.
Normal SPI mode (buffer out of use)
Data written to the SPI data register SPDR is automatically transferred to
an 8- bit shift register. SPI clock generator is enabled and serial data

187

appears on the MOSI pin. An initial delay may occur for the sake of
synchronization with the main oscillator.

After sending one byte, the SPI clock generator stops, the SPIF bit (flag) is
set, the received byte is transferred to the SPDR register and, if enabled,
an interrupt is generated.
Any attempt to write another byte to the SPDR register while byte transmit
is in progress will cause the WCOL bit to be set. It indicates that an error
has occured. However, the byte will be succesfully transmitted, while the
new byte will be ignored, i.e. it will not be transmitted.
Enhanced SPI mode (buffer in use)
Enhanced mode is similar to normal except that this time data goes through
one more register while being transmitted. It makes no sense at first sight,
but communication is really faster. Look at the figure below...
Data written to the SPI data register SPDR is automatically transferred to
the capture register (buffer), which causes the WCOL bit to be set. It means
that the buffer is full and any further write will cause an overflow. Control
electronics (hardware) cleares this bit after transmitting data from buffer to
the shift register and after commencing serial data transmit. If the byte sent
188

is the first, the data is immediately transmitted to the shift register (still
empty), thus clearing the WCOL bit (buffer is empty).

While one byte transmit is in progress, the next byte to transmit may be
written to the SPDR register. It will be immediately moved to buffer. In order
to check whether data transmit is in progress, it is sufficient to check the
logic state of the LDEN bit of the SPSR register. If this bit is set (Load
Enable) and the WCOL bit is cleared, data transmit is in progress and
buffer is empty so the next byte can be written to the SPDR register.
How to select the right mode? If individual bytes are sent occasionally then
there is no need to complicate- the best solution is the normal mode. If it is
necessary to send a great amounts of data, it is better to use enhanced
mode in which the clock oscillator is enabled as far as buffer is regularly
loaded and the WCOL bit is set. In addition, no time is needed for
synchronization and data is easily and efficiently transferred.
The SPI system is under control of 3 special function registers. These are
SPDR, SPSR and SPCR.
SPDR (SPI Data Register)

189

The SPDR register is used for storing data to be transferred via SPI (in
serial format). It is also used for storing received data.

SPSR (SPI Status Register)

SPIF Interrupt flag. Upon data transfer, this bit is automatically set and an
interrupt is generated if SPIE=1 and ES=1. The SPIF bit is cleared by
reading SPSR followed by reading/writing SPDR register.
WCOL This bit is set in normal mode (ENH=0) if the SPDR register is
written during data transfer is in progress. The write is premature and has
no effect. It is called Write Collision. This bit is cleared in the same
manner as the SPIF bit.
The bit is set in enhanced mode (ENH=1) when buffer is full. It is indication
that a new data is ready to be transmitted to the shift register.
In enhanced mode, a new data can be written to buffer when the WCOL
bit is set. In addition, the WCOL bit must be cleared.
DISSO When set, this bit causes the MISO pin to float, thus enabling
several slave microcontrollers to share the same interface. Normally, the
first byte, called address byte, is received by all of them, but only one
should clear its DISSO bit.
ENH
0 SPI system operates in normal mode (without buffer).
1 SPI system operates in enhanced mode.
SPCR (SPI Control Register)

SPIE When this bit is set, the SPI system can generate an interrupt.

190

SPE This bit enables SPI communication. When set, pins SS, MOSI, MISO
and SCK are connected to the microcontroller pins P1.4, P1.5, P1.6 and
P1.7.
DORD Bit determines which bytes in serial communication are to be sent
first:

0 - MSB bit is sent first.

1 - LSB bit is sent first.

MSTR Bit determines whether the microcontroller is to operate

as master or slave:

0 - Operate as slave.
1 - Operate as master.

CPOL Bit controls the SCK pin logic state when the SPI communication is
not in progress:

0 - Pin SCK is cleared.

1 - Pin SCK is set.

CPHA This bit along with the CPOL bit controls relation between clock and
data in serial format. Refer to the figure below.
SPR1,SPR0 When SPI system operates as master, these two bits
determine boud rate, i.e. clock signal frequency of the master device.
When operates as slave, these bits have no effect and SPI system
operates at a rate imposed by the master device.
SPR1

SPR0

SCK

Fosc/4

Fosc/16

Fosc/64

Fosc/128

Serial data format if CPHA=0

191

* not defined. It is usually MSB of previously received byte.

Serial data format if CPHA=1

* not defined. It is usually LSB of previously received byte.

Two things are important to remember when configuring SPI system:

Master should be configured before slave.

192

 When writing bits to the SPCR register, the SPE bit enabling
SPI should be set last, i.e. after setting all other parameters.

4.10 Power Consumption Control

Like all models belonging to the 8051 series, this microcontroller can
operate in 1 out of 3 modes: normal (consumption ca. 25
mA), Idle(consumption ca. 6.5 mA) and Power Down (consumption ca. 40
uA). The mode of operation is selected by bits of the PCON register (Power
Control Register). Three bits are changed compared to the basic model:

PCON
register

The purpose of the bits of the PCON register:

SMOD1 When set, this bit makes boud rate twice as high.
SMOD0 Bit determines the purpose of the 7th bit of the SCON register:

0 Seventh bit of the SCON register has the function of SM0,

i.e. selects mode of operation.
1 Seventh bit has the function of FE, i.e. detects errors. It is
rarely used.

POF Bit is automatically set when the voltage level reaches maximum
(must be higher than 3V) after powering on. It is used for detecting cause
for reset (power on or restart condition after exiting Power Down mode).
GF1 General purpose bit (available for use).
GF0 General purpose bit (available for use).
PD By setting this bit, the microcontroller is set in Power Down mode.
IDL By setting this bit, the microcontroller is set in Idle mode.
When something goes wrong...
If something unexpected happens during the operation of the
microcontroller, what most bothers is the fact that its never the
microcontroller's fault. Although its not self-evident, the microcontroller
always obediently follows program instructions. For this reason, it is
193

necessary to pay special attention to several critical points when writing a

program. The first one is RAM memory.
Even though it is designed to meet needs of the majority of users and has
all required, a memory space intended for RAM is still only a single entity. It
means that there are no phisically separated registers R0-R7, general
purpose registers, stack etc. Instead, these are differently designated parts
of the same memory shelf. Refer to the figure below.

If we neglect this detail, there is a risk that the program suddenly starts to
perform unpredictably. In order to prevent it, it is necessary to take care of
the following:
If only registers R0-R7 from bank 0 are in use, everything is easily kept
under control and program memory locations from 08h to 1Fh are available
for use. If registers, otherwise having the same names, from some other
bank are in use, you should be careful when using locations whose
addresses are less than 20h because it can cause R registers to be
erased.
If bit-variables are not used in the program, program memory locations
20h-2Fh are available for use. If the program contains bit-variables, you
should be careful when using these location in order not to change them
accidentaly.
By default, the data pushed onto stack occupy program memory locations
starting from 08h. If the banks 1, 2 or 3 are in use, their contents will be
certainly erased. For this reason, it is recommended to set the Stack
Pointer value to be greater than 20h or even greater at the beginning of the
program.
SFRs are used for controlling the microcontroller operation. Each of them
has its specific purpose and it should be observed. It means that they
194

cannot be used as general purpose registers even in the event that some
of their locations is not occupied.
Instruction set, recognized by the microcontroller, contains instructions
which can be used for controlling individual bits of registers at program
memory location 20h-7Fh. Besides, individual bits of some SFRs (not all of
them) can also be directly accessed. Addresses of these registers are
divisible by 8.
If memory is expanded by adding external RAM or ROM memory chip,
ports P0 and P2 are not available for use regardless of how many pins are
actually used for memory expansion.
The DPTR register is a 16-bit register comprised of registers DPH and DPL
which are 8-bit wide each. The DPTR register should be considered like
that practically. For example, when pushing it onto the Stack, DPL should
be pushed first, then DPH.
When used, serial communication is under control of the SCON register.
Besides, registers TCON and TMOD should be configured for this purpose
as well since the timer T1 is mostly used for boud rate generation.
When some of the interrupts is enabled, you should be careful because
there is a risk that program starts to perform unexpectedly. When an
interrupt request arrives, the microcontroller will execute instruction in
progress, push the address of the first following location onto the stack (in
order to know from where to continue) and jump to the specified interrupt
routine address. When the routine has been executed, the microcontroller
will pop the address from the stack and continue from where it left off.
However...
The microcontroller saves only the address to continue from after routine
execution. What is usually neglected is the fact that the contents of many
registers can be changed during routine execution. The program normally
procedees with execution considering the changed registers correct if their
original vaules haven't been saved, thus causing a total chaos. The worst
thing is that this problem can be manifested anytime: at the moment or
195

several days later (depending on the moment an interrupt occurs).

Obviously, the only solution is to save the state of all important registers at
the beginning of interrupt routine and to update these values before
returning to the program. We are actually talking about the following
registers:

PSW
DPTR (DPH, DPL)
ACC
B
Registers R0 - R7

Note: Contents of registers are usually saved by being pushed onto the
Stack using the PUSH instruction. However, instructions such as PUSH
R0 cannot be used here because the microcontroller doesnt know which
register is concerned as there are 4 banks with registers haing the same
names R0-R7. For this reason, it is necessary to save addresses of these
registers instead of their names using the PUSH 00h instruction.
When some of the instructions for indirect addressing is used, you should
be careful not to use them for accessing SFRs as the microcontroller
ignores their addresses and accesses free RAM locations having the same
addresses as SFRs.
When UART system for serial communication is used, setting bits RI and TI
of the SCON register generated the same interrupt. If such an interrupt is
generated, it is first necessary to detect interrupt source (byte is sent,
received or both). It is important to remember that the microcontroller only
sets these bits so that they must be cleared from within the program.
Otherwise, the program gets stuck and executes the same interrupt routine
over and over again.
A list of bit-addressable registers
Accumulator (Address: E0)

After reset

AC C
0

0
196

Bit name

Bit address

E7

E6

E5

E4

E3

E2

E1

B register (Address: F0)

After reset

Bit name

Bit address

F7

F6

F5

F4

F3

F2

F1

Interrupt Priority register (Address: B8)

After reset

0
IP
PT2

Bit name

PS

PT1

PX1

PT0

Bit address

BF

BE

BD

BC

BB

BA

B9

ES

ET1

EX1

ET0

AC

AB

AA

A9

Interrupt Enable register (Address: A8)

After reset

Bit name

EA

0
IE
ET2

Bit address

AF

AE

AD

Port 0 (Address: 80)

After reset

Bit name

Bit address

87

86

85

84

83

82

81

After reset

Bit name

Bit address

97

96

95

94

93

92

91

P0

Port 1 (Address: 90)

P1

Port 2 (Address: A0)

197

After reset

Bit name

Bit address

A7

A6

After reset

Bit name

Bit address

B7

B6

P2

A5

A4

A3

A2

A1

B5

B4

B3

B2

B1

RS1

RS0

OV

D4

D3

D2

D1

Port 3 (Address: B0)

P3

Program Status Word (Address: D0)

After reset

Bit name

CY

0
PSW
AC
F0

Bit address

D7

D6

D5

Serial Port Control register (Address: 98)

After reset

Bit name

SM0

Bit address

9F

0
0
SCON
SM1
SM2
9E

9D

REN

TB8

RB8

TI

9C

9B

9A

99

Timer Control register (Address: 88)

After reset

Bit name

TF1

Bit address

8F

0
0
TCON
TR1
TF0
8E

8D

TR0

IF1

IT1

IF0

8C

8B

8A

89

Timer/Counter 2 Control register (Address: C8)

After reset

Bit name

TF2

EXF2

T2CON
0
RCLK

TCLK

EXEN2

TR2

C/T2

198

CP/R

Bit address

CF

CE

CD

CC

CB

CA

C9

X XX
AU
R

Intel_Pwd_Exit

C8

A list of non bit-addressable registers

Auxiliary register (Address: 8E)

After reset

Bit name

DISA

Clock register (Address: 8F)

After reset

C L K RXE G X

Bit name

Data Pointer 0 High (Address: 83)

After reset

D P00 H

Bit name

After reset

D P00 L

Bit name

After reset

D P01 H

Bit name

After reset

D P01 L

Bit name

Data Pointer 0 Low (Address: 82)

Data Pointer 1 High Byte (Address: 85)

Data Pointer 1 Low Byte (Address: 84)

EEPROM Control (Address: 96)

199

After reset

E E0
CON

Bit name

EELD

EEMWE

EEMEN

DPS

RDY/BSY

WRTI

Interrupt Priority High Byte (Address: B7)

After reset

I P H0

Bit name

PT2H

PSH

PT1H

PX1H

PT0H

PX

Power Control (Address: 87)

After reset

P C OXN

Bit name

SMOD

GF1

GF0

PD

Slave Address (Address: A9)

After reset

S AD D0R

Bit name

Slave Address Enable (Address: B9)

After reset

S AD E0N

Bit name

Serial buffer (Address: 99)

After reset

S BXU F

Bit name

Stack Pointer (Address: 81)

After reset
Bit name

0 SP 0

SPI Control register (Address: D5)

200

After reset

Bit name

SPIE

SPE

S0P C R
DORD

MSTR

CPOL

CPHA

SPR1

SP

SPI Data register (Address: 86)

After reset

SPDR -

Bit name

SPI Status register (Address: AA)

After reset

Bit name

SPIF

S0P S R
WCOL

LDEN

DISSO

Timer 2 Reload Capture High (Address: CB)

After reset R C AP 20H

Bit name

Timer 2 Reload Capture Low (Address: CA)

After reset R C AP 20L
Bit name
-

Timer 0 Low (Address: 8A)

After reset
Bit name

0
TL0
-

0
TL1
-

Timer 1 Low (Address: 8B)

After reset
Bit name

Timer 2 Low (Address: CC)

201

After reset
Bit name

0
TL2
-

0H 0
T
-

0H 1
T
-

0H 2
T
-

Timer 0 High Byte (Address: 8C)

After reset
Bit name

Timer 1 High Byte (Address: 8D)

After reset
Bit name

Timer 2 High Byte (Address: CD)

After reset
Bit name

Timer Mode (Address: 89)

After reset

T M O0D

Bit name

GATE1

C/T1

T1M1

T1M0

GATE0

C/T0

T0M1

Timer 2 Mode Control (Address: C9)

After reset

Bit name

T 2XM O D X
-

T2OE

DCE

Watchdog Timer Control (Address: A7)

After reset

Bit name

PS2

PS1

0 W D T C0
ON
PS0

WDIDLE

DISRTO

HWDT

WSWRST

WD

Watchdog Timer Reset (Address: A6)

After reset

WDTCON

202

Bit name

Voltage characteristics of the AT89S8253 microcontrollers

SYMBOL

P AR A M E T E R

CONDITION

MIN.

VIL

Input Low-voltage

All pins except EA

-0.5 V

0.2
0

VIL1

Input Low-voltage on EA pin

-0.5 V

0.2
0

VIH

Input High-voltage

0.2 Vcc
+ 0.9V

Vc
0.

VIH1

Input High-voltage on pins XTAL1 and RST

0.7 Vcc

Vc
0.

VOL

Output High-voltage

Iol = 10mA, Vcc = 4.0V, Ta

= 85C

VOH1

Output High-voltage when Pull-up resistors

are enabled (Port P0 in External BUS mode,
ports P1,2,3, pins ALE and PSEN)

Ioh = -40mA, Ta = 85C

Ioh = -25mA, Ta = 85C
Ioh = -10mA, Ta = 85C

IIL

Logical 0 input current (ports P1,2,3)

Vin = 0.45V, Vcc = 5.5V, Ta

= -40C

-5

IILI

Input leakage current (port P0, pin EA)

0.45V < Vin < Vcc

RRST

Reset pull-down resistor

CIO

I/O pin Capacitance

f = 1Mhz, Ta = 25C

10

Power-supply current

Normal mode: f =
12Mhz, Vcc = 5.5V Ta
= -40C
Idlle mode f = 12Mhz,
Vcc = 5.5V Ta = -40C

25
6.5

Power-down mode

Vcc = 5.5V Ta = -40C

Vcc = 4V Ta = -40C

100
40

ICC

All pins except XTAL1 and

RST

0.
2.4 V
0.75 Vcc
0.9 Vcc

50 K

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Chapter 5: Assembly Language

5.1 Elements of Assembly Language

Introduction
It was time that hardware-oriented to the core made compromise if they
wanted to stay in the game. Namely, unlike other circuits which only need
to be connected to other components and powered in order to be of any
use, microcontrollers require to be programmed as well. Fortunately, they
still didn't progress so far in their evolution, so that all microcontroller
families understand only one language - machine language. That's a good
thing. The bad one is that, even primitive, this language of zeros and ones
can only be understood by microcontrollers and some of the experts
working on its development. In order to bridge this gap between machine
and humans, the first high-level programming language called Assembly
language was created.
The main problem of remembering codes recognized as instructions by
electronics was solved therefore, but another one, equally complicated to
both us and them(microcontrollers) arose. This problem was also easily
solved by means of the program for a PC called assembler and a simple
device called programmer.
This program enables the PC to receive commands in the form of
abbreviations and convert them unerringly into so called executable file.
The moment of compiling a program into machine language is crucial as
this file, called HEX file, represents a series of binary numbers
understandable to microcontrollers only. The program written in assembly
204

language cannot be executed practically unless this file is loaded into the
microcontroller memory. This is the moment when the last link in the chain the programmer - appears on the scene. It is a small device connected to a
PC via some of the ports and has a socket for placing chip in.

5.1 Elements of Assembly Language

Assembly language is basically like any other language, which means that
it has its words, rules and syntax. The basic elements of assembly
language are:

Labels;
Orders;
Directives; and
Comments.

205

Syntax of Assembly language

When writing a program in assembly language it is necessary to observe
specific rules in order to enable the process of compiling into executable
HEX-code to run without errors. These compulsory rules are called syntax
and there are only several of them:
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 Every program line may consist of a maximum of 255

characters;
Every program line to be compiled, must start with a symbol,
label, mnemonics or directive;
Text following the mark ; in a program line represents a
comment ignored (not compiled) by the assembler; and
All the elements of one program line (labels, instructions
etc.) must be separated by at least one space character. For
the sake of better clearness, a push button TAB on a
keyboard is commonly used instead of it, so that it is easy to
delimit columns with labels, directives etc. in a program.

Numbers
If octal number system, otherwise considered as obsolite, is disregarded,
assembly laguage allows numbers to be used in one out of three number
systems:
Decimal Numbers
If not stated otherwise, the assembly language considers all the numbers
as decimal. All ten digits are used (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). Since at most 2
bytes are used for saving them in the microcontroller, the largest decimal
number that can be written in assembly language is 65535. If it is
necessary to specify that some of the numbers is in decimal format, then it
has to be followed by the letter D. For example 1234D.
Hexadecimal Numbers
Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used in programming. There are 16
digits in hexadecimal number system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D,
E, F). The largest hexadecimal number that can be written in assembly
language is FFFF. It corresponds to decimal number 65535. In order to
distinguish hexadecimal numbers from decimal, they are followed by the
letter h(either in upper- or lowercase). For example 54h.
Binary Numbers

207

Binary numbers are often used when the value of each individual bit of
some of the registers is important, since each binary digit represents one
bit. There are only two digits in use (0 and 1). The largest binary number
written in assembly language is 1111111111111111. In order to distinguish
binary numbers from other numbers, they are followed by the letter b
(either in upper- or lowercase). For example 01100101B.
Operators
Some of the assembly-used commands use logical and mathematical
expessions instead of symbols having specific values. For example:
IF (VERSION>1)
LCALL Table_2
USING VERSION+1
ENDIF
...
As seen, the assembly language is capable of computing some values and
including them in a program code, thus using the following mathematical
and logical operations:
N AM E

O P E R ATI O N

E X AM P L E

R E S U LT

Addition

10+5

15

Subtraction

25-17

Multiplication

7*4

28

Division (with no remainder)

7/4

MOD

Remainder of division

7 MOD 4

SHR

Shift register bits to the right

1000B SHR 2

0010B

SHL

Shift register bits to the left

1010B SHL 2

101000B

NOT

Negation (first complement of number)

NOT 1

11111111111111
208

AND

Logical AND

1101B AND 0101B

0101B

OR

Logical OR

1101B OR 0101B

1101B

XOR

Exclusive OR

1101B XOR 0101B

1000B

LOW

8 low significant bits

LOW(0AADDH)

0DDH

HIGH

8 high significant bits

HIGH(0AADDH)

0AAH

EQ, =

Equal

7 EQ 4 or 7=4

0 (false)

NE,<>

Not equal

7 NE 4 or 7<>4

0FFFFH (true)

GT, >

Greater than

7 GT 4 or 7>4

0FFFFH (true)

GE, >=

Greater or equal

7 GE 4 or 7>=4

0FFFFH (true)

LT, <

Less than

7 LT 4 or 7<4

0 (false)

LE,<=

Less or equal

7 LE 4 or 7<=4

0 (false)

Symbols
Every register, constant, address or subroutine can be assigned a specific
symbol in assembly language, which considerably facilitates the process of
writing a program. For example, if the P0.3 input pin is connected to a push
button used to stop some process manually (push button STOP), the
process of writing a program will be much simpler if the P0.3 bit is assigned
the same name as the push button, i.e. pushbutton_STOP. Of course, like
in any other language, there are specific rules to be observed as well:

For the purpose of writing symbols in assembly language, all

letters from alphabet (A-Z, a-z), decimal numbers (0-9) and
two special characters ("?" and "_") can be used. Assembly
language is not case sensitive.
For example, the following symbols will be considered identical:
Serial_Port_Buffer
SERIAL_PORT_BUFFER

In order to distinguish symbols from constants (numbers),

every symbol starts with a letter or one of two special
characters (? or _).
209

 The symbol may consist of maximum of 255 characters, but

only first 32 are taken into account. In the following example,
the first two symbols will be considered duplicate (error),
while the third and forth symbols will be considered different:
START_ADDRESS_OF_TABLE_AND_CONSTANTS_1
START_ADDRESS_OF_TABLE_AND_CONSTANTS_2
TABLE_OF_CONSTANTS_1_START_ADDRESS
TABLE_OF_CONSTANTC_2_START_ADDRESS

Some of the symbols cannot be used when writing a

program in assembly language because they are already
part of instructions or assembly directives. Thus, for
example, a register or subroutine cannot be assigned name
A or DPTR because there are registers having the same
name.
Here is a list of symbols not allowed to be used during programming in
assembly language:
A

AB

ACALL

ADD

ADDC

AJMP

AND

ANL

AR0

AR1

AR2

AR3

AR4

AR5

AR6

AR7

BIT

BSEG

CALL

CJNE

CLR

CODE

CPL

CSEG

DA

DATA

DB

DBIT

DEC

DIV

DJNZ

DPTR

DS

DSEG

DW

END

EQ

EQU

GE

GT

HIGH

IDATA

INC
210

ISEG

JB

JBC

JC

JMP

JNB

JNC

JNZ

JZ

LCALL

LE

LJMP

LOW

LT

MOD

MOV

MOVC

MOVX

MUL

NE

NOP

NOT

OR

ORG

ORL

PC

POP

PUSH

R0

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

RET

RETI

RL

RLC

RR

RRC

SET

SETB

SHL

SHR

SJMP

SUBB

SWAP

USING

XCH

XCHD

XDATA

XOR

XRL

XSEG

Labels
A label is a special type of symbols used to represent a textual version of
an address in ROM or RAM memory. They are always placed at the
beginning of a program line. It is very complicated to call a subroutine or
execute some of the jump or branch instructions without them. They are
easily used:

A symbol (label) with some easily recognizable name should

be written at the beginning of a program line from which a
subroutine starts or where jump should be executed.
It is sufficient to enter the name of label instead of address in
the form of 16-bit number in instructions calling a subroutine
or jump.
During the process of compiling, the assembler automatically replaces such
symbols with appropriate addresses.
Directives
Unlike instructions being compiled and written to chip program memory,
directives are commands of assembly language itself and have no
211

influence on the operation of the microcontroller. Some of them are

obligatory part of every program while some are used only to facilitate or
speed up the operation.
Directives are written in the column reserved for instructions. There is a
rule allowing only one directive per program line.
EQU directive
The EQU directive is used to replace a number by a symbol. For example:
MAXIMUM EQU 99
After using this directive, every appearance of the label MAXIMUM in the
program will be interpreted by the assembler as the number 99 (MAXIMUM
= 99). Symbols may be defined this way only once in the program. The
EQU directive is mostly used at the beginning of the program therefore.
SET directive
The SET directive is also used to replace a number by a symbol. The
significant difference compared to the EQU directive is that the SET
directive can be used an unlimited number of times:
SPEED SET 45
SPEED SET 46
SPEED SET 57
BIT directive
The BIT directive is used to replace a bit address by a symbol. The bit
address must be in the range of 0 to 255. For example:
TRANSMIT BIT PSW.7 ;Transmit bit (the seventh bit in
PSW register)

212

;is assigned the name "TRANSMIT"

OUTPUT BIT 6 ;Bit at address 06 is assigned the name
"OUTPUT"
RELAY BIT 81 ;Bit at address 81 (Port 0)is assigned
the name ;"RELAY"
CODE directive
The CODE directive is used to assign a symbol to a program memory
address. Since the maximum capacity of program memory is 64K, the
address must be in the range of 0 to 65535. For example:
RESET CODE 0 ;Memory location 00h called "RESET"
TABLE CODE 1024 ;Memory location 1024h called "TABLE"
DATA directive
The DATA directive is used to assign a symbol to an address within internal
RAM. The address must be in the range of 0 to 255. It is possible to
change or assign a new name to any register. For example:
TEMP12 DATA 32 ;Register at address 32 is named ;as
"TEMP12"
STATUS_R DATA D0h ;PSW register is assigned the
name ;"STATUS_R"
IDATA directive
The IDATA directive is used to change or assign a new name to an
indirectly addressed register. For example:

213

TEMP22 IDATA 32 ;Register whose address is in register

;at address 32 is named as "TEMP22"
TEMP33 IDATA T_ADR ;Register whose address is in
;register T_ADR is named as "TEMP33"
XDATA directive
The XDATA directive is used to assign a name to registers within external
(additional) RAM memory. The addresses of these registers cannot be
larger than 65535. For example:
TABLE_1 XDATA 2048 ;Register stored in external
;memory at address 2048 is named
;as "TABLE_1"
ORG directive
The ORG directive is used to specify a location in program memory where
the program following directive is to be placed. For example:
BEGINNING ORG 100
...
...
ORG 1000h
TABLE

...
...

214

This program starts at location 100. The table containing data is to be

stored at location 1024 (1000h).
USING directive
The USING directive is used to define which register bank (registers R0R7) is to be used in the program.
USING 0 ;Bank 0 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAMaddresses 0-7)
USING 1 ;Bank 1 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAMaddresses 8-15)
USING 2 ,Bank 2 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAMaddresses 16-23)
USING 3 ;Bank 3 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAMaddresses 24-31)
END directive
The END directive is used at the end of every program. The assembler will
stop compiling once the program encounters this directive. For example:
...
END ;End of program
Directives used for selecting memory segments
There are 5 directives used for selecting one out of five memory segments
in the microcontroller:
CSEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to
program memory;

215

BSEG ;Selects bit-addressable part of RAM;

DSEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to the
part of internal RAM accessed by
;direct addressing;
ISEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to the
part of internal RAM accessed by
;indirect addressing using registers R0 and R1);
and
XSEG ;Selects external RAM memory.
The CSEG segment is activated by default after enabling the assembler
and remains active until a new directive is specified. Each of these memory
segments has its internal address counter which is cleared every time the
assembler is activated. Its value can be changed by specifying value after
the mark AT. It can be a number, an arithmetical operation or a symbol. For
example:
DSEG
;Next segment refers to directly accessed
registers; and
BSEG AT 32 ;Selects bit-addressable part of memory
with address counter
;moved by 32 bit locations relative to the
beginning of that
;memory segment.
A dollar symbol "$" denotes current value of address counter in the
currently active segment. The following two examples illustrate how this
value can be used practically:
Example 1:

216

JNB FLEG,$ ;Program will constantly execute this

;instruction (jump instruction),until
;the flag is cleared.
Example 2:
MESSAGE DB ALARM turn off engine
LENGTH EQU $-MESSAGE-1
These two program lines can be used for computing exact number of
characters in the message ALARM turn off engine which is defined at the
address assigned the name MESSAGE.
DS directive
The DS directive is used to reserve memory space expressed in bytes. It is
used if some of the following segments ISEG, DSEG or XSEG is currently
active. For example:
Example 1:
DSEG

;Select directly addressed part of RAM

DS 32
;Current value of address counter is
incremented by 32
SP_BUFF DS 16 ;Reserve space for serial port buffer
;(16 bytes)
IO_BUFF DS 8
8 bytes

;Reserve space for I/O buffer in size of

217

Example 2:
ORG 100

;Start at address 100

DS 8

;8 bytes are reserved

LAB ......... ;Program proceeds with execution

(address of this location is 108)
DBIT directive
The DBIT directive is used to reserve space within bit-addressable part of
RAM. The memory size is expressed in bits. It can be used only if the
BSEG segment is active. For example:
BSEG ;Bit-addressable part of RAM is
selected
IO_MAP DBIT 32 ;First 32 bits occupy space intended
for I/O buffer
DB directive
The DB directive is used for writing specified value into program memory. If
several values are specified, then they are separated by a comma. If ASCII
array is specified, it should be enclosed within single quotation marks. This
directive can be used only if the CSEG segment is active. For example:
CSEG
DB 22,33,Alarm,44
If this directive is preceeded by a lable, then the label will point to the first
element of the array. It is the number 22 in this example.
DW directive
218

The DW directive is similar to the DB directive. It is used for writing a twobyte value into program memory. The higher byte is written first, then the
lower one.
IF, ENDIF and ELSE directives
These directives are used to create so called conditional blocks in the
program. Each of these blocks starts with directive IF and ends with
directive ENDIF or ELSE. The statement or symbol (in parentheses)
following the IF directive represents a condition which specifies the part of
the program to be compiled:

If the statement is correct or if the symbol is equal to one,

the program will include all instructions up to directive ELSE
or ENDIF.
If the statement is not correct or if the symbol value is equal
to zero, all instructions are ignored, i.e. not compiled, and
the program continues with instructions following directives
ELSE or ENDIF.
Example 1:
IF (VERSION>3)
LCALL Table_2
LCALL Addition
ENDIF
...
If the program is of later date than version 3 (statement is correct),
subroutines Table 2 and Addition will be executed. If the statement in
parentheses is not correct (VERSION<3), two instructions calling
subroutines will not be compiled.

219

Example 2:
If the value of the symbol called Model is equal to one, the first two
instructions following directive IF will be compiled and the program
continues with instructions following directive ENDIF (all instructions
between ELSE and ENDIF are ignored). Otherwise, if Model=0, instructions
between IF and ELSE are ignored and the assembler compiles only
instructions following directive ELSE.
IF (Model)
MOV R0,#BUFFER
MOV A,@R0
ELSE
MOV R0,#EXT_BUFFER
MOVX A,@R0
ENDIF
...
Control directives
Control directives start with a dollar symbol $. They are used to determine
which files are to be used by the assembler during compilation, where the
executable file is to be stored as well as the final layout of the compiled
program called Listing. There are many control directives, but only few of
them is of importance:
\$INCLUDE directive
This directive enables the assembler to use data stored in other files during
compilation. For example:
220

\$INCLUDE(TABLE.ASM)
\$MOD8253 directive
This $MOD8253 directive is a file containing names and addresses of all
SFRs of 8253 microcontrollers. By means of this file and directive having
the same name, the assembler can compile the program on the basis of
register names. If they are not used, it is necessary to specify name and
address of every SFRs to be used at the beginning of the program.

Architecture and programming of 8051

MCU's

TOC
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Chapter 6 : Examples

6.1 Basic connecting of the microcontroller

6.2 Additional components
6.3 Examples
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide basic information about
microcontrollers that one needs to know in order to be able to use them
successfully in practice. This is why this chapter doesn't contain any super
interesting program or device schematic with amazing solutions. Instead,
the following examples are better proof that program writing is neither a
221

privilege nor a talent issue, but the ability of simply putting puzzle pieces
together using directives. Rest assured that design and development of
devices mainly consists of the following method test-correct-repeat. Of
course, the more you are in it, the more complicated it becomes since the
puzzle pieces are put together by both children and first-class architects...

6.1 Basic connecting

As seen in the figure above, in order to enable the microcontroller to

operate properly it is necessary to provide:

Power supply:
Reset signal: and
Clock signal.
Clearly, it is about very simple circuits, but it does not have to be always
like that. If the target device is used for controlling expensive machines or

222

maintaining vital functions, everything gets increasingly complicated.

However, this solution is sufficient for the time being...
Power supply
Even though this microcontroller can operate at different power supply
voltages, why to test Murphys low?! A 5V DC is most commonly used.
The circuit, shown in the figure, uses a cheap integrated three-terminal
positive regulator LM7805, and provides high-quality voltage stability and
quite enough current to enable the microcontroller and peripheral
electronics to operate normally (enough current in this case means 1Amp).
Reset signal
In order that the mucrocontroller can operate properly, a logic 0 (0V) must
be applied to the reset pin RS. The push button connecting the reset pin
RS to power supply VCC is not necessary. However, it is almost always
provided because it enables the microcontroller safe return to normal
operating conditions if something goes wrong. 5V is brought to this pin, the
microcontroller is reset and program starts execution from the beginning.
Clock signal
Even though the microcontroller has a built-in oscillator, it cannot operate
without two external capacitors and quartz crystal which stabilize its
operation and determines its frequency (operating speed of the
microcontroller).

Of course, it is not always possible to apply this solution so that

there are always alternative ones. One of them is to provide clock
223

signal from a special source through invertor. See the figure on

the left.

6.2 Additional components

Regardless of the fact that the microcontroller is a product of modern
technology, it is of no use without being connected to additional
components. Simply put, the appearance of voltage on its pins means
nothing if not used for performing certain operations (turn something on/off,
shift, display etc.).
Switches and Push buttons
There are no simpler devices than switches and push-buttons. This is the
simplest way of detecting appearance of a voltage on the microcontroller
input pin.

Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... It is about contact

bounce- a common problem with m e c h a n i c a l switches.
When the contacts strike together, their momentum and elasticity
act together to cause bounce. The result is a rapidly pulsed
electrical current instead of a clean transition from zero to full
current. It mostly occurs due to vibrations, slight rough spots and
dirt between contacts. This effect is usually unnoticeable when
using these components in everyday life because the bounce
happens too quickly. In other words, the whole this process does
not last long (a few micro- or miliseconds), but it is long enough to
be registered by the microcontroller. When using only a pushbutton as a pulse counter, errors occur in almost 100% of cases!
224

The simplest solution to this problem is to connect a simple RC

circuit to suppress quick voltage changes. Since the bounce
period is not defined, the values of components are not precisely
determined. In most cases, it is recomended to use the values
shown in figure below.
If complete stability is needed then radical measures should be taken. The
output of the circuit, shown in figure (RS flip-flop), will change its logic state
only after detecting the first pulse triggered by contact bounce. This
solution is expensive (SPDT switch), but effecient, the problem is definitely
solved. Since the capacitor is not used, very short pulses can also be
registered in this way.

In addition to these hardware solutions, there is also a simple

software solution. When a program tests the state of an input pin
and detects a change, the check should be done one more time
after a certain delay. If the change is confirmed, it means that a
switch or push button has changed its position. The advantages
of such solution are obvious: it is free of charge, effects of noises
are eliminated and it can be applied to the poorer quality contacts
as well. Disadvantage is the same as when using RC filter, i.e.
pulses shorter than program delay cannot be registered.
Optocoupler
225

An optocoupler is a device commonly used to galvanically

separate microcontrollers electronics from any potentially
dangerous current or voltage in its surroundings. Optocouplers
usually have one, two or four light sources (LED diodes) on their
input while on their output, opposite to diodes, there is the same
number of elements sensitive to light (phototransistors, photothyristors or photo-triacs). The point is that an optocoupler uses a
short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between the
elements of circuit, while keeping them electrically isolated. This
isolation makes sense only if diodes and photo-sensitive elements
are separately powered. In this way, the microcontroller and
expensive additional electronics are completely protected from
high voltage and noises which are the most common cause of
destroying, damaging or unstable operation of electronic devices
in practice. The most frequently used optocouplers are those with
phototransistors on their outputs. When using the optocoupler
with internal base-to-pin 6 connection (there are also
optocouplers without it), the base can be left unconnected. An
optional connection which lessens the effects of noises by
eliminating very short pulses is presented by the broken line in the
figure.
Relay

226

A relays is an electrical switch that opens and closes under

control of another electrical circuit. It is therefore connected to
ouput pins of the microcontroller and used to turn on/off highpower devices such as motors, transformers, heaters, bulbs,
antenna systems etc. These are almost always placed away from
the board sensitive components. There are various types of relays
but all of them operate in the same way. When a current flows
through the coil, the relay is operated by an electromagnet to
open or close one or many sets of contacts. Similar to
optocouplers, there is no galvanic connection (electrical contact)
between input and output circuits. Relays usually demand both
higher voltage and current to start operation, but there are also
miniature ones which can be activated by a low current directly
obtained from a microcontroller pin.
The figure shows the solution specific to the 8051 microcontroller. A
darlington transistor is used here to activate relays because of its high
current gain. This is not in accordance with rules, but is necessary in the
event that logic one activation is applied since the output current is then
very low (pin acts as an input).

227

In order to prevent the appearance of self-induction high voltage, caused

by a sudden stop of current flow through the coil, an inverted polarized
diode is connected in parallel to the coil. The purpose of this diode is to cut
off the voltage peak.
Light-emitting diode (LED)

Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in

electronics. They are manufactured in different shapes, colors
and sizes. For their low price, low power consumption and simple
use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light
sources, bulbs at first place. They perform similar to common
diodes with the difference that they emit light when current flows
through them.
228

It is important to limit their current, otherwise they will be

permanently destroyed. For this reason, a conductor must be
connected in parallel to an LED. In order to determine value of
this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in
forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is
made from and what colour it is. Typical values of the most
frequently used diodes are shown in table below. As seen, there
are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get ful brightness at
current of 20mA. Low Current diodes get ful brightness at ten
times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more
intensive light than Standard ones.
COLOR

TYPE

T Y P I C AL
C U R R E N T I D ( M A)

M AX I M AL
C U R R E N T I F ( M A)

V O LTAG E D R
UD (V)

Infrared

30

50

1.4

Red

Standard

20

30

1.7

Red

Super
Bright

20

30

1.85

Red

Low
Current

30

1.7

Orange

10

30

2.0

Green

Low
Current

20

2.1

Yellow

20

30

2.1

Blue

20

30

4.5

White

25

35

4.4
229

Since the 8051 microcontroller can provide only low output

current and since its pins are configured as outputs when voltage
provided on them is 0V, direct connecting to LEDs is performed
as shown in figure on the right (Low current LED, cathode is
connected to the output pin).
LED displays
Basically, an LED display is nothing more than several LEDs moulded in
the same plastic case. There are many types of displays composed of
several dozens of built in diodes which can display different symbols.

Most commonly used is a so called 7-segment display. It is

composed of 8 LEDs, 7 segments are arranged as a rectangle for
symbol displaying and there is an additional segment for decimal
point displaying. In order to simplify connecting, anodes and
catodes of all diodes are connected to the common pin so that
there are common anode displays and common catode displays,
respectively. Segments are marked with the latters from A to G,
plus dp, as shown in the figure on the left. On connecting, each
diode is treated separtely, which means that each must have its
own current limiting resistor.
230

Displays connected to the microcontroller usually occupy a large number of

valuable I/O pins, which can be a big problem especially if it is needed to
display multy digit numbers. The problem is more than obvious if, for
example, it is needed to display two 6-digit numbers (a simple calculation
shows that 96 output pins are needed in this case). The solution to this
problem is called MULTIPLEXING. This is how an optical illusion based on
the same operating principle as a film camera is made. Only one digit is
active at a time, but they change their state so quickly making impression
that all digits of a number are simultaneously active.

Here is an explanation on the figure above. First a byte representing units

is applied on a microcontroller port and a transistor T1 is activated at the
same time. After a while, the transistor T1 is turned off, a byte representing
tens is applied on a port and a transistor T2 is activated. This process is
231

being cyclically repeated at high speed for all digits and corresponding
transistors.
The fact that the microcontroller is just a kind of miniature computer
designed to understand only the language of zeros and ones is fully
expressed when displaying any digit. Namely, the microcontroller doesn't
know what units, tens or hundreds are, nor what ten digits we are used to
look like. Therefore, each number to be displayed must be prepared in the
following way:
First of all, a multy digit number must be split into units, tens etc. in a
particular subroutine. Then each of these digits must be stored in special
bytes. Digits get familiar format by performing masking. In other words, a
binary format of each digit is replaced by a different combination of bits in a
simple subroutine. For example, the digit 8 (0000 1000) is replaced by the
binary number 0111 111 in order to activate all LEDs displaying digit 8. The
only diode remaining inactive in this case is reserved for the decimal point.
If a microcontroller port is connected to the display in such a way that bit 0
activates segment a, bit 1 activates segment b, bit 2 segment c etc.,
then the table below shows the mask for each digit.

232

D I G I T S T O D I S P L AY

D I S P L AY S E G M E N T S
dp

233

In addition to digits from 0 to 9, some letters of alphabet - A, C, E, J, F, U,

H, L, b, c, d, o, r, t - can also be displayed by performing appropriate
masking.
If the event that common chatode displays are used all units in the table
should be replaced by zeros and vice versa. Additionally, NPN transistors
should be used as drivers as well.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
An LCD display is specifically manufactured to be used with
microcontrollers, which means that it cannot be activated by standard IC
circuits. It is used for displaying different messages on a miniature liquid
crysal display.

The model described here is for its low price and great
capabilities most frequently used in practice. It is based on the
HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in
two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the letters of
alphabet, Greek letters, punctuation marks, mathematical
symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols made up
by the user. Other useful features include automatic message
shift (left and right), cursor appearance, LED backlight etc.
LCD Pins
There are pins along one side of a small printed board. These are used for
connecting to the microcontroller. There are in total of 14 pins marked with
numbers (16 if it has backlight). Their function is described in the table
bellow:
234

FUNCTION

PIN
NUMBER

N AM E

LOGIC
S TATE

DESCRIPTION

Ground

Vss

0V

Power supply

Vdd

+5V

Contrast

Vee

0 - Vdd

RS

0
1

D0 D7 are interpreted a
commands
D0 D7 are interpreted as

R/W

0
1

Write data (from controller

LCD)
Read data (from LCD to
controller)

0
1
From 1 to 0

D0

0/1

Bit 0 LSB

D1

0/1

Bit 1

D2

0/1

Bit 2

10

D3

0/1

Bit 3

11

D4

0/1

Bit 4

12

D5

0/1

Bit 5

13

D6

0/1

Bit 6

14

D7

0/1

Bit 7 MSB

Control of
operating

Data / commands

Access to LCD disabled

Normal operating
Data/commands are transfe
to LCD

LCD screen

235

An LCD screen consists of two lines each containing 16

characters. Each character consists of 5x8 or 5x11 dot matrix.
This book covers the most commonly used display, i.e. the 5x8
character display.
Display contrast depends on the power supply voltage and
whether messages are displayed in one or two lines. For this
reason, varying voltage 0-Vdd is applied on the pin marked as
Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose.
Some LCD displays have built-in backlight (blue or green LEDs).
When used during operation, a current limiting resistor should be
serially connected to one of the pins for backlight power supply
(similar to LEDs).

236

If there are no characters displayed or if all of them are dimmed when the
display is on, the first thing that should be done is to check the
potentiometer for contrast regulation. Is it properly adjusted? The same
applies if the mode of operation has been changed (writing in one or two
lines).
LCD Memory
The LCD display contains three memory blocks:

DDRAM Display Data RAM;

CGRAM Character Generator RAM; and
CGROM Character Generator ROM.

DDRAM Memory
DDRAM memory is used for storing characters to be displayed. The size of
this memory is sufficient for storing 80 characters. Some memory locations
are directly connected to the characters on display.

237

It works quite simply: it is sufficient to configure the display so as to

increment addresses automatically (shift right) and set the starting address
for the message that should be displayed (for example 00 hex).
After that, all characters sent through lines D0-D7 will be displayed in the
message format we are used to- from left to right. In this case, displaying
starts from the first field of the first line since the address is 00 hex. If more
than 16 characters are sent, then all of them will be memorized, but only
the first sixteen characters will be visible. In order to display the rest of
them, a shift command should be used. Virtually, everything looks as if the
LCD display is a window which moves left-right over memory locations
containing different characters. This is how the effect of message moving
on the screen is made.
If the cursor is on, it appears at the location which is currently addressed. In
other words, when a character appears at the cursor position, it will
automatically move to the next addressed location.
Since this is a sort of RAM memory, data can be written to and read from it,
but its contents is irretrievably lost when the power goes off.
CGROM Memory
CGROM memory contains the default chracter map with all characters that
can be displayed on the screen. Each character is assigned to one memory
location.

238

239

The addresses of CGROM memory locations match the characters of

ASCII. If the program being currently executed encounters a command
send character P to port, then the binary value 0101 0000 appears on the
port. This value is the ASCII equivalent to the character P. It is then written
to LCD, which results in displaying the symbol from 0101 0000 location of
CGROM. In other words, the character P is displayed. This applies to all
letters of alphabet (capitals and small), but not to numbers.
As seen on the previous map, addresses of all digits are pushed forward
by 48 relative to their values (digit 0 address is 48, digit 1 address is 49,
digit 2 address is 50 etc.). Accordingly, in order to display digits correctly,
each of them needs to be added a decimal number 48 prior to be sent to
LCD.
From their inception till today, computers can recognize only numbers, but
not letters. It means that all data a computer swaps with a peripheral device
has a binary format, even though the same is recognized by the man as
letters (keyboard is an excellent example). Every character matches the
unique combination of zeroes and ones. ASCII is character encoding based
on the English alphabet. ASCII code specifies correspondance between
standard character symbols and their numerical equivalents.
CGRAM memory
Apart from standard characters, the LCD display can also display symbols
defined by the user itself. It can be any symbol in the size of 5x8 pixels.
RAM memory called CGRAM in the size of 64 bytes enables it.
Memory registers are 8 bits wide, but only 5 lower bits are used. Logic one
(1) in every register represents a dimmed dot, while 8 locations grouped
together represent one character. It is best illustrated in figure below:

240

241

Symbols are usually defined at the beginnig of the program by simply

writing zeros and ones to registers of CGRAM memory so that they form
desired shapes. In order to display them it is sufficient to specify their
address. Pay attention to the first coloumn in the CGROM map of
characters. It doesn't contain RAM memory addresses, but symbols being
discussed here. In this example, display 0 means - display , display 1
means - display etc.

LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through the outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as
a command or a data, which depends on the pin RS logic state:
RS = 1 - Bits D0-D7 are addresses of the characters to be displayed. LCD
processor addresses one character from the character map and displays it.
The DDRAM address specifies the location on which the character is to be
displayed. This address is defined before the character is transferred or the
address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented.
RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine the display mode.
The commands recognized by the LCD are given in the table below:

EXECUTI
TIME

C O M M AN D

RS

RW

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

Clear display

1.64mS

Cursor home

1.64mS

Entry mode set

I/D

40uS

Display on/off
control

40uS

Cursor/Display
Shift

D/C

R/L

40uS

Function set

DL

40uS

Set CGRAM
address

Set DDRAM
address

DDRAM address

40uS

Read BUSY flag

(BF)

BF

DDRAM address

CGRAM address

40uS

242

Write to CGRAM
or DDRAM

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

40uS

Read from
CGRAM or
DDRAM

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

40uS

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1)

0 = Decrement (by 1)

R/L 1 = Shift right

0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on
interface
0 = Display shift off
interface

DL 1 = 8-bit

D 1 = Display on
lines
0 = Display off
line

N 1 = Display in two

U 1 = Cursor on
format 5x10 dots
0 = Cursor off
format 5x7 dots

F 1 = Character

B 1 = Cursor blink on
0 = Cursor blink off

D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor shift

0 = 4-bit

0 = Display in one

0 = Character

What is the Busy flag?

Compared to the microcontroller, the LCD is an extremely slow component.
Because of this, it was necessary to provide a signal which will, upon
command execution, indicate that the display is ready to receive a new
data. That signal, called the busy flag, can be read from line D7. When the
BF bit is cleared (BF=0), the display is ready to receive a new data.
LCD Connection
Depending on how many lines are used for connecting the LCD to the
microcontroller, there are 8-bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode
is selected at the beginning of the operation. This process is called
initialization. 8-bit LCD mode uses outputs D0-D7 to transfer data in the
243

way explained on the previous page. The main purpose of 4-bit LED mode
is to save valuable I/O pins of the microcontroller. Only 4 higher bits (D4D7) are used for communication, while other may be left unconnected.
Each data is sent to the LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first
(normally through the lines D4-D7), then four lower bits. Initialization
enables the LCD to link and interpret received bits correctly. Data is rarely
read from the LCD (it is mainly transferred from the microcontroller to LCD)
so that it is often possible to save an extra I/O pin by simple connecting
R/W pin to ground. Such saving has its price. Messages will be normally
displayed, but it will not be possible to read the busy flag since it is not
possible to read the display either.

244

Fortunately, there is a simple solution. After sending a character or a

command it is important to give the LCD enough time to do its job. Owing
to the fact that execution of the slowest command lasts for approximately
1.64mS, it will be sufficient to wait approximately 2mS for LCD.
LCD Initialization
The LCD is automatically cleared when powered up. It lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, the display is ready for operation. The
mode of operation is set by default. It means that:

1. Display is cleared
2. Mode
o DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface
o N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line
o F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off
o D = 0 Display off
o U = 0 Cursor off
o B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry
o ID = 1 Displayed addresses are automatically incremented by 1
o S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is in most cases performed without any problems. In most

cases, but not always! If for any reason the power supply voltage does not
reach ful value within 10mS, the display will start to perform completely
unpredictably. If the voltage supply unit is not able to meet this condition or
if it is needed to provide completely safe operation, the process of
initialization is applied. Initialization, among other things, causes a new
reset enabling display to operate normally.
Refer to the figure below for the procedure on 8-bit initialization:

245

It is not a mistake!
In this algorithm, the same value is transferred three times in a row.
In case of 4-bit initialization, the procedure is as follows:

246

247

6.3 Examples
The schematic below is used in the several following examples:

Apart from components necessary for the operation of the microcontroller

such as oscillator with capacitors and the simplest reset circuit, there are
also several LEDs and one push button. These are used to indicate the
operation of the program.
All LEDs are polarized in such a way that they are activated by driving a
microcontroller pin low (logic 0).
248

LED Blinking
The purpose of this example is not to demonstrate the operation of LEDs,
but the operating speed of the microcontroller. Simply put, in order to
enable LED blinking to be visible, it is necessary to provide sufficient
amount of time to pass between on/off states of LEDs. In this example time
delay is provided by executing a subroutine called Delay. It is a triple loop
in which the program remains for approximately 0.5 seconds and
decrements values stored in registers R0, R1 or R2. After returning from
the subroutine, the pin state is inverted and the same procedure is
repeated...
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Delay.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program turns on/off LED on the pin
P1.0
;* Software delay is used (Delay).
;
******************************************************
******************
;BASIC DIRECTIVES
$MOD53
$TITLE(DELAY.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
249

$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

STACK_START:

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG

100H

;RESET VECTORS

XRESET: MOV
pointer

SP,#STACK_START

MOV
P1,#0FFh
configured as inputs

;Reset vector

;Define Stack
;All pins are

LOOP:
CPL
P1.0
state is inverted
LCALL

Delay

;Pin P1.0
;Time delay

250

SJMP

LOOP

MOV

R2,#20

;500 ms time

F02:

MOV

R1,#50

;25 ms

F01:

MOV

R0,#230

DJNZ

R0,$

DJNZ

R1,F01

DJNZ

R2,F02

Delay:
delay

END
program

;End of

Using Watch-dog Timer

This example describes how the watch-dog timer should not operate. The
watch-dog timer is properly adjusted (nominal time for counting is
1024mS), but instruction used to reset it is intentionally left out so that this
timer always "wins". As a result, the microcontroller is reset (state in
registers remains unchanged), program starts execution from the beginning
and the number in register R3 is incremented by 1 and then copied to port
P1.
LEDs display this number in binary format...

251

;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : WatchDog.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : After watch-dog reset, program
increments number in
;* register R3 and shows it on port P1 in binary
format.
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES
$MOD53
$TITLE(WATCHDOG.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

WMCON

DATA

WDTEN
EQU
is enabled

96H
00000001B

; Watch-dog timer

252

PERIOD
EQU
11000000B
period is set to be 1024ms

;RESET

; Nominal Watch-dog

VECTOR
CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

0
; Reset vector

CSEG
100H

ORL

WMCON,#PERIOD

; Define Watch-dog

ORL

WMCON,#WDTEN

; Watch-dog timer

MOV

A,R3

; R3 is moved to

MOV

P1,A

XRESET:
period

ORG

is enabled

port 1

INC
incremented by 1

R3

; Register R3 is

253

LAB:
SJMP
dog reset

LAB

END

; Wait for watch-

; End of program

Timer T0 in mode 1
This program spends most of its time in an endless loop waiting for timer
T0 to count up a full cycle. When it happens, an interrupt is generated,
routine TIM0_ISR is executed and logic zero (0) on port P1 is shifted right
by one bit. This is another way of demonstrating the operating speed of the
microcontroller since each shift means that counter T0 has counted up
216 pulses!
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Tim0Mod1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program rotates "0" on port 1. Timer
T0 in mode 1 is
;* used
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

254

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIM0MOD1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

;STACK

DSEG

AT

03FH

STACK_START:

DS

040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG

AT 0

JMP

XRESET

ORG

00BH

; Reset vector

255

JMP

TIM0_ISR

ORG

100H

; Timer T0 reset

vector

XRESET: MOV
pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Define Stack

MOV

TMOD,#01H

; MOD1 is selected

MOV

A,#0FFH

MOV

P1,#0FFH

SETB

TR0

; Timer T0 is

IE,#082H

; Interrupt

enabled
MOV
enabled
CLR

LOOP1: SJMP

LOOP1

; Remain here

TIM0_ISR:
RRC
A
accumulator A through Carry flag

; Rotate

MOV
P1,A
accumulator A is moved to PORT1

; Contents of

256

RETI

; Return from

interrupt

END

; End of program

Timer T0 in Split mode

Similarly to the previous example, the program spends most of its time in a
loop called LOOP1. Since 16-bit Timer T0 is split into two 8-bit timers, there
are also two interrupt sources.
The first interrupt is generated after timer T0 reset. Routine TIM0_ISR in
which logic zero (0) bit on port P1 rotates is executed. Outside looking, it
seems that LEDs move.
Another interrupt is generated upon Timer T1 reset. Routine TIM1_ISR in
which the bit state DIRECTION inverts is executed. Since this bit
determines direction of bit rotation then the moving direction of LED is also
changed.
If you press a push button T1 at some point, a logic zero (0) on the P3.2
output will disable Timer T1.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Split.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Timer TL0 rotates bit on port P1,
while TL1 determines
;* the rotation direction. Both timers operate in mode

257

;* 3. Logic zero (0) on output P3.2 disables rotation

on port P1.
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(SPLIT.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

BSEG

AT

;DECLARATION OF BIT-VARIABLES

258

SEMAPHORE:

DBIT

DIRECTION

BIT

SEMAPHORE

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

STACK_START:

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG

00BH

;RESET VECTORS

; Reset

vector

JMP
reset vector

ORG
JMP
reset vector

TIM0_ISR

; Timer T0

01BH
TIM1_ISR

; Timer T1

259

ORG
XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer
MOD3

100H
SP,#STACK_START

; Define

MOV

TMOD,#00001011B

; Define

MOV

A,#0FFH

MOV

P1,#0FFH

MOV

R0,#30D

SETB
turned on

TR0

; TL0 is

SETB
turned on

TR1

; TL1 is

MOV

IE,#08AH

; Interrupt

CLR

enabled

CLR
the right

DIRECTION

; Rotate to

LOOP1:
here

LOOP1

; Remain

SJMP

TIM0_ISR:

260

DJNZ
R0,LAB3
rotation by 256 times
JB

; Slow down

DIRECTION,LAB1

RRC
A
; Rotate
contents of Accumulator to the right through
; Carry flag

SJMP

LAB2

LAB1:
RLC
A
; Rotate
contents of Accumulator to the left through
; Carry flag
LAB2:
MOV
P1,A
of Accumulator is moved to port P1

; Contents

LAB3:
RETI
from interrupt

; Return

TIM1_ISR:
DJNZ
R1,LAB4
direction of rotation by 256 times

; Slow down

DJNZ
R2,LAB4
expires, change rotation direction

; When time

CPL

SMER

MOV

R2,#30D
261

LAB4:

RETI

END

; End of

program
Simultaneous use of timers T0 and T1
This program can be considered as continuation of the previous one. They
share the same idea, but in this case true timers T0 and T1 are used. In
order to demonstrate the operation of both timers on the same port at the
same time, timer T0 reset is used to shift logic zero (0) on the port, while
Timer T1 reset is used to change rotation direction. This program spends
most of its time in the loop LOOP1 waiting for an interrupt to be caused by
reset. By checking the DIRECTION bit, information on rotation direction of
both bits in accumulator as well as of moving port LED is obtained.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Tim0Tim1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Timer TO rotates bit on port P1 while
Timer1
;* changes rotation direction. Both timers are
configured to operate in mode 1.
;
******************************************************
******************

262

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIM0TIM1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

BSEG

AT

;DECLARATION OF BIT-VARIABLES

SEMAPHORE:

DBIT

DIRECTION

BIT

SEMAPHORE

;STACK

263

DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

; Reset

00BH

; Timer 0

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

vector

ORG
Reset vector
JMP

ORG
Reset vector

TIM0_ISR

01BH

JMP

TIM1_ISR

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Timer 1

; Define

264

MOV
TMOD,#11H
MOD1 for both timers
MOV

A,#0FFH

MOV

P1,#0FFH

; Select

MOV
initialized

R0,#30D

; R0 is

SETB
turned on

TR0

; TIMER0 is

SETB
turned on

TR1

; TIMER1 is

MOV
IE,#08AH
Timer1 Interrupt enabled
CLR

; Timer0 and

CLR
the right

DIRECTION

; Rotate to

LOOP1:
here

LOOP1

; Remain

SJMP

TIM0_ISR:
JB

DIRECTION,LAB1

265

RRC A
; Rotate
contents of accumulator to the right through
; Carry flag
SJMP

LAB2

LAB1:
RLC
A
; Rotate
contents of Accumulator to the left through
; Carry flag
LAB2:
MOV
P1,A
of Accumulator is moved to port P1

; Contents

RETI
from interrupt

; Return

TIM1_ISR:
DJNZ
R0,LAB3
expires, change rotation direction
CPL

DIRECTION

MOV

R0,#30D

; When time

; Initialize

R0
LAB3:
RETI
END

; End of

program
Using Timer T2
266

This example describes the use of Timer T2 configured to operate in AutoReload mode. In this very case, LEDs are connected to port P3 while the
push button used for forced timer reset (T2EX) is connected to the P1.1
pin.
Program execution is similar to the previous examples. When timer ends
counting, an interrupt is enabled and subroutine TIM2_ISR is executed,
thus rotating a logic zero (0) in accumulator and moving the contents of
accumulator to the P3 pin. At last, flags which caused an interrupt are
cleared and program returns to the loop LOOP1 where it remains until a
new interrupt request arrives...
If push button T2EX is pressed, timer is temporarily reset. This push button
resets timer, while push button RESET resets the microcontroller.

;
******************************************************
******************
267

;* PROGRAM NAME : Timer2.ASM

;* DESCRIPTION: Program rotates log. "0" on port P3.
Timer2 determines
;* the speed of rotation and operates in auto-reload
mode
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIMER2.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

T2MOD

DATA

0C9H

268

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

STACK_START:

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

; Reset

02BH

; Timer T2

;RESET VECTORS

vector

ORG
Reset vector
JMP

TIM2_ISR

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

MOV

A,#0FFH

MOV

P3,#0FFH

MOV
RCAP2L,#0FH
16-bit auto-reload mode

; Define

; Prepare

269

MOV

RCAP2L,#01H

CLR
CAP2
bit auto-reload mod

; Enable 16-

SETB
EXEN2
reset is enabled

; Pin P1.1

SETB

TR2

; Enable

IE,#0A0H

; Interrupt

Timer T2

MOV
is enabled

LOOP1:
here

CLR

SJMP

LOOP1

; Remain

TIM2_ISR:
RRC
A
; Rotate
contents of Accumulator to the right through
; Carry flag
MOV
P3,A
contents of Accumulator A to PORT3
CLR

timer T2 flag TF2

CLR
timer T2 flag EXF2

; Move the

TF2

; Clear

EXF2

; Clear

270

RETI

; Return

END

; End of

from interrupt

program

Using External Interrupt

Here is another example of interrupt execution. An external iterrupt is
generated when a logic zero (0) is present on pin P3.2 or P3.3. Depending
on which input is active, one of two routines will be executed:
A logic zero (0) on the P3.2 pin initiates execution of interrupt routine
Isr_Int0, thus incrementing number in register R0 and copying it to port P0.
Logic zero on the P3.3 pin initiates execution of subroutine Isr_Int1,
number in register R1 is incremented by 1 and then copied to port P1.
In short, each press on push buttons INT0 and INT1 will be counted and
immediately shown in binary format on appropriate port (LED which emitts
light represents a logic zero (0)).

271

;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Int.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Program counts interrupts INT0
generated by appearance of high-to-low
;* transition signal on pin P3.2 Result appears on
port P0. Interrupts INT1 are also
;* counted up at the same time. They are generated
byappearing high-to-low transition
272

;* signal on pin P3. The result appears on port P1.

;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(INT.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;RESET VECTORS

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG
003H
routine address for INT0

0
; Reset vector

; Interrupt

273

JMP

Isr_Int0

ORG 013H
routine address for INT1
JMP

Isr_Int1

ORG

100H

; Interrupt

XRESET:
MOV
TCON,#00000101B
is generated by appearing
transition signal on pin P3.2
is generated by appearing
transition signal on pin P3.3
enabled

MOV

MOV
starting value

; Interrupt INT0
; high-to-low
; Interrupt INT0
; high-to-low

IE,#10000101B

; Interrupt

R0,#00H

; Counter

MOV

R1,#00H

MOV

P0,#00H

; Reset port P0

MOV

P1,#00H

; Reset port P1

274

LOOP:

SJMP

LOOP

; Remain here

Isr_Int0:
INC R0
value of interrupt INT0 counter

; Increment

MOV P0,R0
RETI

Isr_Int1:
INC R1
value of interrupt INT1 counter

; Increment

MOV P1,R1
RETI
END

; End of program

Using LED display

The following examples describe the use of LED displays. Common
chatode displays are used here, which means that all built-in LEDs are
polarized in such a way that their anodes are connected to the
microcontroller pins. Since the common way of thinking is that logic one (1)
turns something on and logic zero (0) turns something of, Low Current
displays (low power consumption) and their diodes (segments) are
connected serially to resistors of relatively high resistance.

275

In order to save I/O pins, four LED displays are connected to operate in
multiplex mode. It means that all segments having the same name are
connected to one output port each and only one display is active at a time.
Tranzistors and segmenats on displays are quickly activated, thus making
impression that all digits are active simultaneously.

Writing digits on LED display

This program is a kind of warming up exerciese before real work starts.
The purpose of this example is to display something on any display.
276

Multiplex mode is not used this time. Instead, digit 3 is displayed on only
one of them (first one on the right).
Since the microcontroller does not know how we write number 3, a small
subroutine called Disp is used (the microcontroller writes this number as
0000 0011). This subroutine enables all decimal digits (0-9) to be displayed
(masked). The principle of operation is simple. A number to be displayed is
added to the current address and program jump is executed. Different
numbers require different jump length. Precisely determined combination of
zeroes and ones appears on each of these new locations (digit 1 mask,
digit 2 mask...digit 9 mask). When this combination is transferred to the
port, the display shows desired digit.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays number "3" on 7segment LED display
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
277

$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG

100H

MOV

SP,#STACK_START

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

XRESET:
pointer

MOV
P1,#0
segments on displays
MOV

P3,#20h

; Reset vector

; Define Stack
; Turn off all
; Activate

display D4

278

LOOP:
MOV
3 to display

A,#03

LCALL
Disp
appropriate masking for the number
MOV

P1,A

SJMP

LOOP

Disp:
for displaying digits
INC

MOVC

A,@A+PC

; Send number
; Perform

; Subroutine

RET
DB

3FH

; Digit 0 mask

DB

06H

; Digit 1 mask

DB

5BH

; Digit 2 mask

DB

4FH

; Digit 3 mask

DB

66H

; Digit 4 mask

DB

6DH

; Digit 5 mask

DB

7DH

; Digit 6 mask

DB

07H

; Digit 7 mask
279

DB

7FH

; Digit 8 mask

DB

6FH

; Digit 9 mask

END

; End of

program
Writing and changing digits on LED display
This program is only an extended verson of the previous one. There is only
one digit active- the first one on the right, and there is no use of
multiplexing. Unlike the previous example, all decimal numbers are
displayed (0-9). In order to enable digits to change at reasonable pace, a
soubroutine L2 which causes a short time delay is executed prior to each
change occurs. Basically, the whole process is very simple and takes place
in the main loop called LOOP which looks as follows:

1. R3 is copied to Accumulator and subroutine for masking digits

Disp is executed;
2. Accumulator is copied to the port and displayed;
3. The contents of the R3 register is incremented;
4. It is checked whether 10 cycles are counted or not. If it is,
register R3 is reset in order to enable counting to start from 0;
and
5. Instruction labeled as L2 within subroutine is executed.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME: 7Seg2.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program writes numbers 0-9 on 7segment LED display

280

;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG2.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

vector

; Reset

281

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Define

MOV
initial value

R3,#0

; Counter

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

MOV
display D4

; Activate

P3,#20h

LOOP:
MOV

A,R3

LCALL
Disp
appropriate masking for number in

; Perform
;

Accumulator
MOV

P1,A

INC
R3
number in register by 1

; Increment

CJNE
R3,#10,L2
whether the number 10 is in R3

; Check

282

MOV
reset counter

R3,#0

; If it is,

MOV
time delay

R2,#20

; 500 mS

F02:

MOV

R1,#50

; 25 mS

F01:

MOV

R0,#230

DJNZ

R0,$

DJNZ

R1,F01

DJNZ

R2,F02

SJMP

LOOP

L2:

Disp:
Subroutine for writing digits
INC

MOVC

A,@A+PC

RET
mask
mask

DB

3FH

; Digit 0

DB

06H

; Digit 1

283

DB

5BH

; Digit 2

DB

4FH

; Digit 3

DB

66H

; Digit 4

DB

6DH

; Digit 5

DB

7DH

; Digit 6

DB

07H

; Digit 7

DB

7FH

; Digit 8

DB

6FH

; Digit 9

mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask

program

END

; End of

Writing two-digit number on LED display

It is time for time multiplexing! This is the simplest example which displays
the number 23 on two displays in such a way that one of them displays
units, while the other displays tens. The most important thing in the
program is time synchronization. Otherwise, everything is very simple.
Transistor T4 enables display D4 and at the same time a bit combination
corresponding to the digit 3 is set on the port. After that, transistor T4 is
disabled and the whole process is repeated using transistor T3 and display
284

D3 in order to display digit 2. This procedure must be continuosly repeated

in order to make impression that both displays are active at the same time.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME: 7Seg3.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays number "23" on 7segment LED display
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG3.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK

285

DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG

100H

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

vector

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Reset

; Define

LOOP:
MOV
P1,#0
off all display segments

; Turn

MOV
P3,#20h
Activate display D4

MOV
A,#03
digit 3 on display D4

; Write

LCALL
Disp
appropriate mask for that digit

; Find

MOV
mask on the port

; Put the

P1,A

286

MOV
P1,#0
off all dislay segments

; Turn

MOV
P3,#10h
Activate display D3

MOV
A,#02
digit 2 on display D3

; Write

LCALL
Disp
mask for that digit

; Find

MOV
mask on the port

P1,A

; Put the

SJMP
to the label LOOP

LOOP

; Return

Disp:
Subroutine for writing digits
INC

MOVC

A,@A+PC

RET
DB

3FH

; Digit 0

DB

06H

; Digit 1

DB

5BH

; Digit 2

mask
mask
mask

287

DB

4FH

; Digit 3

DB

66H

; Digit 4

DB

6DH

; Digit 5

DB

7DH

; Digit 6

DB

07H

; Digit 7

DB

7FH

; Digit 8

DB

6FH

; Digit 9

mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask

program

END

; End of

Using four digit LED display

In this example all four displays, instead of two, are active so that it is
possible to write numbers from 0 to 9999. Here, the number 1 234 is
displayed. After initialization, the program remains in the loop LOOP where
digital multiplexing is performed. The subroutine Disp is used to convert
binary numbers into corresponding combinations of bits for the purpose of
activating display lighting segments.

288

;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg5.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Program displays number"1234" on 7segment LED display
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG5.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG
STACK_START:

AT

03FH

DS

040H
289

;RESET VECTORS

vector

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Reset

; Define

LOOP:
MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

MOV
display D4

; Activate

P3,#20h

MOV
A,#04
digit 4 on display D4

; Write

LCALL
for that digit

Disp

; Find mask

MOV
mask on the port

P1,A

; Put the

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

290

MOV
display D3

P3,#10h

; Activate

MOV
A,#03
digit 3 on display D3

; Write

LCALL
for that digit

Disp

; Find mask

MOV
mask on the port

P1,A

; Put the

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

MOV
display D2

; Activate

P3,#08h

MOV
A,#02
digit 2 on display D2

; Write

LCALL
for that digit

Disp

; Find mask

MOV
mask on the port

P1,A

; Put the

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

MOV
display D1

; Activate

P3,#04h

MOV
A,#01
digit 1 on display D1

; Write

LCALL
for that digit

; Find mask

Disp

291

MOV
mask on the port

P1,A

; Put the

SJMP
the lable LOOP

LOOP

; Return to

Disp:
for writing digits

; Subroutine

INC

MOVC

A,@A+PC

RET
DB

3FH

; Digit 0

DB

06H

; Digit 1

DB

5BH

; Digit 2

DB

4FH

; Digit 3

DB

66H

; Digit 4

DB

6DH

; Digit 5

DB

7DH

; Digit 6

mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask

292

DB

07H

; Digit 7

DB

7FH

; Digit 8

DB

6FH

; Digit 9

mask
mask
mask

END ; End of program

LED display as a two digit counter
Things are getting complicated... In addition to two digit multiplexing, the
microcontroller also performs other operations. In this example, contents of
registers R2 and R3 are incremented in order to display number counting
(97, 98, 99, 00, 01, 02...).
This time, transistors which activate displays remain turned on for 25mS.
The soubroutine Delay is in charge of that. Even though digits shift much
slower now, it is still not slow enough to make impression of simultaneous
operation. After both digits of a number blink for 20 times, the number on
displays is incremented by 1 and the whole procedure is repeated.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg4.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays numbers 0-99 on 7segment LED displays

293

;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG4.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

vector

; Reset

294

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
Stack pointer

SP,#STACK_START

; Define

MOV
starting value

R2,#0

; Counter

MOV

R3,#0

MOV

R4,#0

LOOP:
INC
R4
display to be "refreshed" for 100 times

;Wait for

CJNE
R4,#20d,LAB1
incrementing the counter

;before

MOV

R4,#0

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

INC
R2
Increment Register containing units by 1

CJNE

R2,#10d,LAB1

MOV

R2,#0

; Reset

units

295

INC
R3
Increment Register with tens by 1

tens

CJNE

R3,#10d,LAB1

MOV

R3,#0

; Reset

P3,#20h

; Activate

LAB1:
MOV
display D4

MOV
A,R2
Register containing units to A

; Copy

LCALL
Disp
mask for that digit

; Call

MOV
P1,A
units on display D4

; Write

LCALL

; 25ms

delay

Delay

MOV
P1,#0
all display segments

; Turn off

MOV
display D3

; Activate

P3,#10h

MOV
A,R3
Register contaning tens to A

; Copy

LCALL
Disp
mask for that digit

; Call

296

MOV
P1,A
tens on display D3

; Write

LCALL

Delay

; 25ms

SJMP

LOOP

MOV

R1,#50

MOV

R0,#250

DJNZ

R0,$

DJNZ

R1,F01

delay

Delay:
delay
F01:

; 5 ms

RET

Disp:
Subroutine for displaying digits
INC

MOVC

A,@A+PC

RET
mask

DB

3FH

; Digit 0

297

DB

06H

; Digit 1

DB

5BH

; Digit 2

DB

4FH

; Digit 3

DB

66H

; Digit 4

DB

6DH

; Digit 5

DB

7DH

; Digit 6

DB

07H

; Digit 7

DB

7FH

; Digit 8

DB

6FH

; Digit 9

mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask
mask

program

END

; End of

Handling EEPROM
This program writes data to on-chip EEPROM memory. In this case, the
data is a hexadecimal number 23 which is to be written to the location with
address 00.

298

To make sure that this number is correctly written, the same location of
EEPROM is read 10mS later in order to compare these two numbers. If
they match, F will be displayed. Otherwise, E will be displayed on the LED
display (Error).
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME: EEProm1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Programming EEPROM at address 0000hex
and displaying message
;* on LED display.
;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(EEPROM1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

299

WMCON

DATA

96H

EEMEN
EQU
00001000B
internal EEPROM is enabled

; Access to

EEMWE
EQU
EEPROM is enabled

; Write to

00010000B

TEMP
DATA
030H
Auxiliary register

; Define

THE END
"F"

EQU

071H

; Display

ERROR
"E"

EQU

033H

; Display

DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

;STACK

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

; Reset

vector

300

ORG

100H

XRESET:
MOV
IE,#00
interrupts are disabled
MOV

; All

SP,#STACK_START

MOV
DPTR,#0000H
location address in EEPROM

; Choose

ORL
EEPROM is enabled

WMCON,#EEMEN

; Access to

ORL
EEPROM is enabled

WMCON,#EEMWE

; Write to

MOV
TEMP,#23H
written to EEPROM is moved to

; Number

MOV
A,TEMP
TEMP and Accumulator

; register

to EEPROM

MOVX

@DPTR,A

; Write byte

CALL

DELAY

; 10ms delay

MOVX
A,@DPTR
same location and compare to TEMP,

; Read the

CJNE
A,TEMP,ERROR
don't match, jump to label ERROR

; If they

301

MOV

A,#KRAJ

MOV

P1,A

; Display F

(correct)

XRL
WMCON,#EEMWE
EEPROM is disabled

; Write to

XRL
WMCON,#EEMEN
EEPROM is disabled

; Access to

LOOP1:
here

SJMP

LOOP1

; Remain

ERROR:
(error)

MOV

A,#ERROR

; Display E

MOV

P1,A

LOOP2:

SJMP

LOOP2

DELAY:

MOV

A,#0AH

MOV

R3,A

LOOP3:

NOP

LOOP4:

DJNZ

B,LOOP4

LOOP5:

DJNZ

B,LOOP5

DJNZ

R3,LOOP3

; Delay

RET
302

program

END

; End of

Data reception via UART

In order to enable successful UART serial communication, it is necessary to
meet specific rules of the RS232 standard. It primarily refers to voltage
levels required by this standard. Accordingly, -10V stands for logic one (1)
in the message, while +10V stands for logic zero (0). The microcontroller
converts accurately data into serial format, but its power supply voltage is
only 5V. Since it is not easy to convert 0V into 10V and 5V into -10V, this
operation is on both transmit and receive side left to a specialized IC circuit.
Here, the MAX232 by MAXIM is used because it is widespread, cheap and
reliable.
This example shows how to receive message sent by a PC. Timer T1
generates boud rate. Since the 11.0592 MHz quartz crystal is used here, it
is easy to obtain standard baud rate which amouts to 9600 bauds. Each
received data is immediately transferred to port P1 pins.

303

;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : UartR.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Each data received from PC via UART
appears on the port
;* P1.
;*

304

;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(UARTR.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG

AT

03FH

DS

040H

CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

STACK_START:

;RESET VECTORS

; Reset vector

305

ORG
023H
address of UART interrupt routine
JMP

IR_SER

ORG

100H

; Starting

XRESET: MOV
IE,#00
interrupts are disabled

; All

MOV
SP,#STACK_START
Initialization of Stack pointer

MOV

TMOD,#20H

; Timer1 in

MOV
TH1,#0FDH
rate at the frequency of

; 9600 baud

mode2

; 11.0592MHz
MOV
SCON,#50H
enabled, 8-bit UART

; Receiving

MOV
IE,#10010000B
interrupt enabled

; UART

CLR
transmit flag

TI

; Clear

CLR
receive flag

RI

; Clear

TR1

; Start Timer1

SETB

306

LOOP:

SJMP

IR_SER: JNB
is received,

LOOP

; Remain here

RI,OUTPUT

; If any data
; move it to

the port
MOV

A,SBUF

MOV

P1,A

CLR
receive flag
OUTPUT

program

RI

; P1

; Clear

RETI

END

; End of

Data transmission via UART

This program describes how to use UART to transmit data. A sequence of
numbers (0-255) is transmitted to a PC at 9600 baud rate. The MAX 232 is
used as a voltage regulator.
;
******************************************************
******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : UartS.ASM
307

;* DESCRIPTION: Sends values 0-255 to PC.

;
******************************************************
******************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(UARTS.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG
STACK_START:

AT

03FH

DS

040H

AT

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG

308

JMP

XRESET

ORG

100H

XRESET: MOV
are disabled

IE,#00

MOV
SP,#STACK_START
of Stack pointer
MOV

; Reset vector

; All interrupts
; Initialization

TMOD,#20H

; Timer1 in mode

MOV
TH1,#0FDH
at the frequency of

; 9600 baud rate

; 11.0592MHz
MOV

SCON,#40H

; 8-bit UART

CLR

TI

; Clear transmit

CLR

RI

; Clear receive

MOV

R3,#00H

; Reset caunter

SETB

TR1

; Start Timer 1

bit
flag

START:
MOV
SBUF,R3
from counter to a PC

; Move number

309

LOOP1:
JNB
TI,LOOP1
until byte transmission is

; Wait here
; complete

bit

CLR

TI

; Clear transmit

INC
R3
counter value by 1

; Increment the

CJNE
R3,#00H,START
are not sent return to the

; If 255 bytes
; label START

LOOP:

SJMP

LOOP

END

; Remain here

; End of program

Writing message on LCD display

This example uses the most frequently used type of LCD which displays
text in two lines with 16 characters each. In order to save I/O ports, only 4
pins are used for communication here. In this way each byte is transmitted
in two steps: first higher then lower nible.
LCD needs to be initialized at the beginning of the program. Besides, parts
of the program which repeat in the program create special subroutines. All
this may seem extremely complicated, but the whole program basically
performs several simple operations and displaysMikroelektronika
Razvojni sistemi.
310

******************************************************
*******************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Lcd.ASM
;* DESCRIPRTION : Program for testing LCD display. 4bit communication
;* is used. Program does not check BUSY flag but uses
program delay
;* between 2 commands. PORT1 is used for connection
;* to the microcontroller.
;
******************************************************
******************

311

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(LCD.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;Stack
DSEG

AT

0E0h

Stack_Start:

DS

020h

Start_address

EQU

0000h

;Reset
vectors
CSEG

AT

ORG

Start_address
312

JMP

Inic

ORG

Start_address+100h

MOV
IE,#00
interrupts are disabled
MOV

Inic:
CALL
Initialize LCD

; All

SP,#Stack_Start

LCD_inic

;*************************************************
;* MAIN PROGRAM
;*************************************************

START:
MOV
A,#80h
character will appear on the first

; Next

CALL
LCD_status
location in the first line of LCD display.

MOV
character M.

; Display

A,#'M'

313

CALL
LCD_putc
subroutine for character transmission.

; Call

MOV
character i.

; Display

CALL
MOV
character k.
CALL
MOV
character r.
CALL
MOV
character o.
CALL
MOV
character e.
CALL
MOV
character l.
CALL
MOV
character e.
CALL

A,#'i'
LCD_putc
A,#'k'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'r'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'o'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'e'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'l'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'e'

; Display

LCD_putc

314

MOV
character k.
CALL
MOV
character t.
CALL
MOV
character r.
CALL
MOV
character o.
CALL
MOV
character n.
CALL
MOV
character i.
CALL
MOV
character k.
CALL
MOV
character a.

A,#'k'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'t'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'r'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'o'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'n'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'i'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'k'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'a'

; Display

315

CALL

LCD_putc

MOV
A,#0c0h
character will appear on the first

; Next

CALL
LCD_status
location in the second line of LCD display.

MOV
character R.

; Display

A,#'R'

CALL
LCD_putc
subroutine for character transmission.

; Call

MOV
character a.

; Display

CALL
MOV
character z.
CALL
MOV
character v.
CALL
MOV
character o.
CALL
MOV
character j.

A,#'a'
LCD_putc
A,#'z'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'v'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'o'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'j'

; Display

316

CALL
MOV
character n.
CALL
MOV
character i.
CALL
MOV
character .
CALL
MOV
character s.
CALL
MOV
character i.
CALL
MOV
character s.
CALL
MOV
character t.
CALL

LCD_putc
A,#'n'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'i'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#' '

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'s'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'i'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'s'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'t'

; Display

LCD_putc

317

MOV
character e.
CALL
MOV
character m.
CALL
MOV
character i.
CALL

MOV
time (20x10ms)

display

A,#'e'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'m'

; Display

LCD_putc
A,#'i'

; Display

LCD_putc

R0,#20d

; Wait

CALL

Delay_10ms

MOV

DPTR,#LCD_DB

; Clear

MOV

A,#6d

CALL

LCD_inic_status

R0,#10d

; Wait

MOV
time(10x10ms)
CALL

Delay_10ms

JMP

START

318

;*********************************************
;* Subroutine for wait time (T= r0 x 10ms)
;*********************************************

Delay_10ms: MOV
R5,00h
1+(1+(1+2*r7+2)*r6+2)*r5 approximately

MOV

R6,#100d

; (if

MOV

R7,#100d

r7>10)
2*r5*r6*r7
DJNZ R7,$
indicates current instruction.
DJNZ

R6,$-4

DJNZ

R5,$-6

; $

RET

;
******************************************************
********************************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_inic
;* DESCRIPTION: Subroutine for LCD initialization.
;*

319

;* (is used with 4-bit interface, under condition that

pins DB4-7 on LCD
;* are connected to pins PX.4-7 on microcontrollers
ports, i.e. four higher
;* bits on the port are used).
;*
;* NOTE: It is necessary to define port pins for
controlling LCD operation:
;* LCD_enable, LCD_read_write, LCD_reg_select,similar
to port for connection to LCD.
;* It is also necessary to define addresses for the
first character in each
;* line.
;
******************************************************
********************************

LCD_enable
BIT
P1.3
activating pin E on LCD.

; Bit for

LCD_read_write BIT
P1.1
activating pin RW on LCD.

; Bit for

LCD_reg_select BIT
P1.2
activating pin RS on LCD.

; Bit for

LCD_port
SET
P1
for connection to LCD.

; Port

320

Busy
BIT
P1.7
pin on which Busy flag appears.

; Port

LCD_Start_I_red EQU
00h
of the first message character

; Address

first line of LCD display.

LCD_Start_II_red EQU
40h
of the first message character
second line of LCD display.

; in the
; Address
; in the

LCD_DB:
DB
00111100b
2/1 lines, 5x10/5x7 format

; 0 -8b,

DB
00101100b
2/1 lines, 5x10/5x7 format

; 1 -4b,

DB
00011000b
-Display/cursor shift, right/left

; 2

DB
00001100b
-Display ON, cursor OFF, cursor blink off

; 3

DB
00000110b
-Increment mode, display shift off

; 4

DB
-Display/cursor home

; 5

00000010b

321

DB

00000001b

; 6

-Clear display
DB
00001000b
-Display OFF, cursor OFF, cursor blink off

; 7

LCD_inic:
;*****************************************

MOV

DPTR,#LCD_DB

MOV
A,#00d
initialization in 8-bit

; Triple

CALL LCD_inic_status_8
performed at the beginning

; mode is

MOV
A,#00d
case of slow increment of

; (in

CALL LCD_inic_status_8
supply when the power supply is on

; power

MOV

A,#00d

lcall LCD_inic_status_8

from 8-bit into

MOV

A,#1d

; Change

322

CALL

LCD_inic_status_8

MOV

A,#1d

CALL

LCD_inic_status

; 4-bit

mode

MOV
A,#3d
this point the program executes in

; As from
;4-bit

mode
CALL

LCD_inic_status

MOV

A,#6d

CALL

LCD_inic_status

MOV

A,#4d

CALL

LCD_inic_status

RET

LCD_inic_status_8:
;******************************************
PUSH

323

MOVC

A,@A+DPTR

CLR

LCD_reg_select

; RS=0 -

CLR
Write data on LCD

LCD_read_write

; R/W=0 -

Write command

MOV
B,LCD_port
bits from LCD port are memorized
ORL

B,#11110000b

ORL

A,#00001111b

ANL

A,B

; Lower 4

MOV
LCD_port,A
moved from A to LCD port

; Data is

SETB LCD_enable
to-low transition signal

; high-

generated on the LCD's EN pin

CLR

; is

LCD_enable

MOV
B,#255d
delay in case of improper reset

; Time

324

DJNZ

B,$

; during

initialization
DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$

POP B
RET

LCD_inic_status:
;
******************************************************
**********************
MOVC

A,@A+DPTR

CALL

LCD_status

RET

;
******************************************************
**********************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_status
;* DESCRIPTION: Subroutine for defining LCD status.

325

;
******************************************************
**********************

LCD_status:

PUSH

MOV

B,#255d

DJNZ

B,$

DJNZ

B,$

DJNZ

B,$

CLR
LCD_reg_select
Command is sent to LCD
CALL

LCD_port_out

SWAP A
are swapped in accumulator

DJNZ

B,$

DJNZ

B,$

DJNZ

B,$

CLR
LCD_reg_select
Command is sent to LCD
CALL

; RS=O:

; Nibles

; RS=0:

LCD_port_out
326

POP

RET

;
******************************************************
**********************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_putc
;* DESCRIPTION: Sending character to be displayed on
LCD.
;
******************************************************
**********************

LCD_putc:

PUSH

MOV

B,#255d

DJNZ

B,$

SETB LCD_reg_select
Character is sent to LCD
CALL

; RS=1:

LCD_port_out

SWAP A
are swapped in accumulator

; Nibles

327

DJNZ

B,$

SETB LCD_reg_select
Character is sent to LCD

CALL

LCD_port_out

POP

; RS=1:

RET

;
******************************************************
**********************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_port_out
;* DESCRIPTION: Sending commands or characters on LCD
display
;
******************************************************
**********************

LCD_port_out:

PUSH

ACC

PUSH

MOV
B,LCD_port
bits of LCD port are memorized

; Lower 4

328

ORL

B,#11110000b

ORL

A,#00001111b

ANL

A,B

MOV
LCD_port,A
copied from A to LCD port

; Data is

SETB LCD_enable
to-low transition signal

; high-

generated on the LCD's EN pin

CLR

LCD_enable

POP

POP

ACC

; is

RET

program

END

; End of

Binary to decimal number conversion

When using LED and LCD displays, it is often necessary to convert
numbers from binary to decimal. For example, if some register contains a
329

number in binary format that should be displayed on a three digit LED

display it is first necessary to convert it to decimal format. In other words, it
is necessary to define what should be displayed on the most right display
(units), middle display (tens) and most left display (hundreds).
The subroutine below performs conversion of one byte. Binary number is
stored in the accumulator, while digits of that number in decimal format are
stored in registers R3, R2 and accumulator (units, tens and hundreds,
respectively).
;
******************************************************
******************
;* SUBROUTINE NAME : BinDec.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Content of accumulator is converted
into three decimal digits
;
******************************************************
******************

BINDEC:
MOV
decimal number 10 in B

B,#10d

; Store

DIV
Remainder remains in B

AB

; A:B.

R3,B

; Move units

B,#10d

; Store

MOV
to register R3
MOV
decimal number 10 in B

330

DIV
Remainder remains in B

AB

; A:B.

R2,B

; Move tens

MOV
decimal number 10 in B

B,#10d

; Store

DIV
Remainder remains in B

AB

; A:B.

MOV
hundreds to accumulator

A,B

; Move

MOV
to register R2

RET

; Return to

the main program

What is always the most difficult thing to do? You have bought the
microcontroller, you have learned everything about its circuits and registers,
you have a great idea how to apply all your knowledge in practice. But the
most difficult thing to do is to start...
How to start working?
A microcontroller is a good-natured genie in the bottle and no extra
knowledge is required to use it.
In order to create a device controlled by the microcontroller, it is necessary
to provide the simplest PC, program for compiling and simple device to
transfer the code from PC to the chip itself.
Even though the whole process is quite logical, there are often some
queries, not because it is complicated, but for numerous variations. Lets
take a look.
Writing program in assembly language

331

In order to write a program for the microcontroller, a specialized program in

the Windows environment may be used. It may, but it does not have to...
When using such a software, there are numerous tools which facilitate the
operation (simulator tool comes first), which is an obvious advantage. But
there is also another ways to write a program. Basically, text is the only
thing that matters. Any program for text processing can be used for this
purpose. The point is to write all instructions in such an order they should
be executed by the microcontroller, observe the rules of assembly
language and write instructions exactly as they are defined. In other words,
you just have to follow the program idea. Thats all!
;RESET

VECTOR
CSEG

AT

JMP

XRESET

0
; Reset vector

CSEG
100H

ORL

WMCON,#PERIOD

; Define Watch-dog

ORL

WMCON,#WDTEN

; Watch-dog timer

XRESET:
period

ORG

is enabled

To enable the compiler to operate successfully, it is necessary that a

document containing this program has the extension, .asm in its name, for
example: Program asm.
332

When a specialized program (mplab) is used, this extension will be

automatically added. If any other program for text processing (Notepad) is
used then the document should be saved and renamed. For example:
Program.txt -> Program.asm. This procedure is not necessarily performed.
The document may be saved in original format while its text may be copied
to the programmer for further use.
Compiling a program
The microcontroller does not undrestand assembly language as such.
That is why it is necessary to compile the program into machine language.
It is more than simple when a specialized program (mplab) is used because
a compiler is a part of the software. Just one click on the appropriate icon
solves the problem and a new document with .hex extension appears. It is
actually the same program, only compiled into machine language which the
microcontroller perfectly understands. Such documentation is commonly
named hex code and seemingly represents a meaningless sequence of
numbers in hexadecimal number system.
:03000000020100FA1001000075813F
7590FFB29012010D80F97A1479D40
90110003278589EAF3698E8EB25B
A585FEA2569AD96E6D8FED9FAD
AF6DD00000001FF255AFED589EA
F3698E8EB25BA585FEA2569AD96
DAC59700D00000278E6D8FED9FA
DAF6DD00000001FF255AFED8FED
9FADAF6DD000F7590FFB29013278

333

E6D8FED9FADAF6DD00000001FF2
55AFED589EAF3698E8EB25BA585
FEA2569AD96DAC59D9FADAF6D
D00000001FF255AFED8FED9FADA
F6DD000F7590FFB29013278E6D82
78E6D8FED9FA589EAF3698E8EB2
5BA585FEA2569AD96DAF6DD000
00001FF2DAF6DD00000001FF255A
ADAF6DD00000001FF255AFED8FE
D9FA
In the event that other software for program writing in assembly language is
used, a special software for compiling the program must be installed and
used as follows - set up the compiler, open the document with .asm
extension and compile. The result is the same- a new document with
extension .hex. The only problem now is that it is stored in your PC.
Programming a microcontroller
In order to transfer a hex code to the microcontroller, it is necessary to
provide a cable for serial communication and a special device, called
programmer, with software. There are several ways to do it.
A large number of programs and electronic circuits having this purpose can
be found on the Internet. Do as follows: open hex code document, set a
few parameters and click the icon for compiling. After a while, a sequence
of zeros and ones will be programmed into the microcontroller through the
serial connection cable and programmer hardware. What's left is to place
334

the programmed chip into the taget device. In the event that it is necessary
to make some changes in the program, the previous procedure may be
repeated an unlimited number of times.

The end or...?

This section briefly describes the use of MPLAB and programmer software
developed by Mikroelektronika. Everything is very simple...

335

Start the program Mikroelektronika Asm51 Console. The window

appears...
...Open a new document: File -> New. Write your program or copy
text...
... Save and name your document: File -> Save As... (Document
name is limited to 8 characters!)
Finally, to compile program into HEX code select: Project -> Build
or click the 'play' icon.
If everything works properly, the computer will respond with a
short report.

336

The program is written and successfully compiled. All that's left is to dump
the program to the microcontroller. For this purpose it is necessary to have
a software that takes the written and compiled program and passes it to the
microcontroller.
Start the program 8051 Flash_setup.exe...

Program installation is performed as usually - just click Next,

Accept, Next...
...and finally - Finish!
The program has been installed and ready for use. The settings are easily
performed so that there is no need for additional explanations (the type of
the microcontroller, frequency and clock oscillator etc.).

Connect the PC and programmer via a USB cable;

Load the HEX code using command: File -> Load HEX; and
Click the 'Write' push button and wait...

337

Thats all! The microcontroller is programmed and everything is

ready for operation. If you are not satisfied, make some changes
in the program and repeat the procedure. Until when? Until you
feel satisfied...
Development systems

338

A device which in the testing program phase can simulate any

environment is called a development system. Apart from the
programmer, the power supply unit and the microcontrollers
socket, the development system contains elements for input pin
activation and output pin monitoring. The simplest version has
every pin connected to one push button and one LED as well. A
high quality version has LED displays, LCD displays, temperature
sensors and all other elements which can be supplied with the
target device. These peripherals can be connected to the MCU
via miniature jumpers. In this way, the whole program may be
tested in practice during its development stage, because the
microcontroller doesn't know or care whether its input is activated
by a push button or a sensor built in a real device.

339

7.2 Easy8051A Development System

The Easy8051A development system is a high-quality development system
used for programming 8051 compatible microcontrollers manufactured by
Atmel. In addition to chip programming, this system enables all the parts of
the program to be tested as it contains most components which are
normally built in real devices.
The Easy8051A development system consists of:

Sockets for placing microcontrollers in (14, 16, 20 and 40pin packages)

Connector for external power supply (DC 12V)
USB programmer
Power Supply Selector (external or via USB cable)
8 Mhz Quartz Crystal Oscillator
32 LEDs for output pin state indication
340

32 push buttons for input pin activation

Four 7-segment LED displays in multiplex mode
Graphic LCD display
Alphanumeric LCD display (4- or 8- bit mode)
Connector and driver for serial communication RS232
Digital thermometer DS1820
12- bit A/D converter (MCP3204)
12- bit D/A converter (MCP4921)
Reference voltage source 4.096V (MCP1541)
Multiple-pin connectors for direct access to I/O ports

The following text describes in short some circuits within this development
system. It is rather illustration of its features than complete manual.
Besides, by learning about this device, one understands that
microcontrollers and its tools are intended to everybody, not only to the
privileged.
Sockets

All microcontrollers manufactured by Atmel appear in a few

standard DIP packages. In order to enable their programming
using one device, corresponding pins (having the same name) on
sockets are connected in parallel. As a result, by being placed in
the appropriate socket, each microcontroller is automatically
properly connected. Figure on the right shows a microcontroller in
40-pin package and connection of one of its I/O pins (P1.5). As
seen, the pin can be connected to an external device (connector
341

PORT1), LED (microswitch SW2), push button or resistor through

connectors. In the last two cases, polarity of voltage is selected
using on-board jumpers.

Programmer

The purpose of the programmer is to transfer HEX code from PC

to appropriate pins and provide regular voltage levels during chip
programming as well. For this development system, the
programmer is built in it and should be connected to PC via USB

342

cable. When the process of programming is completed, pins used

for it are automatically available for other application.

Development system power supply

There is a connector on the development board enabling

commection to external power supply source (AC/DC, 8-16V).
Besides, voltage necessary for device operation can also be
343

obtained from PC via USB cable. Jumper J5 is used for power

supply selection.

8MHz Oscillator

The EASY8051A development system has built-in oscillator used

as a clock signal generator. The frequency of this oscillator is
stabilized by 8Hz quartz crystal. Besides, it is also possible to
select internal RC oscillator during chip programming,.

344

LEDs for output pin state indication

Each I/O port pin is connected to one LED which enables visual
indication of its logic state. In the event that the presence of
directly polarized LEDs and serial resistors is not acceptable in
some applications, DIP switch SW2 enables them to be
disconnected from the port.
345

Push buttons for input pin activation

346

Similar to LEDs, each I/O port pin is connected to one push

button on the development board. It enables simple activation of
input pins. Jumper J6 is used for selecting voltage polarity (+ or -)
brought to pins by pressing appropriate push button.

7-segment LED displays

347

Being often applied in the industry, four high-performance LED

displays set in multiplex mode belong to the development system.
Display segments are connected to the port P0 via resistors.
Transistor drivers used for activating individual digits are
connected to the first four port P1 pins. It enables programs using
7-segment displays to be tested with minimum use of I/O ports.
Similar to LEDs, DIP switch SW2 enables transistor drivers to be
disconnected from microcontroller pins.

348

LCD displays

349

The EASY8051A development system provides connection to

eather graphic or alphanumeric LCD display. Both types of
displays are connected by being placed into appropriate
connector and by switching position of the jumper J8. If displays
are not in use, all pins used for their operation are available for
other applications. Apart from connectors, there is also a
potentiometer for contrast regulation on the board.

Serial communication via RS232

350

In order to enable programs using serial communication to be

tested, the development system has built in standard 9-pin SUB-D
connector. The MAX232 is used as a voltage regulator.
Similar to other built-in circuits, electronics supporting serial
communication can be enabled or disabled by using jumpers J9
and J10.

351

DS1820 Digital thermometer

352

Temperature measurement is one of the most common tasks of

devices which operate in the industry. For this reason, there is a
circuit DS1820 on the EASY8051A development system which
measures temperature in the range of -55 to +125oC with
accuracy greater than 0.50. Results of measurement are
transferred via serial communication to the pins P3.3 or P2.7.
Jumper J7 is used for selecting pins for data reception. In the
event that no jumper is installed, port pins are available for other
applications.

353

12-bit A/D converter MCP3204

A built-in 12-bit AD Converter MCP3204 has four input channels

connected to on-board connectors. Data are interchanged with
the microcontroller via SPI serial communication system using
pins P1.5, P1.6, P1.7 and P3.5. If A/D converter is not in use,
these pins can be used for other applications (DIP switch SW1).
354

In order to check operation, there is a potentiometer on the

development board used as a variable voltage source. It can be
brought to the converters input pins using one of four jumpers
J12. As a special convenience, a reference voltage source
MCP1541 (4,096V) is built in. Jumper J11 is used to select
whether converter will use this voltage or 5V.

355

12-bit D/A converter MCP4921

356

Digital to analog conversion (D/A) is another operation ofen

performed by the microcontroller in practice. For this reason,
there is a special on-board chip which interchanges data with the
microcontroller via SPI communication system. It can also
generate analog voltage in 12-bit resolution on its output pin.
When it is not in use, all microcontroller pins are available for
other applications using DIP switch SW1. Similar to A/D converter,
jumper J11 is used for selecting reference voltage.

357

Connectors for direct access to I/O ports

358

In order to enable microcontroller ports to be directly connected to

additional components, each of them is connected to one onboard connector. Besides, two pins of each connector are
connected to power supply voltage while each pin can be
connected to + or - polarity of voltage via resistors (pull up or pull
down resistors). Presence and connection of these resistors are
determined by jumpers. Jumper J3 which controls port P3 is
shown in figure on the right.

359

 previous chapter | table of co

360