Chapter 1 - Competency 1:

Describe the effects such factors as the work force, strategic planning, and technology have had
on the hospitality training industry.

A Case for Training and Development

The director of training for a large convention hotel is working with local community agencies to
arrange for translators to help train housekeepers and translate the daily departmental pre-shift
meetings.

A corporate trainer is creating a series of management development on-line sessions for

management trainees joining a restaurant company at fifty different locations around the country.

A trainer for a small, exclusive country club is collecting and analyzing comments from the last
membership survey to determine training objectives.

The regional trainer for a franchise operation is planning a portion of a general managers' annual
meeting in which they will establish training goals and share regional resources. This is a new
model for the franchisees and some resistance is expected, since occupancies and average rates
are down from last year.

The director of training for a major convention center is conducting the weekly orientation session
for a group of thirty new employees.

Facilitators, change agents, enablers, organizers, planners, liaisons--these are just a few of the many
varied roles of hospitality trainers. Whether in a corporate position overseeing the training function for a
number of locations or a trainer for a single property, these professionals are the "internal organizational
consultants" that support maximizing employee performance and guest service.
What skills are involved in these various roles? How do training functions vary at different corporate,
regional, and property levels? What challenges are involved in hospitality training? How is a training issue
differentiated from an issue outside of training?
To answer these questions, let's first set the stage by describing the hospitality business of today and the
human resource opportunities presented by a changing labor market and work environment.

Hospitality Today
Competition in the hospitality industry has escalated. No longer is it acceptable to merely satisfy the
guest. Today, the key to guest loyalty and commitment is exceptional service and, when problems do
occur, quick and precise recovery approaches. Whether visiting a quick-service restaurant or a five-star,
five- diamond resort, guests bring expectations that must be met--and exceeded--for their return business
to be ensured. Lifelong learning as an essential component in this competitive marketplace is no longer a
buzzword but a business requirement.
Today's Work Force
At a time when guest demands are escalating, the hospitality work force is changing. No business can
pretend that the employee of today has the same work values and expectations of decades ago. In fact,

there is a type of unwritten, unspoken psychological contract between employers and employees of the
twenty-first century. Employers provide learning opportunities and professional development in lieu of job
security. Employees will remain with the organization as long as they are developing skills and meeting or
exceeding their expectations for skill development. Employee motivation today is therefore tied to
education, training, mentoring, and growth opportunities. According to Harold Weinstein, Chief Operating
Officer of Caliper Management, an international psychological assessment and human resources
consulting firm, Competencies are now seen as currencies. From the perspective of employees,
competencies are assets they can trade for higher salaries." In essence, many workers are saying to
companies: if you can't give me the security of working here for a lifetime, then give me the next best
thing by helping me develop portable job skills:
If the American work force has the training it wants, 12 percent will leave their current employer anyway. If they do not get the training, 41
percent will leave. If you have a company with 1,000 employees, that means employee turnover will cost the company $14.5 million per year.
[endnote 1]

In relation to the changing expectations of the American work force, corporations are increasingly bearing
the educational needs of working adults. A survey by the Society for Human Resource Management
showed that 94 percent of U.S. companies offer professional development and 85 percent offer
educational assistance as benefits. Of companies with 5,000 or more employees, 98 percent offer
professional development and 93 percent offer educational assistance. [endnote 2]
Companies that offer professional development and educational assistance thus have a powerful
recruiting tool to market to prospective employees as well as an important key to employee retention. In
an industry that has traditionally suffered from high employee turnover, hospitality companies have
increasingly realized the severe repercussions turnover has on guest service. With competition so keen in
recruiting and retaining quality employees, training is no longer optional; it is a survival tool, and training in
the hospitality organization has become a mainstream function of the human resources division.
See Photo.
Training and the Strategic Plan
One of your key roles as a trainer in a hospitality setting is to incorporate training into the organization's
strategic plan. By so doing, training becomes a vital component in the success of the company. Training
directors, whether on a corporate, regional, or property level, often have to adopt new roles in educating
other managers of the necessity of training as an on-going, continual process. This may necessitate
tracking the progress of employees and making clear connections between new skills and competencies
and the positive effect on productivity and job performance. It may also necessitate taking on a marketing
role in helping other managers see how a comprehensive strategic training plan helps in accomplishing
organizational goals.
Technological Changes
You may also have to be the change agent for an organization by preparing for future business demands.
With the challenging day-to-day demands of a fast-paced hospitality company, taking time to prepare for
the future can be met with resistance. You, however, have to be at the forefront in stressing the "shorter
shelf life" of knowledge; knowledge today will amount to only about 10 percent of what we will know in 10
years. As the U.S. economy has moved from manufacturing to service and brawn to brain, the challenge
is for employees to work smarter through technological advances to meet ever-increasing customer
demands. People who are used to being connected to the other side of the world in seconds via their PCs
or hand-held computers expect to be quickly seated at their tables when entering restaurants.
Businesspeople who book a conference in a New York City hotel expect the salesperson to have at his or
her fingertips information concerning services, availability, amenities, business center capabilities,
banquet menus, and so on for the hotel's sister property in Tokyo. CEOs who hop the globe from one
luxury hotel to another expect each hotel to remember, from stay to stay, their personal preferences when

it comes to hotel accommodations. For example, if a CEO prefers to sleep on foam pillows (because she
has allergies) and wants cognac to be waiting in her room rather than fresh flowers (those allergies
again), she expects the hotels she frequents to remember these preferences.
Today's technology allows for all of these. What will tomorrow hold? Trainers often have to be the
progressive consciousness of organizations in expanding these horizons and exploring new paradigms.
Although we may not know the specifics of all new technologies, it is known thatlifelong
learning becomes paramount in preparing for such changes. The front desk agent who masters a front
office computer program will have to learn a new one someday when the hotel upgrades its system. If
room attendants are still carrying clipboards to record their progress in cleaning guestrooms, they will be
carrying hand-held computers in the very near future.
Training professionals in hospitality organizations may also have to lead their companies in using new
training technology. The old method of telling the new employee to "follow Sue around for a few days to
get the hang of things" is not consistently effective and does not typically meet the expectations of
employees. Use of learning technologies such as CD-ROM, intranets, and the Internet is on the increase
with more interactive, experiential training options available. Selecting the appropriate technology
traverses a number of skills and knowledge competencies, including an understanding of the job tasks
involved, the company's performance standards, the adult learning process, and characteristics of the
employees who will be trained. The training director or manager, therefore, becomes an important source
of information.
See Photo.
Creative Training
Another role of training is working with the management team to synergistically develop innovative
training approaches. The variety of creative training opportunities is immense. For example:

At the Ashley House, one of the employee training and development programs involves one
employee each week staying at the hotel for a night as a guest. The employee then spends the
rest of the week observing the various hotel departments. This helps the employee see the hotel
through the eyes of a guest, and enables him or her to gain a greater appreciation for what staff
members in other departments do to get their daily work done and make the hotel a success.

In Walt Disney World's premier restaurants, dishwashers have an unusual start to their first day
on the job. Their manager takes them into the restaurant and shows them a linen-covered table,
beautifully set with fine dishes and crystal. Everything seems in place to impress the restaurant's
discriminating guests-except for one problem: the dishes, glassware, and silverware are dirty.
There are specks of food stuck to the eating utensils, there are thin streaks of leftover gravy and
other food products still stuck to the plates, and there are faint lipstick smears on the crystal
glasses. This is designed to give new dishwashers a chance to experience firsthand the negative
emotions guests would feel if they sat down to a dirty place setting. No restaurant--especially not
an elegant, high-check-average restaurant--can afford to greet guests with dirty dishes.

The Boulders Resort in Colorado asks its managers to act as "cornerstone coaches" for their
employees, training employees in the "10 Cornerstones" that tie into the mission of the resort.

The Ritz-Carlton certifies its employees as they move up the hotel's career ladder and reach
higher skill levels through in-house and other training.

As seen in these examples, training efforts and programs can differ widely from one hospitality
organization to another, depending on the mission of the organization, the staff members involved, and
the resources available. All forms of job training have a common purpose: to change the way staff
members behave. Training is designed to increase an employee's efficiency by fostering positive changes
in the trainee's knowledge, skills, and/or aptitudes.
Although training has been called the "aspirin of all industries," it is not the solution to all problems. A
proficient training professional has to help guide the organization in distinguishing between outcomes that
training efforts can affect and those results that would make training investments quite futile. For example,
poor employee morale may possibly be linked to worker frustration because of inappropriate preparation
for their jobs. Employees may be unprepared to use a new computer software program or deal with
demanding, impatient guests. These, then, would be appropriate areas on which to focus training efforts.
Low employee morale, however, may be linked to issues such as wages and benefits that are not
competitive or work equipment and supplies that are in bad repair or short supply. These problems cannot
be directly improved through training. A session on stress management for employees may indirectly help,
but the cause of the problems would remain unresolved.
Learning Organizations
Successful training requires a corporate environment that encourages lifelong learning. Moving an
organization toward a culture where training is an essential, continuous process for all hierarchical levels
is a long-term goal with strategic steps that eventually result in the organization becoming a "learning
organization." This phrase, coined by Peter Senge, describes his vision of "an organization where
people continuously expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and
expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are
continually learning how to learn together." [endnote 3]
Several hallmarks define a learning organization. The learning organization:

Thinks of learning as synonymous with working

Becomes smarter over time

Sees learning as the best source of competitive advantage

Thrives on change and anticipates and prepares for future success by increasing the staff's skills
and knowledge

Has a nurturing organizational environment that taps into the collective wisdom of the entire work
force

Has a working environment where people constantly are learning and applying their knowledge to
help the organization continuously improve

New paradigms of organizational behavior have emerged as we proceed into the twenty-first century,
reinforcing the importance of the learning organization. Some of these organizational changes include:

An emphasis on partnerships and alliances

Inspirational leadership as compared to autocratic styles

Global versus domestic markets

A competitive advantage based on time and not just cost

Technological tools that support collaboration

A diverse work force

Cross-functional work processes and work teams

Corporations striving to be identified as "employers of choice"

These organizational changes have brought about changing competencies for employees, including those
in hospitality. Employers want employees who are capable of "learning to learn." Communication,
collaboration, creative thinking, and problem-solving abilities are valued for the hospitality organization
striving to successfully compete in this changing arena. Literacy has expanded into new dimensions,
encompassing not just reading and writing but technological literacy and global business literacy. The
training function becomes a vehicle for empowering the organization to compete effectively.

Chapter 1 - Competency 2:
Explain how the principles of adult learning apply to training and development in the hospitality
industry, and describe how trainers can promote training within their organizations.

Adult Learning Principles

A hospitality organization's trainers can play an important role in educating managers and others involved
in departmental training about the unique aspects of training adults. The study of adult learning, or
adragogy, is quite extensive. Trainers in an organizational setting must transform this theoretical
knowledge into real-life applications.
For example, leading adult-learner theorist Malcolm Knowles emphasized that self-motivation is the best
stimulus for learning, with "need to know" and "readiness to learn" being critical to the success of adult
learning programs. Working with a restaurant manager deciding how best to introduce a new wine menu
to her staff, you can bring these principles to life. You may consult with her to determine how to introduce
the training, or even market the training days before conducting the sessions. Even if the training is
mandatory, a receptive, attentive group will certainly make the process more successful. You might
suggest that the manager consider introducing the concept of WIFM to the group of employees, a very
effective training technique. WIFM, you tell the restaurant manager, means, "What's in It For Me?"
Addressing this unspoken question with the employee group may maximize the "tuning in" process. With
a new wine menu could come a number of benefits to staff members. Becoming proficient with the types
of wines offered, being able to suggest food-wine pairings, and describing the wines using rich and
descriptive adjectives has paybacks. One of the most obvious to the employee, and ultimately to the
restaurant operation, is an increase in the average guest check: more in tips and more in profits. The

importance of internal factors should not be overlooked either. Enhanced self-esteem and the feeling of
accomplishment are paramount motivators in learning.
Adult learners need training that is life-, task-, or problem-centered. The practical aspects of being able to
immediately apply the new knowledge, skills, or aptitudes will reinforce the entire learning process. For
example, you may realize when developing a supervisory training process for recently promoted golf club
employees that past programs have been delivered predominately through lecture. Knowing that
participation and involvement in the training sessions are key, you redesign the format to include
interactive training techniques such as role plays, case studies, and games. In addition, you give the
trainees theopportunity to discuss applications of the supervisory principles emphasized in the
experiential learning exercises. You then arrange groups around tables for collaboration and teamwork
rather than the more formal and traditional classroom set-up. You start each session asking trainees to
reflect on the application of the new skills and ways to refine and modify them for effective use. As the
club's general manager questions why the training is taking more hours and cannot be covered in a threehour session, you may have to explain the principles of adult learning in concise, operational terms as
they relate tothis business commitment and then enumerate the expected returns.

Promoting Training
As advocates for training, training managers and directors must maximize the level of support for and
involvement in training throughout the organization, starting with senior level management. Some experts
even refer to the CEO role as more appropriately being called the CLO--Chief Learning Officer. As the
training professional, you may have to initiate and facilitate messages of support. The training manager of
a large urban convention center makes sure that other members of the management team understand the
need for the upcoming guest service training program, and that they have demonstrated the importance
of the training to their department managers by, for example, persuading the managers to attend side-byside with line-level employees.
Fun, creative marketing approaches from the training department certainly help in heightening the interest
level among employees as well as the recognition given at the end of such programs, such as photos in
the employee newsletter, Web site coverage, and official certificates of completion. The day of the first
training session, the training manager stops by the general manager's office to remind him that "kickoff"
time is in thirty minutes. A few sincere words from a general manager, president, CEO, or owner of a
business, showing an understanding of the program and the expected benefits, can definitely help
establish the appropriate learning environment for employees and reinforce the culture of the business as
a learning organization.

Chapter 1 - Competency 3:
Explain how training and development activities are affected by issues such as scheduling,
negligent training, cultural diversity, trainee disabilities, and globalization.

Training Issues of the Twenty-First Century

As the competitive environment of hospitality businesses escalates, quality issues and how a business
can gain the competitive edge through guest service become even more vital. The hospitality organization
that consistently delivers quality-based service typically understands the paramount role of continuous
employee training and development. The particular challenges that characterize the hospitality industry
must be fully understood, however, by trainers trying to deal with some of the typical obstructions to

seamless, continuous, and effective training. Most of these obstructions are not new to the industry but
are actually age-old excuses that have been present for decades.
The scheduling of training has often been problematic in hospitality companies, particularly those that
operate 7 days per week, 24 hours a day. Requiring a third-shift employee to come in during the midday
hours for a seminar interferes with sleep schedules and off-work activities. Many organizations are not
equipped to provide supplemental training in the middle of the night. Another complication of the alwaysopen environment is how to creatively schedule training time around work time to coincide with slower
hours and days. Often the scheduling complexities are intensified because of budgeted payroll dollars
and not being able to spend the money for training during off-season or slower times. Very real payroll
issues can also come into play in hiring new employees and not allowing sufficient training time before
business picks up or the high season begins.
An organization cannot forfeit training to these operational concerns. The training function of a hospitality
business should not be considered a nuisance or interference to business, but part of the team and the
business, providing an essential element to the company's success. Communication and interaction
between the organization's training professionals and all facets of the operation are vital. For example,
the hotel's training director has to be involved in discussing scheduling challenges and devising creative,
flexible approaches to address them. The training department can provide valuable feedback regarding
hiring decisions and how well new employees are learning job tasks. This feedback can be essential in
improving and fine-tuning employee selection processes. The importance of an open system of
communication and feedback in which the training department is an active and necessary player can
reinforce the organization's drive toward quality results.
Negligent Training
As with many aspects of operating a business, there are legal ramifications that reinforce the importance
of training as a consistent, effective process throughout the organization. The concept of "negligent
training" became an important issue in litigation in the 1990s, and there are no signs that it will diminish
in this new century. Negligent training is typically applied in cases where customers or guests are injured
because of the behavior of employees. The injury might involve a physical injury, an emotional one, or
even a psychological one. Plaintiffs aren't necessarily guests in all cases either; they could be an
employee, a purveyor, or a third party visiting the business. Exhibit 1 defines negligent training and how to
avoid it.

Documentation of training completed by employees is important evidence in a lawsuit. In shows that the
employer took a certain level of "reasonable care" in trying to prevent problems such as sexual
harassment, violation of safety/fire procedures, acts of discrimination, irresponsible alcohol service, or
unsanitary food preparation. Although training is no guarantee that employer liability will be completely
eliminated, the proof of on-going, thorough training has the potential to reflect positively on the employer's
situation.
Negligent training can also involve cases in which employees allege they have been harmed. The liability
related to this legal doctrine can be tied to the negligent design of a training program, the delivery of a
program, vendor selection, trainer selection, or the supervision provided during the training process. The
liability could encompass individual trainers as well as owners, managers, outside contractors, and
vendors. State laws can vary regarding employer liability in such cases, and it is important for businesses
to understand the environment of their potential legal risks. In many states, liability occurs only if it is
established that the employee was injured as a direct result of a lack of training. It is also recommended
that employers seek legal counsel, as a form of prevention, in making sure that any questionable or
potentially problematic training and development practices are evaluated.

Diversity
The changing business environment involving a more complex work force also reinforces the importance
of training. While some companies paid lip service in addressing diversity in the work force in the 1990s,
the twenty-first century brings a higher level of expectation for success. No longer can companies in the
United States predict that the work place will change; it has changed and will become increasingly more
diverse. This fact certainly affects training and development approaches in hospitality organizations.
Diversity is multi-faceted, incorporating differences in many areas, such as culture, gender, sexual
orientation, age, socioeconomic background, literacy levels, learning styles, and aptitudes. Regarding
cultural diversity, for example, in 1995 Hispanics represented 10.2 percent of the civilian labor force. By
2005, they are expected to represent 12.6 percent. Asian-Americans will move from 3.3 percent to a
projected 4.4 percent by 2005. The African-American population in the work force will increase only
slightly, from 12 percent in 1995 to 12.4 percent in 2005. Whereas Caucasians made up 73.6 percent of
those working in 1995, this percentage will drop to 69.9 percent in 2005.
More women are working than ever before and this percentage is also projected to increase. By 2005,
47.8 percent of the U.S. work force will be female as compared to 46 percent in 1994. The U.S. working
population is also getting older. The median age of the work force was 34.7 years old in 1979; in 1995,
the median age had risen to 37.8 years, and by 2005 it is projected to hit 40.5 years. The number of
workers with disabilities has also grown considerably. Exhibit 2 depicts a scenario illustrating diversity
issues within a large, urban convention hotel.

A fundamental element in delivering effective training and development programs to a diverse work force
is having the awareness, willingness, and adaptability to use different training approaches with individual
employees. Even learning styles require some adaptation in addressing the uniqueness of each
employee. Since it can be assumed that the trainees within any group will have diverse needs and
learning preferences, training development and design should include a variety of techniques and
methods. For example, training sessions should strive to reach visual, auditory, and kinesthetic
learners by incorporating visual presentations in the way of diagrams, presentation software slides, or
illustrations. Trainers can address the needs of auditory learners by recording training sessions, talking
through training content, and providing opportunities to discuss the training material with others.
Kinesthetic learners, on the other hand, need time to actually practice and be able to "touch" the material
being covered.
See Photo.

Addressing other individual needs of trainees may be more complex. For example, employees with
disabilities can encompass a broad range of physical and mental conditions. The American with
Disabilities Act (ADA) mandates equal access to company-sponsored training and development for
employees. According to the ADA, the employer has a legal obligation to accommodate employees
(incoming as well as existing) who have disabilities and require modifications for training to be accessible
and effective. Since training is a vehicle for satisfactory job performance, as well as possible career
advancement, equal access to company-sponsored training is part of equal employment opportunity.
The American Society for Training and Development recommends that organizations conduct, at least
annually, a review of training processes to evaluate accessibility and compliance with the ADA. It is
recommended that the review focus on the following:

General policies, procedures, and practices

Participant assessment tools

Management's awareness of ADA, disabilities, etc.

Trainers' awareness of ADA, disabilities, etc.

Specific curricula

Skill evaluation tools

Marketing and outreach

Training improvements

Recordkeeping

Course planning

Specialized courses for people with disabilities

Knowledge of accommodation options

Knowledge of internal and external support resources

Climate for accessibility and accommodations

Trainers should implement a prioritization system after such a review, in which training issues are
categorized as follows: issues needing immediate attention, those which should be addressed within a
longer, but stipulated time period; and issues in which the organization should continue with already
successful efforts. [endnote 4] In analyzing accommodations and accessibility of training for employees,
remember that numerous conditions legally classified as disabilities are not evident to the eye. For
example, between 10 and 15 percent of the population with normal or above-average intelligence have
some type of learning disability of a sufficient magnitude to interfere with normal life functions. It is
estimated that possibly 70 to 80 percent of employees attending training have varying degrees of a
learning disability that, although not interfering with normal life functions, makes learning under certain
circumstances difficult. Learning disabilities can manifest themselves in numerous ways, including visual,
auditory, muscular, processing, social, and attention. Specific examples include:

Visual--an inability to place concepts in a written format

Auditory--an inability to combine a variety of tones into meaningful words or to combine sounds
into spoken language

Muscular--failure to properly use fine or gross motor skills

Processing--inability to process and store information in short-term memory

Social--inability to read body language, resulting in inappropriate social conduct

Attention--attention problems can range from hyperactivity to drowsiness

The chapter appendix provides examples of how training can be adapted for employees with disabilities.
Globalization
The concept of overall diversity is also amplified as hospitality businesses expand around the globe. Not
only does an organization have a responsibility to address the training needs of domestic employees but
also the training needs of international employees. One of the most challenging aspects for businesses as
they expand outside their country of origin is adapting to new cultures and customs that directly affect
work behavior.
Although the steps in developing training processes are the same for international settings as for training
based in the United States, the steps must be "acculturized" or made user-friendly for the particular target
culture. Cultural differences can make it more difficult to accomplish training objectives. The acculturized
training may result in a very different look and approach as compared to its U.S. counterpart, but as long
as the information is delivered effectively and the training objectives are accomplished, the goal has been
achieved.
Modifying the steps involved in the training process to adapt to global differences begins with the initial
needs assessment conducted to identify training priorities. [endnote 5] Some of the cultural differences that
may be encountered at this stage include:

In some cultures, it is difficult for an employee to admit to certain needs regarding gaps or
possible weak areas of performance. In these situations, the trainee may risk "losing face,"
particularly if the admission has to be made in front of others.

The trainer may be expected to be the all-knowing expert in certain cultures and asking for input,
as with a needs assessment, may be perceived as incompetence on the trainer's part.

In cultures placing a high value on politeness, employees may try to second-guess what the
trainer wants to hear as answers to needs-assessment items.

Obtaining valid feedback can be a problem. Working with individuals in the organization who are
very familiar with the cultures represented among the employees is often helpful in addressing
cultural differences at the needs-assessment stage. Getting direct, clear feedback from
employees' managers is also helpful at this stage in countering less than complete employee
participation.

Cultural differences may come into play in setting training objectives. Some of the differences at
this stage relate to the beliefs of certain cultures that only a divine being would be able to know
what trainees will be able to do after the training sessions. In such cases, the trainer would be

considered, at best, presumptuous and possibly disrespectful. In other cases, in which employees
believe strongly in being foreordained to accomplish--or not accomplish-- something, the trainer's
role is really quite negligible. In other cultures, training objectives may be perceived as
threatening, because not achieving the objectives would be an indication of failure on the part of
the employee. In addition, the trainer may find that trainees believe the building of interpersonal
relationships is as important or even more important that the achievement of learning new skills
or knowledge.

Trainers in global settings should also be aware of governmental standards and testing
requirements that could affect training activities. The regulations of some governments favor
formal credentials and, in such locations, employees tend to place a priority on such outcomes.

The design of the training curriculum, on a global basis, should address multiple learning styles
and preferences. Whereas Americans and Northern Europeans tend to prefer inductive-task or
problem-centered learning approaches, this is not the preference in other parts of the world. A
predominant preference in some other cultures is deductive and topic-centered reasoning.
Therefore, trainees may have difficulty in generalizing from specifics and engaging in experientialbased learning. A more topic centered approach tends to be more appropriate for deductive
learning.

Timing is a key issue when designing training programs, particularly those delivered to different or
multiple cultures. Sufficient time should be allowed for discussion of the material as well as for
socializing and building relationships--aspects that tend to be very important in some cultures.
More time will be required for bilingual programs as well as for certain team activities. Cultures
that place a high priority on harmony and agreement may take considerably longer with group
activities because of the need to reach a consensus.

Trainers should be particularly aware of cultural differences in selecting training methodologies.

Self-directed learning approaches for some cultures can be problematic. Participants from Asian
and Arab cultures, for example, prefer to learn by rote, including observation of the instructor,
versus learning-by- doing approaches. Trainer-centered methods tend to be more appropriate for
cultures that consider the role of teacher to be one of the all-knowing expert. More egalitarian
cultures more readily accept the participative, experiential techniques. In cultures where
individuality is minimized, role-playing or other techniques involving personal risk-taking in which
an employee can tand out are not good fits. Situations involving a reversal of roles, such as the
employee role-playing the manager, tend to be even more inappropriate. Games may present
problems as a training method in some cultures. A number of Asian countries make very definite
distinctions between game-playing and learning, and mixing the two creates cultural
contradictions.

The recommended participative training techniques for cultures in which experiential training may
not be preferred include small-group discussions and case studies. In such cultures, groupings of
employees should include those of similar status and age. It is recommended that representatives
of these groups report their conclusions back to the group as a whole. In this way, the individuality
of the work is minimized and team effort is shown. It is noted, however, that in Arab countries use
of case studies may be ineffective because of cultural norms encouraging only comments from
the leader or manager of a group.

Even in European countries, cultural differences in training preferences exist. For example,
Germans prefer orderly, systematic, and detailed approaches. In France, the preference is toward

more active, creative activities. While a case study may be very effective in Germany,
brainstorming may be a more fitting approach in France.

One of the risks of using training materials from the United States in other countries is giving the
impression that the American way is the only or best way. Trainers should review and evaluate all
training materials and techniques to ensure they maximize benefits for the particular culture
involved.

Chapter 1 - Competency 4:
Identify the duties and responsibilities of training positions at the department, property, and
regional/ corporate levels.

Career Options in Hospitality Training

There are numerous and varied career opportunities in the hospitality training profession. Although it
would be difficult to compile a comprehensive list of all the hats that hospitality trainers wear, it is possible
to briefly describe some of the main areas, along with key selection criteria. Exhibit 3 shows median
compensation levels for three levels of trainers.
We begin with the department level and progress to the corporate-level training professional and certain
specialized fields. Keep in mind, though, that for many hospitality trainers, training is only one aspect of
their job. They can, therefore, be found in all departments, at all levels, and in all types of hospitality
organizations.
Department-Level Trainers
The trainer on the department level typically holds another position in addition to having training
responsibilities for new employees. Departmental trainers may be hourly, non-supervisory employees,
hourly supervisors, or department managers. The experience that an individual gains in training on the
departmental level can be pivotal in numerous ways: the departmental trainer has a major effect on the
new employee's success, morale, and impressions of the property overall. Not only is the trainer
delivering technical job-skill information but also important knowledge relating to the socialization process
of the organization. For example, if lateral service is said to be part of the mission of the property but the
departmental trainer does not display a team spirit or willingness to help fellow employees throughout the
training process, the new employee could easily surmise that a collegial working relationship, in reality, is
not important. If, on the other hand, the trainer consistently models his or her willingness to help other
employees and shows a service-orientation to fellow workers, the new employee will quickly gain an
understanding of this important aspect. Another pivotal aspect for the department trainer is to prepare for
personal career opportunities for other positions in the training profession. Many property and regional
trainers began their career as a department trainer who excelled in teaching skills and transferring
learning.
A training director or manager should base the selection of department trainers on designated criteria, not
just on the person who is available, has the most seniority, or is just willing to do the job. While the
departmental trainers should have an excellent working knowledge of job skills and procedures, there are
cases where outstanding employees are not the best trainers because they lack the interest, flexibility,
patience, or other important characteristics needed for effective training. Listed below are the qualities of
effective trainers, reinforcing the importance of proper selection on the departmental level.
Departmental trainers should:

Know and be able to perform the job skills and procedures

Understand the mission of the company and reflect the organizational culture in their actions and
words

Understand the qualities of effective employees and model/train those qualities

Have a personal commitment to excellence in all areas of performance

Earn the respect of trainees and other employees

Show respect for other individuals and enjoy working with different types of people

Have excellent communication skills

Be flexible

Display a consistently positive attitude

Have the ability to make decisions and solve routine problems

Show enthusiasm for their job, the department, and the organization

Have self-confidence

Display that they enjoy training

Be able to encourage trainees to think about how the training applies to their jobs

Have the ability to persuade trainees to set goals for themselves in training

Be accessible and open and invite trainees, through their words and actions, to ask questions

Encourage trainees to find better ways of doing job tasks

Have excellent active listening skills

Understand and display the importance of recognizing and praising even the smallest successes
of trainees

Encourage and support trainees

Share their experiences and even their mistakes with the trainees

Have a good sense of humor and use it as a training tool

Spend the time necessary to properly train employees

Reward employees for training achievements

Although departmental trainers may be involved in ongoing training for more experienced employees, this
level of training is typically handled by other people, such as the department manager, a property-level
trainer, or outside sources.
Property-Level Trainers
Many large hospitality organizations have unit- or property-level trainers to coordinate and facilitate
training activities throughout the hotel, restaurant, club, or venue. Property trainers, such as directors of
training or training managers, should have most of the qualifications of the department-level trainers
because they at times do personally conduct some training programs. They also work in establishing a
consistent training process throughout the particular unit or property. Many training managers and
directors enter these jobs from operations or such support areas as human resources, so their working
knowledge of various job positions and the organization overall is extensive. If the training manager or
director was newly hired into the organization in that role, it is strongly recommended that he or she
receive some type of indoctrination to job positions, specific responsibilities and competencies involved
in those jobs, operational processes and, of course, the organization's mission, goals, and managerial
philosophy. This foundation will be vital in formulating a strategic training plan to integrate with the
company's overall strategic business plan. This individual should have a broad understanding of the
property or unit to comprehend the multi-dimensionality of planning and coordinating based on training
needs in different positions departments, organizational levels, and with different shifts of
employees. Exhibit 4 provides a sample job description for a property trainer.

Competencies that are important for this position include:

[endnote 6]

Industry awareness. Understanding not only the organization but the industry as a whole, as well
as industries from which to learn and benchmark training and development activities.

Leadership skills. Influencing others positively to achieve desired work results.

Interpersonal relationship skills. Working with others effectively requires an awareness and
understanding of multicultural perspectives and diversity issues.

Technological awareness and understanding. Understanding different types of software and

hardware, and their appropriate application with varied target audiences, is a skill growing in
importance.

Problem-solving skills. Detecting performance gaps and working with others to minimize and
avoid these gaps between actual and ideal performance in the present and future.

Systems thinking and understanding. Understanding the many dimensions of the organization
and applying that information to improve human performance through training and development
processes.

Performance understanding. Understanding standards of performance, including the

differentiation between activities and results, implications, outcomes, and consequences.

Knowledge of appropriate interventions. Able to improve employee performance by using those

interventions that fit best with certain employee characteristics and learning styles.

Business understanding. A good overall understanding of business functions, including what

affects profitability and key business.

Organization understanding. Understanding the dynamic aspects of organizational development

and also having a clear awareness of how the training manager or director's organization
operates. This includes possessing knowledge of such issues as power and authority in decisionmaking, formal and informal organization leaders, and the culture of the company--including
particular characteristics of the location involved, formal mission, and level of operational
consistency in supporting the mission, as well as knowing the short-term and long-term goals of
the organization.

Negotiation/contracting skills. Particularly relevant in arranging, overseeing, and evaluating

vendors or outsourced training and development activities.

Buy-in/advocacy skills. The ability to build ownership and support for ongoing continual
improvement through training and development processes.

Coping skills. The ability to deal with ambiguity, changing work environments, the need for
flexibility, and stress management.

Ability to see the "big picture." Being able to see the organization as a whole now and what is
envisioned in the future.

Consulting skills. Able to serve as an "internal consultant" having an understanding of

organizational needs, desired outcomes, and ways that the results can be achieved efficiently
and effectively for the stakeholders involved.

Regional and Corporate Trainers

Training professionals may also be found on the regional and corporate levels, particularly for the major
hotel chains, restaurant chains, and other major food service companies, large amusement and theme
park operations, casinos, and airline and cruise ship companies.
Similar competencies to those of the property-level training professional are needed on the regional and
corporate levels but involving an even wider, more diverse, and complex perspective. For example, a
corporate training director needs to have the big picture of the entire company versus that of just one
location. This broad perspective often includes domestic and international properties, existing and
upcoming locations, union and non-union operations, and properties having varying levels of profitability

and performance results. The regional director, on a smaller scale, would likewise have more than one
property or location involved in his or her territory.
Often, particularly on the corporate level, the training professional oversees rograms and processes that
must be standardized or kept consistent in training from location to location. This person may also be in
the decision-making role of determining what outsourcing will be done and whether supplemental training
activities will be conducted by consultants and other vendors external to the organization. This person
also may be instrumental in evaluating training activities on the property level resulting in a tie to some
type of bonus or reward system. In leading hospitality companies, the corporate training professional is
often on the vice president or comparable level.
Hospitality training professionals on the property, regional, and corporate levels reflect changes in a
progressive and newer world of training. Alison Rossett, professor of education technology at San Diego
State University, described the changing world of training in this way:
No longer defined primarily as a stand-up instructor in a classroom, the training and development professional becomes responsible for
assessing, designing, developing, and brokering larger performance systems that often include training but are by no means limited to it.
[endnote 7]

In all of the training positions described, from departmental trainer to corporate vice president of training,
an essential component of job effectiveness is to consistently be an advocate for employee training and
development. This advocacy role, of course, is more predominant as one goes higher in the organization.
The role, while relying on strong communication, negotiation, and marketing skills, is based mostly on the
ability to demonstrate how training outcomes positively affect the organization and ultimately relate,
directly or indirectly, to greater profitability.
Other Training Professionals
There are also many specialized training roles in hospitality. Another training position, more often found in
larger hospitality organizations on the corporate level, is that of the instructional systems designer. This
position involves developing and designing learning materials and events. Corporations sometimes feel
that customized training materials and programs better reflect their particular culture and address more
directly the company's organizational needs. The position of instructional systems designer requires a
number of competencies including:

A foundation in learning theory, including adult learning principles

Content expertise, including a thorough working knowledge of job skills and performance
expectations for varied positions

Effective communication skills

Creativity

A comprehensive knowledge of and skills in using a variety of instructional methods

The ability to match the instructional methods that best fit the training objectives with the
employees that will be involved

Skills in using different types of instructional media, along with the ability to determine the type of
instructional media that best fits training objectives and the targeted employee audiences

Skills in assessing the extent to which learning objectives are met, and skills in modifying training
programs if learning objectives are not met

The Web-based media developer is a growing training specialization as more companies are using online training options. Distance learning coordinators/ directors work with the developers in delivering this
training option to employees. The roles of the technical trainer and e-trainer are projected to grow in
upcoming years, as more companies use on-line training opportunities. Trainers will increasingly look to
technology as they are challenged with creating faster and cheaper training solutions.
Another growing area in hospitality training is the role of the consultant. As hospitality organizations
struggle with the most economic and cost-effective ways of meeting their training needs, they often turn to
outside consultants to perform many training functions. These consultants may help with needs
assessments, evaluations, training design, instructional delivery, or material development. Many of these
consultants have hospitality backgrounds and specialize in meeting the specific needs of this high
service, fast-paced industry.

Chapter 2 - Competency 1:
Explain how training is an investment in the organization.

Training and Development as an Investment

There is a saying that "every organization pays for training whether it has a program or not." An
organization can recognize the value of training by providing a systematic approach to training delivery,
thereby reaping its benefits. Or it can choose to ignore training and "pay" for training as its guests receive
poor service, poor products, or poor quality, and eventually choose to go elsewhere.
Training has been hard hit as a department in the past few decades. In many cases, training departments
were eliminated, victims of corporate downsizing. In other cases, training departments were outsourced or
re-engineered into departmental functions. Even today, many organizations fail to include training as a
line item in their operational budgets--especially in an environment of corporate buyouts and takeovers
where an organization is eager to make itself look as strong on paper as possible.
Survival of many training and development departments hinges on their ability to definitively calculate the
value of training. Most leaders of hospitality organizations are bottom line oriented. Unless a good or
service contributes directly to the bottom line, it is often eliminated--and this includes the training function.
A strong incentive exists to create a single method of measuring the cost of training. However, since a
single way to conduct training doesn't exist, an accurate single formula cannot be created to determine its
cost. The analysis of training and development costs is complex and dynamic.
Peter Drucker has stated the "only meaningful economic resource" is knowledge. An organization's
training and development department disseminates appropriate knowledge to its employees. Getting the
job done right the first time is always cheaper than doing it over. The challenge you have is to put a dollar
amount on how much cheaper it is.
It is estimated that $55 billion or more is spent on training in the United States each year. But the training
department, like the marketing and research functions in an organization, has a difficult time showing an

immediate effect on the bottom line. Historically, U.S. organizations have tended to reduce their training
budgets in response to falling profits. In numerous other countries, owever, the custom is to increase
training and development budgets when profits begin to fall. The premise is that well-trained employees
will help the organization thrive and ultimately produce increased profits.
Numerous studies have shown that training affects the overall financial well- being of the organization,
that monies invested in training will have a positive effect on the organization, ultimately increasing
profitability. Likewise, when the training needs of an operation are not adequately funded, it will have a
negative effect on the bottom line.

Why Is Training an Investment?

The hospitality industry's employment base is the largest of any industry in the private sector in the United
States. It surpasses the agriculture sector and the auto, electronics, steel, and textile industries combined
in number of people employed.[endnote1] National unemployment continues to remain low, with less than 4
percent of the working population unemployed in 2000 climbing slightly to 4.8 percent in 2001. [endnote 2] As
a result, the managers of hospitality operations find hiring sufficient staff a constant challenge, even when
the positions available require little or no prior experience.
Some of the many factors contributing to the labor shortage in the hospitality industry are:

Demographics

Competition from better paying industries

Low perception of service culture

Perceived lack of education needed

Perceived lack of advancement opportunities

So what does the labor shortage mean for your training department? The current environment is one of
fierce competition for employees. Likewise, the environment is one of fierce competition for guests.
Hospitality thrives on its serviceability--people serving other people. It is vital to the long-term success of a
hospitality business to have highly trained employees.
The hospitality manager's job requires that he or she do many things at once. An effective training and
development department can enhance the manager's productivity by helping to provide a staff that is well
trained. Moreover, your training and development of the manager should be ongoing to demonstrate
support of a learning atmosphere.
Training and development should be strategic, long-term, goal-oriented, supportive of a better way of
learning, conducive to workplace innovation, and focused on guest service thinking and behavior.
Training is an investment in people. Many business segments have long since developed industry-wide
return-on-investment measurements. The hospitality industry, as a whole, is just beginning to recognize
the value of benchmarking training and its return on investment. Historically, hospitality managers have
emphasized measuring financial assets, food costs, and labor costs. But the broader focus of today's
management includes accounting of human assets and their value in a high-service industry.

Return on Individual: The Other ROI, Human Capital

Hospitality is a people business, yet while we place dollar values on buildings, land, food, inventories, and
equipment, we have difficulty assigning a dollar value to our human capital. Human capital has often
been called the "soft" side of the business. Most organizations do not measure their human capital, as
many CEOs and industry leaders continue to believe it cannot be expressed in dollars.
You must show that training has a positive return on investment for the organization, that training does
improve the bottom line of a company. However, there are many valuable types of training that you cannot
easily measure in dollars.
Employee performance improves when companies invest in systematic training programs. In 1996, the
United Nations Human Development Report stated "the key to national economic growth is investment in
education." The United Nations found that by increasing employee education by just one grade level, the
gross domestic product increased by nine percent.[endnote 3] While these advances are measured on a
national scale, similar advances can be realized in your organization.
Gary Becker, author of Human Capital, created "the human capital theory." [endnote 4] This theory suggests
that employees, businesses, and society receive a direct economic benefit from investment in people. He
draws an analogy between the personal education of an industry CEO and the collective knowledge of a
company's employees. Clearly the CEO has gained economically and personally by his or her personal
education. Becker estimates that the return on investment each CEO has gained from his or her personal
education is between 12.5 percent and 25 percent.
In like manner, if an organization can harness the sum total of its employees' skills, training, education,
experience, life skills, knowledge, and intuition, then the aggregate output translates into real and
measurable value to the organization. Developing the human capital in your organization will increase its
ability to adapt to environmental changes and become a learning organization.
Edward Gordon, in his book Skill Wars, cites an example of an innovative company that devised a way to
measure human capital and use the measurement to demonstrate its effect on reduced turnover,
increased retention, the corporate culture, and bottom-line earnings:
Scandia A F S, a Scandinavian-based insurance company, is a recognized leader in measuring the value
of human resource contributions. Leif Edvinsson and Michael S. Malone in Intellectual Capital (Harper
Business, 1997) discussed how in May 1995 Scandia released the first public human capital annual
report, as a supplement to their financial report. It included how levels of employees' education and
training influenced turnover and retention, the corporate culture, and bottom-line earnings.
Edvinsson and Malone wrote, "The rise of Intellectual Capital is inevitable given the irresistible historical
and technological forces, not to mention the investment flows that are sweeping across the modern world
and driving us toward a knowledge economy." [endnote 5]
There is a familiar saying: "If you want something to improve, you measure it." By measuring human
capital, you can better validate training's return on investment as performance improves. As a trainer, you
will need to constantly substantiate the value of training to upper management.
The challenge for you is to develop a systematic approach to quantifying human capital. Human capital
worksheets designed by experts in the field to guide this process are available on the market. The
concept is to quantify increases in productivity or profits that have resulted from the trainee's improved
performance. You must ask, "What does this employee do better since he or she has completed the
training?" Measuring the benefits of the training and extrapolating it throughout the organization will
confirm training's ROI in human capital. See Photo

Absenteeism
Absenteeism is a symptom of larger operational problems. Absenteeism is frequently due to:

Management's insensitivity

Management's lack of response to the critical needs of employees

Low morale, prompting lack of motivation

Low morale, causing increased levels of stress

Low morale, causing increased accidents and illness

Appropriate training can assist in reducing absenteeism. During orientation, all employees should learn
the importance of their jobs to the whole operation. When employees see themselves as part of a team,
their self-worth is enhanced and their desire to be on the job grows.
Employees should be shown that they are missed when they are absent. If an individual realizes his or
her absence will affect the team, that person is less likely to miss work. However, excessive regular
absenteeism should lead to dismissal. The longer an abusive employee is allowed to stay, the greater
damage he or she does to the team. Any employee who chooses to not develop skills, chooses to not
develop a team attitude, or is careless about coming to work should not be allowed to continue
employment.
Turnover
Turnover can be defined as the entire cycle of losing employees and the process of replacing them. It
includes an accounting of each time a position is vacated, either by the employee quitting or being
otherwise terminated; and measures the relationships of employees to an organization as they leave,
regardless of reason. See Photo
The term turnover is defined by Price as "crude turnover rate... the ratio of the number of organizational
members who have left during the period being considered divided by the average number of people in
that organization during the period."[endnote 6]
The hospitality industry's reported national annual turnover rates range from 154 percent [endnote 7] to 240
percent [endnote 8], more than 10 to 20 times that of U.S. businesses in general. [endnote 9] Numerous
studies have been conducted on employee turnover within the industry segments. The annual turnover
rates by industry segment according to these sources are:

Hotels

60 to 240 percent

Restaurants

100 to 300 percent

Clubs
Retail grocery

75 percent
35 percent

 All U.S. businesses

12 percent

Usually the first and second highest-rated reasons for turnover center on the organization's leadership,
specifically citing communication and quality of supervision or management. Quality of supervision and
communication are critical attributes of any hierarchical structure and can be improved with effective
training. Employees have a strong need to be informed. Businesses with strong communication systems
enjoy lower staff turnover.
Other reasons for high turnover point directly to employee training, specifically lack of clear-cut
responsibility and absence of direction for the employee and the company. Employee training is the most
useful tool to fill these voids. On-the-job knowledge is a critical variable in building employee comfort,
performance, satisfaction, and ultimately the desire to stay with the company.
Training reduces turnover by providing employees with:

Increased job satisfaction

Involvement in corporate culture

Involvement in decision making

Information about their jobs and the organization

Organizational stability

Predictable work environments

There are many different ways to measure the costs of turnover. Exhibit 1 explains how to calculate your
property's turnover rate by using employer W-2 forms. The most basic method of calculating turnover cost
is by measuring only those costs associated with filling the vacated position. In this scenario, turnover
costs per employee are about $267.39.[endnote 10] Other studies, such as that of the National Restaurant
Association, include such intangibles as lost productivity, lost sales, and management's time. Using these
measures, the estimated turnover costs of an hourly hospitality employee are $3,000 to $10, 000 [endnote
11] each or an average of $6,500. The American Hotel & Lodging Foundation estimates turnover costs per
manager to be $50,000. Exhibit 2 can help you calculate your turnover costs for the most recent year.
See Photo
Turnover costs are commonly separated into three categories: separation costs, replacement costs,
and training costs. Separation costs include those of maintaining files, conducting exit interviews,
separation pay, unemployment taxes, and the termination of benefits. Replacement costs include those
incurred while conducting searches, interviews, and background checks, buying new uniforms, covering
waste due to productivity loss, and money spent on the interviewing process. Training costs include those
monies spent on orientation, printed materials, trainer wages, and those monies lost due to reduced
productivity of the trainee and the trainer.
Using the relatively low annual turnover rate of 154 percent, coupled with the conservative turnover costs
of $267.39, the turnover costs for the hospitality industry employment base exceed $3.7 billion. If industry
growth projections are correct, these costs will continue to rise dramatically unless action is taken to
reverse this trend and reduce turnover. Exhibit 3 gives an example of how turnover can affect the financial
performances of a single property.

Traditionally, each operation has certain positions that turn over more frequently than others. Although we
calculate turnover for the department or company as a whole, it is important to identify positions where
turnover is higher than average. Positions that typically turn over at a higher rate are bus person, room
attendant, dishwasher, valet, and wait staff. Depending on the needs of your operation, you may choose
to focus specific training on individuals in those positions.
Decide at what point money is better spent on higher wages for these positions or on repeated orientation
and training of new hires as they pass through. For example, would it be better for the organization to
upgrade the dishwasher position, which pays $6.50 an hour, yet turns over every two to three months, to
a $8- to $10-an-hour position, where an individual may stay employed for years?
Much training literature states that increased training promotes a high degree of job satisfaction, which in
turn leads to a higher retentionrate. It also logically follows that lower turnover of staff is strongly
correlated to high guest returns and investor interest. Managers who train their staffs enjoy a lower
turnover, and in turn, the satisfied employee is caring for guests professionally, so they want to return.
Recruitment
The U.S. Census Bureau has projected the hospitality industry will need 20 million more workers than it
currently has by the year 2006. Our industry enjoys the unique position of having the highest growth rate
of all industries in this decade.
This brings with it the need for human resource professionals or operational unit managers to be trained
to hire more effectively. The industry has survived for years being a tough work environment because
there was an abundance of applicants. Now the paradigm has shifted. There are no longer 10 to 20 or
100 applicants for each position. It is no longer uncommon to see permanent "Help Wanted" signs in front
of fast food establishments.
As the trainer, you can contribute to the recruitment process by encouraging managers to hire people who
are likely to succeed in the position. You can examine each position in your company and provide the
manager with a list of the skills, knowledge, experience, and language needed to fulfill the position
requirements. By working closely with the hiring managers, you can develop training that promotes job
satisfaction. This team approach will lead to better retention and improved recruitment results.
Recruiting is an expensive process. It is highly labor intensive, and can consume 30 percent to 50 percent
of a manager's day.
Specific costs of recruitment are:

Advertising

Management's time in selection

Application forms

Testing

Interviewing

Reference checks

Management's time in hiring decisions

Maintaining legal advice

Management's time working the floor filling in

Human resource knowledge

Record keeping

Managers need to be trained in diversity issues to be better equipped for developing employees.
Managers who are skilled in cultural diversity issues can help your property become the workplace of
choice among non-traditional labor groups.
The structurally unemployed segment of the population frequently must overcome numerous obstacles to
maintain employment. Common among these are: transportation, childcare, language, health, and life
skills. A well-trained manager can assist or guide the employees more effectively in overcoming these
obstacles.
The segments of the population which have been labeled Generation X and Generation Y represent the
employee age profile we often seek. Both of these segments have grown up in the information age. They
expect to become knowledgeable, and they're willing to seek out information. Effective training and
development is especially useful with these segments of the population. Not only do they expect to be
trained, they will leave if training is not available.

Chapter 2 - Competency 2:
Differentiate the budgeting process for training in today's organizations from the past.

Budgeting Training
As with other operational departments, training and development should have its own budget. Support of
training at the corporate level, or top management level, will ensure that appropriate time and resources
are allocated to training. If the upper tier of the hierarchy does not value training, it will certainly suffer.
Organizations differ in training budgets. Most companies choose to report training as a percentage of
payroll expenses; others choose to allocate training dollars as a percent of expected revenue. Many
Fortune 500 companies invest five percent to ten percent of their payroll expenditures in training.
However three percent to four percent is standard.
A study conducted on training budgets of mid-sized hotels revealed less than standard amounts were
designated for training. Of those reporting:
Less the 0.50% of payroll
0.51-0.99%
1.0-1.50%
Greater than 1.5%
Unknown

33% of respondents
16%
12%
3%
36% [endnote 12]

Within the typical training department, several different methods are used for allocating dollars. The first is
by dividing the funds among salaries, facilities, and other expenses. A second method allocates training
dollars per stage of the training cycle. These funds are commonly divided between analysis, design,
development, implementation, and evaluation. A variation of these methods adds a capital expenses
category that includes the training building or classroom, equipment, computers, and classroom furniture.
Although the actual percent of dollars will vary depending on the organization, several examples lead to
the approximate breakouts of the training budget shown in Exhibit 4.
There are distinct times when the training and development budget should be increased:

During the first six months of operation

At the introduction of new product (including a new menu item, a new room type, a new service)

At the introduction of a new system

During a period of increased growth resulting in increased hiring

When implementing management development programs

Regardless of how your company itemizes its training dollars, make sure the amounts are closely aligned
with the organization's goals and objectives for the year. For example, if your company plans to introduce
a new point-of-sale system, your training dollars should be closely aligned with the need for training on
this new system. This same relationship should occur if the company plans to unveil a new service or
plans a major promotion of an already existing product.
During economic crises, training budgets are among the first to be cut. Often, this only raises expenses
elsewhere. Learn how to track your training budget effectively. Articulate the effect of training on the
organization, and be able to justify new training initiatives to upper management. Explore how training can
help a property weather crises and come through them more quickly and profitably.
An ideal training budget facilitates measurement and comparisons. You should be measuring the results
of your training not only at the end of a session, but periodically after the employees have returned to
work. Performance problems rarely go away by themselves. You can work with the operations manager to
develop appropriate training intervention for performance problems employees experience. By quantifying
the cost of a particular problem, you are better able to justify training dollars to resolve the problem.
Historical Perspective
Historically, training departments have failed to promote themselves or their value to the overall operation.
Training and development personnel play multiple roles: administrator, consultant, designer, instructor,
and others. At any given time, trainers may be occupied with managing their own departments, aiding
other departments in identifying performance problems, seeking outside industry opinions, designing
solutions to performance problems, and then bringing training to life by facilitating learning.
Often, training and development goals were so broad, they were impossible to quantify. Erroneously,
training was often held responsible for all employee actions as they aligned, or did not align, with
performance goals. Even the best training department can only assist in modeling employee actions. How
the employee responds to instruction is primarily the responsibility of the employee and his or her

immediate supervisor. It was believed that if service was good, the training must have been good. If the
kitchen was in trouble, the trainer was told to adjust the culinary training program.
Because training does not happen in a vacuum, there are countless operational variables that affect the
success of training. It is very difficult to measure the effectiveness of training independent of other
variables such as education, experience, and work environment.
Another historical issue that the hospitality industry struggled with was choosing the right person to
conduct the training. When a property was in a rush to get people into positions--especially after an
opening or at a seasonal property--the tendency was to grab the highest performer and pair that person
with a new hire. The high performer did not always have training skills, and the resulting training suffered.
Why Is It Different Today?
Today, training is being held more accountable financially. Trainers must justify their mere existence.
Corporate downsizing, re-engineering, and a slowing economy have directed a greater focus on profit.
There is still considerable debate whether training increases stakeholder value to an organization.
Fortunately, more training departments today are being grouped in top management, answering directly to
district managers, general managers, or the CEO. When training is aligned with the top management,
there are many benefits. You are better positioned to make decisions among competing departments. You
are also more likely to get the funding needed to accomplish the operation's goals and objectives.
Organizing the training function so that the training manager answers directly to the district manager,
general manager, or CEO introduces a proactive approach to training where the training manager is
involved in the strategic planning and setting of priorities for the organization. This naturally allows the
training manager to develop training in line with the organization's goals. Alignment with top management
also means an increase in accountability and greater scrutiny from the CEO.
One approach to formulating a training budget is seen in the zero-based budgeting concept. In this
case, the training budget is built from the front line up each year. The operational manager submits
training requests and training activities on a per-employee basis for each employee in the operation. The
budget is developed by assessing the costs of the employee's stated training needs. This concept
ensures all employees receive some training each year.
In the past, it was common for a larger percentage of the training budget to be earmarked for
management development. This new budgeting method requires you to justify each expense each year.
Sharing Costs with Others
No training department--or hospitality organization--has unlimited resources. Look for occasions where
you can share training costs with others. For example, in the introduction of a specific product, look to
partner with the vendor of that product to train your employees. The equipment supplier or manufacturer
may assist with the actual training or provide resources with which to conduct the training.
Another option of sharing costs is charge-back, wherein the training department charges the user
department for its services. For example, when you conduct needs analyses and evaluations of
performance in specific departments, that department can share in the costs you incur, as you will be
providing performance data to that department manager.
There will be times when there is not enough money to fully fund all training initiatives. While the most
effective way to deliver training is through thorough analysis, design, development, implementation, and

evaluation, sometimes this is a luxury. You may have to cut certain elements even though it makes the
training less effective. In such cases, there are options.
One option, used successfully by many trainers, is the development of a competency-based
curriculum. By working with experts, usually longer-term employees in the position, you can identify the
competencies needed to accomplish the job tasks. Using these competencies, you can create job aids for
delivery of the training. Such job aids as checklists, signs, decision trees, and problem- solving guides
can be developed to better train current and future employees.
The Training Proposal
Formal training proposals to upper management are essential to winning funding and support for your
initiatives. For training to be taken seriously, these proposals should have a business format and speak
the language of the managers within your organization. The proposal should be a formal written report.
A training proposal should be:

Clear

Concise

Professional

Organized

Objective

Complete

You need to develop your business writing style so that you can:

State the existing problem

Determine the costs of the existing problem

State a recommendation

Explain your decision

Support your decision

Provide documentation with such data as

Cost-benefit analysis

Costing worksheets

Benefits worksheets

Estimate the procedure

List any intangibles that were not able to be adequately quantified

State the expected outcomes of training

Re-state the benefits for the operation or ROI from the training

Your training proposal should be concise. It states the who, what, when, how, and cost of your training
plan. When appropriate, you may choose to include the strategy you propose to accomplish the plan. To
seek approval of upper management, you need to speak their language: direct and bottom-line oriented.
The training proposal is one of your best tools to report optimum utilization of resources and better relate
outcomes of training to the bottom line. You must account for all aspects of the training program:

Planning

Development

Design

Method selection

Program direction

Analysis

Measurement

Evaluation

Maintenance

Make sure that you link all training programs to the organizational goals of your company. Your training
proposal will receive a more positive review if you can directly link the training outcomes to a
predetermined organizational objective.

Chapter 2 - Competency 3:
Identify the variables to consider when calculating the costs of training and the costs of not
training.

Costs of Training
To determine whether your training will have an adequate return on investment, you must accurately
calculate the costs of training. Costs of training range from the dollars paid to purchase materials to the
labor cost of trainees attending sessions to the opportunity cost of providing training on one subject area
to the loss or delay of another.
In this section of the chapter, we discuss costing practices, true costs, resources needed to determine
costs, and intangible costs.
Costing Practices
Calculating the true costs of training is a complex process. Costs must be identified carefully, as your
proposal will not be taken seriously if others perceive it to be vague or inaccurate. Although some trainers
will encourage the use of a standard percentage for estimating training costs, there must be data to
support that percentage. Each operation, as well as each training session, will have varying costs.
Although use of a standard percentage allows for quick and easy cost estimates, without specific
supporting data your training proposal will lack definition and be subject to challenge.
There are some standard practices you should use in costing a training project. They are:

Use a systematic approach.

Consider the entire life of the project.

Start accumulating costs early.

Know when to estimate a cost.

Typically, it is much easier to quantify technical training than most managerial training. Technical training
can be tied to specific skills with easy-to-identify equipment and training methods. Your costing strategy
needs to be well defined, yet flexible enough to be able to adjust as real costs change over the life of the
training program.
In instances where you need to estimate costs, your calculations will be more accurate if you seek several
bids or quotes from numerous suppliers. By beginning the estimation of costs in the early phase of a
project, you're less likely to omit minute details that can add considerably to the total cost of a program.
You will also need to estimate costs when you are developing a totally new program or amending or
adding a new system to the organization.
It is appropriate to ask suppliers questions related to the type of training that will be needed with the
installation of a new system. Such questions should be:

What type of training will be required to successfully use the new system?

What skill level of employee will be involved in the training?

Who will conduct the training? Is it you or is it the supplier?

Will there be a need to employ a designated trainer long-term?

Collecting the Data. As you begin to collect costs for training, you'll find that there is a massive amount
of information. You should maintain all original quotes, estimates, and invoices to show the exact source
and date to justify your figures. The data can also function as historical data when costing future
programs. To increase the efficiency and accuracy of your costing process, this task should be assigned
to one member of your team.
Although all members of your team should have access to and be knowledgeable about the use of the
data, there will be duplication of effort unless the system is streamlined. If one member of the team is
responsible for obtaining, maintaining, and managing the database, accountability occurs. You will be
more assured that the numbers are accurate and current at all times. By computerizing the cost data onto
spreadsheets, the information will be easily accessible to the rest of your team.
True Costs
There are numerous ways in which you can organize the costing process of training. However, to
increase accuracy and efficiency, many professionals have chosen to divide costs in four primary areas.
Common categories used in the hospitality industry are:

1.

Labor costs

2.

Materials costs

3.

Delivery costs

4.

Other costs

We will discuss the costs of training in these categories.

Labor. Labor is typically the largest expense in a training program, though it is also one that trainers have
neglected to budget for. Labor costs can include payments and wages to instructors, technicians, any
support staff, and training developers. It also includes the wages of trainees while they are participating in
training. A listing of labor associated costs of training appears in Exhibit 5.
The process of costing labor for training is similar to that of costing labor for operational financial analysis.
Two calculations are typically used when determining labor costs:

You'll need to consider some unique factors associated with labor costs in the hospitality industry. Labor
costs in hospitality will always be higher when compared to many manufacturing or other types of
industries, since hospitality managers cannot automate most of the work of its employees.
Today's shrinking labor pool has spurred higher wages in many positions simply to attract employees.
Because wages are a major factor of labor costs, this shift to higher wages affects the end result.

Labor costs are also affected by management, supervisors, training, scheduling, motivational level of
employees, seasonality, and the ability to accurately forecast business. It is common to hear a manager
say, "I need four people to cover the shift, but I'll schedule six in case some do not show up."
Forecasting the labor costs of a training program follows the same process as forecasting labor for
operations. Any manager or supervisor who creates a schedule will estimate the number of staff he or she
will need. By looking ahead and predicting business, the manager estimates labor needs by examining:
room occupancy rate, reservations rate, number of tee times booked, major parties arriving, local
community events that will affect business, and seasonality.
Forecasting your labor costs in training requires you to look into the future of the business as well. Being
a team player in the organization, you need to schedule your training program during non-peak periods.
These may be non-peak times of day, days of the week, or months in the year. You must schedule
training at times which will have the least effect on the front-line of the operation. You need to estimate
how many people you can effectively train and the number of hours you will need them for training.
Forecasting is also used when estimating the number of labor hours needed to develop a new program.
Labor costs in development are considerable and must account for all individuals who will be assisting in
the development: instructional designers, consultants, industry experts, instructors, training management
staff, and support staff. As you analyze the complexity of the proposed training program, you can forecast
the amount of time necessary for development. Kearsley reports some rules of thumb when estimating
development time:

60 hours of development time for one hour of classroom training

200 hours of development time for one hour of self-paced or interactive training. [endnote 13]

In calculating labor costs, you will need to decide if you are tracking "direct labor" or "full labor" costs.
Direct labor accounts for only salary or wages of the individuals. Full labor considers all costs associated
with the individual, salary or wages plus all benefits. Benefits in the U.S. typically range from 30 percent to
50 percent of an employee's annual income. Check with your human resources department to learn the
exact percentage that applies in your operation.
Labor costs are tied to all phases of a training program. To increase accuracy, you need to consider the
labor costs of your program in each phase: pre-program, needs assessment, design, development,
planning, delivery, maintenance, evaluation, and follow-up.
Materials. Training materials come in various forms and incur numerous costs, usually divided into
subcategories of expendable and non-expendable.
Expendables are those items we think of as one per person or items that will not be used again. Nonexpendables are items you will be able to use again as you present this same program to other trainees.
Examples of both are listed in Exhibit 6.
Delivery Time. Delivery costs are those incurred during the actual delivery time and those that facilitate
the delivery process. They encompass a wide variety of items, as shown in Exhibit 7.
Other Costs. This category covers all miscellaneous costs. Each area, though small enough to not be
considered a major cost category, nonetheless, needs to be paid for and accounted for in planning and
analysis.
Although not limited to these categories, "other" costs may include:

Replacement costs

Overhead

Pre-program

Follow-up

Indirect

Cost of cost analysis

Opportunity cost

While employees are in training, they are not fulfilling their job responsibilities. Frequently, those jobs still
need to be done; the cost of the individuals substituting for trainees is considered replacement cost.
There are many difsferent ways to compute the replacement costs of training. Some believe it can be
accounted for as a labor cost, others as a delivery cost. You will need to determine what is most
appropriate for your organization.
Several costs are associated with replacement employees. These are the trainee's wages or salaries, his
or her benefits, and loss of productivity as the substitute employee is likely not as efficient as the primary
employee. The decrease in productivity is measured by the loss of profits associated with the inefficiency.
Numerous factors are drawn into consideration when calculating the overhead cost for training. For
some operations, it may be more efficient to calculate an overhead cost per training hour and use that
figure, revising it periodically. Other organizations know their overhead cost per person, having already
computed it across their organization. A good place for you to start is with the human resources
department to see if this cost has already been calculated.
If a standard cost has not yet been identified, you will need to cost out the components of overhead,
which include:

Building

Rent

Equipment

Desks

Tables

Chairs

Landscaping

Office supplies

Support departments:

Legal

Accounting

Human resources

Overhead costs can vary widely and be quite high. You will likely find the overhead costs to be between
0.75 to 6 times the wages of the trainee.
Some organizations choose to not consider overhead costs as a cost of training. You will need to
determine if this is appropriate in your organizational culture.
You may choose to incorporate the costs associated with the pre-programming component of training into
the primary categories. The pre-program costs of training are those associated with the problem and
process analysis when identifying training needs. Depending on your operation, these costs may be
minimal or complex. If the corporate climate of your company encourages you to frequently brainstorm
potential areas of training, it may be more accurate to keep these costs in a separate category.
It is very important to follow up your training program with the trainees and their immediate supervisors
directly after training, and again in two months, six months, or a year later. Your goal is to determine if the
tasks or knowledge caught has transferred back to the workplace. With this information, the training
process loop is closed.
You will have to identify costs associated with follow up. How often you choose to follow up your training
will affect the cost associated with it. Some of the follow-up activities that become cost items are:

Surveys

Questionnaires

Interviews

Trainee's time

Trainer's time

Supervisor's time

Peers' time

Clerical time

Analysis time

While there are many valid and popular ways to organize the costs of training, some basic guidelines are
available to help managers classify costs. Many people choose to differentiate between direct and indirect
costs. Direct costs are those closely associated with the actual training, and typically will not occur if the
training does not occur.
Indirect costs, as with overhead, may occur even if the training does not. These costs typically include:

Maintenance

Support services

Equipment

Depreciation of equipment

Repair of equipment

Custodial

Utilities

Telephone

Use of training space

You need to determine how many and which indirect costs are most appropriate to track. Some
organizations even choose to ignore these costs. However, to be accurate, and to be able to fully support
the calculations presented in your training proposal, you should have a fairly accurate idea of the amount
and effect of these costs.
It is quite likely these costs will increase incrementally with the volume and type of training you conduct.
Although the cost of cost analysis should be a relatively small one, include it in your training plans. This
cost includes your time and any time spent by those conducting the analysis. It may also include the cost
of software purchased to help with the analysis.
One of the more difficult costs to quantify is that of opportunity cost. Every time one training program is
selected, another is not selected and costs are associated with the training not given. How are these
costs estimated? They are estimated by identifying the services or programs that will not be performed
and assigning a dollar value to them in terms of relinquishing profit. You might also choose to express
opportunity costs in qualitative terms--such intangibles as higher employee morale, better guest service,
fewer complaints, etc.

Sources of Costs
The costing process is a daunting one. It is likely you will find yourself struggling to assign a specific cost
to each component of your training program. It is appropriate for you to estimate costs when an accurate
quote or invoice is not available to you. However, you should expect to update these estimates with an
actual figure as hard figures become available.
As you develop a costing process, you'll also learn of appropriate sources to help you estimate accurately.
Typical of the resources available are:

Instructional designers

Experienced trainers

Articles

Colleagues

Previous cost analyses in your operation

Previous cost analyses in other operations but within the hospitality industry

Expenses from ongoing training courses

Suppliers

It is important that you develop a systematic approach to obtaining costs, keep copies for justification, and
maintain up-to-date records.
Intangible Costs
Intangible costs are those we cannot easily quantify. Opportunity costs are often considered intangible
as they are difficult to measure and sometimes impossible to identify.
A primary intangible cost of training is the development of ineffective training that does not lead to change
in workplace behavior. The ultimate purpose of training in the workplace is to increase the skills or
knowledge of employees, supervisors, and managers in the organization. These individuals can attend
hours and hours of training, yet unless it is effective and appropriate to their workplace environment, it
may not enhance their knowledge of or performance on the job.
Research has repeatedly shown that the training transfer back to the job is frequently less than 20
percent. With the costs of training being as high as they are, it is a tremendous waste to have only 20
percent of that investment being effective. Let the focus of your training be to create useful training for
hospitality employees and design your instruction such that costs generate appropriate paybacks.

Chapter 2 - Competency 4:
Describe how training directors develop cost-benefit analyses for training and
development activities.
Benefits of Training
There are numerous beneficiaries of effective training. The core function of the hospitality industry is
people serving people. As employees becomes better trained at their jobs, they're better able to serve the
guest in their organizational capacity. Training is designed to change behavior in the workplace. Effective
training is a classic example of a win win situation.
Who Benefits from Training?
The beneficiaries of effective training are employees, management, guests, and the organization. The
positive outcomes in each area are outlined in Exhibit 8.
For the sake of your cost-benefit analysis, you will need to determine individually which people are
affected by the training you are analyzing. Quite likely, the training will benefit many people in many
different ways. It is up to you to list whom and how. These numbers will help you calculate the true result
of training on employees, managers, guests, and the property.
True Benefit Values/Savings
The calculation of benefits derived from training is a multifaceted exercise. Benefits received from training
are usually the "savings" of costs expended had the training not taken place. You need to be able to place
a realistic dollar value on these benefits to justify your training.
To calculate benefits, you need to work closely with the managers or supervisors of the departments for
which you conducted the training; their input is often necessary to measure the benefits of the training
transfer back to the workplace. The direct benefits of training are those results you sought to achieve with
the training. Direct benefits are usually defined by the learning objectives and seek to close the gap found
in needs analysis. How to calculate the dollar values of the savings is illustrated in the example in Exhibit
9.
Indirect benefits, too, can be derived from training. These are positive results that have emerged from the
training, yet were not the primary focus. For example, increased employee morale is frequently an indirect
benefit of training. Although the objective of the training may have simply been to enhance safety skills,
employees feel more valuable to the organization and have increased self-worth after having received
training.
It is important that you document all benefits of training using input from original sources whenever
possible. Original sources can include:

Guest comments

Time cards

Check-in-time efficiency data

Rooms cleaned per hour data

Plate waste analysis

On-the-job accident reports

Employee turnover rates

Employee absenteeism rates

Other productivity records

Training usually benefits operations by saving costs in three major areas:

Labor

Materials

Equipment

Labor. A major tangible benefit of training is the savings of time in the form of labor hours. Training can
reduce labor costs by expanding the skill set of the employee, thus enabling him or her to work more
efficiently. In addition, training can reduce labor costs by increasing the employee's knowledge of the job
and helping him or her to work more effectively. Training can also reduce labor costs by teaching the
employee how to increase productivity on the job.
To calculate the labor costs saved by skills training, you need to estimate the number of hours reduced (or
saved) by the employee on the task he or she was trained for. The time saved is a direct benefit of
training. To calculate the dollar amount, use the following formula:

See Photo.
Reduced employee turnover is the single largest documentable labor "savings" or benefit to training.
Researchers have documented lower turnover rates in operations that have active and effective
employee training programs.
When calculating the benefit derived from turnover, one option is to claim the entire salary of each person
saved. This encompasses the cost of recruiting, training, and orientation, as retention of employees
assists in reducing those costs. Another option is to use the calculated costs from recognized and
respected sources, such as the National Restaurant Association.
Other labor-related benefits deriving from effective training are:

Reduction in the number of on-the-job accidents

Fewer employee grievances

Fewer lawsuits

Less likelihood of a strike

Materials. You can measure the training benefits associated with materials by calculating reduced costs,
but you can only measure those associated directly with the aspect of the job that was trained. The
specific type of materials will vary with the scope of the training program you are evaluating.
You can achieve (and therefore measure) materials cost reduction through training to increase quality
control. For example: decreased numbers of wrong orders sent to the table, therefore fewer re-orders at
no revenue; decreased guest complaints related to housekeeping skills, therefore fewer comps or
upgrades; and improved wine handling, therefore less spoilage.
Training to improve inventory procedures can also result in reduced materials costs. In every hospitality
operation, thousands of dollars worth of inventory is in-house at any given time. Inventory is a valuable
asset needing close attention and accurate control. Improvement in inventory procedures can reduce
costs. For example: appropriate rotation of inventory, therefore less waste; appropriate moving and
stacking of stock, therefore less damaged merchandise; appropriate control and movement of goods
between units, therefore less pilferage; and appropriate receiving methods for weighing and counting,
therefore paying for only what was received.
Materials handling is another area in which cost-reduction benefits can be achieved. Materials handling
affects several positions and all employees holding these positions should be trained.
Cost reductions can be made by implementing such diverse procedures as:

Using appropriate containers for transporting food for an off-premises catering event, therefore
reducing waste and guest complaints

Ensuring the appropriate use of chemicals, therefore avoiding burns or pool closings

Requiring that drivers possess licenses appropriate to their driving requirements, therefore
reducing accidents or lawsuits

Benefit value calculation of materials is actually totaling the reduction of costs gained through improved
performance. Depending on the benefit being measured, you should add these savings bimonthly,
quarterly, or on an annual basis.
Equipment. The tangible benefits that can be gained from equipment use are typically in the form of
increased productivity. The increased revenue resulting from better use of that equipment is the benefit.
An example of how benefits from equipment training can be measured is described in the following
scenario:
Your operation has a high volume casual dining area. Occasionally wait staff are in a hurry and use nonstandard abbreviations while inputting an order into the point-of-sale (POS) equipment. The cook
produces the order as he or she interprets the ticket, only to have the server find out at the table it is a
wrong order. Training is given to both wait staff and line cooks to standardize abbreviations and improve
usage of the POS and order-taking procedures.

Benefits are measured by adding the costs of wrong orders for several months prior to training. This
figure is compared to the costs of wrong orders for several months after training. The difference is the
"savings" the operation has enjoyed as a result of training.

Another benefit that can be derived from equipment training is the reduction of equipment downtime or
reduction of scraps or rejects produced by that equipment. You calculate the costs of the number of
rejects per day or per month prior to training, then compare them to the number of rejects produced per
day or per month after the training. The benefit derived is the value associated with the reduced cost, or
the savings of not having to spend money on those rejects. This benefit can be calculated by dividing the
equipment value (cost of the equipment) by the number of hours it is used, giving you the cost per hour to
operate the equipment.
Another example of how a hospitality operation might benefit from equipment training is described in the
following bakeshop setting. Your operation has a massive bakeshop specializing in large, freshly baked
cookies. The bakeshop also delivers cookie baskets to the local community. In the shop are two deck
ovens, each holding six sheet pans. Each sheet pan holds eight cookies. Your bakeshop is open 12 hours
a day; the ovens are in use eight hours each day; and it takes fifteen minutes to bake one batch of
cookies. During peak hours, out-of-stock selections are common, due to baking time and space. You
develop and conduct a training program to demonstrate a new baking schedule utilizing the ovens for the
full 12 hours the shop is open, plus the one-hour of early prep time.
The benefits accruing to your bakeshop as a result of training are measured by calculating the increased
sales volume of the store by increased selection and availability of stock (cookies).

Resources of Values/Savings
This source of measurement used for calculating the benefits of training will vary with the type of training
you conduct. Benefits should be identified in the planning phase of training. As you seek to evaluate the
effectiveness of training, you need to become adept at measuring benefits.
The identification of these benefits is crucial to the successful computations of the cost-benefit analysis. It
is important that the benefit or savings be as well documented as the costs. You must develop a
systematic approach to quantify as many benefits of training as are justifiably supported by the learning
objectives of the training program.
Identifying resources of information to use in calculating benefit dollars will aid your team in accumulating
a database of benefits.
Some resources for benefits are:

Observation

Performance records

Work output records

Performance tests

Post-tests

Performance checklists

Interviews conducted with trainees

Interviews conducted with the supervisor of the trainee

Questionnaires completed by trainees

Questionnaires completed by the supervisor of the trainees

Pilot studies

Actions already in your organization

Results from another organization, if the conditions are similar

Intangible Benefits
At one restaurant, the owner provides CPR and first-aid training to every employee at the establishment.
How would one calculate the benefit of this training? Many trainers and owners would say that the benefit
of this training is in the goodwill that it generates in the community and in the desire to avoid a crisis that
may be severe in its effects on the operation.
These benefits are often called intangible benefits of training. In fact, some trainers believe that it is
impossible to accurately produce a cost-benefit analysis, as the intangible benefits of training are
numerous. Such benefits are those that cannot be given an accurate dollar value, nor can they be
accurately measured or quantified.
Within the hospitality industry, these benefits may actually be more valuable to the organization than
many of those you can quantify, with the exception of labor costs and turnover. In the service business,
training has been proven repeatedly to positively influence the attitudes and behaviors of employees.
In the service business, the guest is less likely to remember whether his or her food was brought to the
table within seven minutes or twelve minutes, but will quickly remember the attitude of a server, especially
if it was poor. Employees on the front line represent your business and organization to the guest.

Hospitality businesses are dependent on the repeat guest, and intangible benefits in many instances
determine if a guest returns. Typical intangible benefits include:

Increased guest satisfaction

Increased employee motivation

Increased employee achievement

Employee recognition

Employee interest

Employee responsibility

Reduced tardiness

Reduced alcoholism

Reduced unacceptable behavior

Reduced drug abuse

Increased potential value of the employee

Increased payback to the profession

Increased level of advancement

The challenge to you is to find a way to define these qualitative benefits and include them in any training
proposal or budget discussion. There are people within the training industry and hospitality management
who will argue that all benefits must be quantifiable. A hospitality organization is a business, after all, and
a business with a primary purpose of making profit. Therefore, they argue, trainers need to find a way to
quantify the training benefits and put a dollar figure on each of them.

Cost-Benefit Analysis
The cost-benefit analysis is a useful tool for systematically comparing the financial picture of training
programs. It compares the cost of training to the benefits derived from it. The benefits are those identified
as the expected results of the training, and can be either an increase in profit or a reduction of costs.
In using a cost-benefit analysis, you must be very clear about your training question or training objectives.
You must define specifically what you are trying to achieve and what benefit you expect as outcomes. A
cost-benefit analysis becomes more difficult as the complexity of the training increases.

Compile both costs and benefits in dollars for the cost-benefit analysis. All training programs that are
being compared must have the same goal to be a fair comparison.
Simply stated, the cost-benefit analysis allows you to weigh the costs of a training program against the
outcomes. It is a simple process, yet effective in evaluating training.
What Does the Cost-Benefit Analysis Do?
There are several advantages to conducting a cost-benefit analysis. The cost-benefit analysis provides
accurate data to include in your training proposal. Most business decisions, including training program
implementation, are based on costs associated with benefits to the organization. The cost-benefit analysis
will assist you in determining the best decision regarding the training program.
The cost-benefit analysis will:

Calculate whether a specific program will be financially beneficial

Help determine whether a training program is worth its cost

Demonstrate return on investment

Help justify the program to top management

Identify what priorities exist in developing training

Aid in determining whether training will be the solution to the problem

Determine if benefits remain consistent over time

Assist in avoiding inefficient methods of training

Produce better objectives and goals, therefore the course will be better planned

Define clear goals and objectives, making the results more likely to be attained

Identify overly costly methods of training

Cost-benefit analyses can reduce the amount of training needed, as it will help identify the training that
costs more than the benefits it produces. The training conducted will be of greater value to the
organization, as it will be better planned and more closely aligned with the goals and objectives of the
organization. Expected results will be outlined and the process allows all parties to be more
knowledgeable of costs as they relate to benefits.
Calculations. There are three steps to the cost-benefit analysis:

1.

Calculate costs

2.

Calculate benefits

3.

Compare results

Step One: Calculate Costs. Begin by researching and listing all costs associated with the training
program. Those costs that have not yet been incurred must be identified either by supplier quote or
estimated cost.
The process of calculating costs forces you to break down the training program into itemized line items or
cost elements. This process will help you better identify all costs associated with the training program.
Step Two: Calculate Benefits. Benefits are costs that were not expended because the training occurred.
These costs might include fines for failing to conduct mandatory training, increased turnover, or
equipment failures. There may also be increased revenue that results from effective training.
The process of tracking benefits will make you better identify the expected results. The process will make
you examine whether these benefits are closely aligned with the organization's goals as well as worth the
costs of training.
Step Three: Compare Results. There are two ways you can conduct comparisons in the cost-benefit
analysis process. The method you choose depends largely on your organization's financial analysis
process.
First method: Net benefits
total benefits - total costs = net benefits
Depending on the organizational culture, it is possible you will be restricted from conducting any training
with a negative net benefit. However, if the training is mandated by law or organizational policies and
procedures, it is very possible the net benefit will be less than zero.

Second method: Cost-benefit ratio

total costs/total benefits = cost-benefit ratio
Using this method, the lowest cost-benefit ratio should be selected, assuming other factors are equal. For
example: if a 1.0 ratio results, then the costs and the benefits are equal. However if the ratio is 0.23,
you're spending 23 cents for every one dollar gained in benefits. Likewise, if the ratio is 2.65, you're
spending $2.65 for every one dollar benefit.
Depending on the scope of the job of the training program, you should round to the nearest $1, $10, or
possibly $100. The process of calculating costs and benefits is not set up to be exact enough to warrant
tracking monies to the cents level.

Chapter 2 - Competency 5:
Explain how training directors calculate an ROI (return on investment) for training and
development activities.

Return on Investment

Because U.S. businesses frequently reduce the training and development budgets during times of
economic uncertainty, it is particularly important to the survival of the training and development
department to be able to measure and accurately justify training's return on investment (ROI) for the
operation.
Each training program will have unique aspects appropriate for measurement. You will need to define the
specific problem and identify the expected training outcomes. You will need to detail your learning
objectives to ensure they align with the organization's goals and objectives.
Documenting your ROI will boost your credibility with upper management; operational issues are
discussed in terms of ROI and you will be speaking the same financial language as other members of the
management team.
Some of the ROI measurements are complex, requiring an understanding of multivariance statistics and
integrated modeling techniques. However, many measurements can be obtained by partnering with
operations since they track numerous variables regularly. Computer programs are also available to assist
you in tracking training's ROI.
What It Is and What It Does
Training's return on investment is a financial focus on evaluation, an examination of the effect of training
on the workplace. As a company invests in the skills and knowledge of its employees, those employees
will do a better job for the organization. This is the very foundation of training.
The concept of return on investment is one of conducting evaluations to calculate the impact training has
had on the bottom line. The impact can be measured by:

Profit

Productivity

Performance

At times, measurement will create challenges, as some skills are easier to measure than others.
However, one effective means you can incorporate into your training development is the use of control
groups. The concept of control groups, long used in science, can easily be applied to the hospitality
workplace. For example, you can identify a group of reservationists for development. Likewise, you select
a comparable group of reservationists that will not receive training. You then conduct the training
according to the objectives and needs of the hotel. After a period of time, you should be able to compare
the two groups, other factors being similar. The group that had the training should be more productive han
the non-trained group. The difference can be quantified and measured. Depending on the type of training
you have conducted, the measurement type will vary.
Some tools you can use to determine the return on investment are:

Cost-benefit analysis

Cost-effectiveness ratios

Cost-feasibility analysis

Factors to include in an ROI are:

Cash flow

Investments

Benefit expected from each alternative

Distribution of costs

Training effectiveness

Other business variables

Training transfer

Differences in ratios

Impact on the organization

Expected length of time for the training to show positive results

Calculations. Calculations of the return on investment are a mathematical analysis of the payback of the
training program. The returns are determined by systematically analyzing operational results. A rule of
thumb is to examine results from operations over a three- to six-month period or longer. You can expect to
see a change in behavior immediately after training. The training transfer (impact on work behavior)
cannot truly be examined objectively until reviewing longer periods of time. Return on investment is
expressed as a percentage.

Return on investment percentage = [net program benefits / program costs] x 100

A benchmark for your training program is determining whether the costs meet or exceed the costs
associated with the training problem over six months of time. For example, once you and the operational
manager have determined a specific training problem, you should be able to calculate the costs of that
problem. Once you have identified the costs of the problem, estimate the operational costs over a sixmonth period of time. Compare this figure to that of training costs. If the training costs are equal to or
exceed six months of the cost of the problem, the training is likely not worth conducting.
There is a common saying, "You get what you expect." As an effective trainer, you need to communicate
to both management and trainees exactly what you expect them to learn from the training program. It is
also fair to provide frequent feedback to the trainees and their managers in the form of assessment of
learning skills. Passing tests can increase the self-esteem of employees. It is only reasonable that you
communicate the desire for increased profits, productivity, or performance, if these are the measures
you're examining.
Cost-Feasibility Analysis

The cost-feasibility analysis examines the overall training budget. Very few (if any) organizations have
an unlimited training budget. You will often have to choose between two different programs or decide
whether to conduct the program at all. The cost-feasibility analysis answers the question: "Can we afford
to do this program?" If the answer is yes, you can add justification to your training proposal that the
program fits within the total budget.
For example, a cost-benefit analysis would be appropriate to use in examining a point-of-sale system
upgrade. You would analyze the costs and benefits associated with the upgrade and its training. The net
benefit derived from the cost- benefit analysis may be positive. However, a cost-feasibility analysis may
indicate it is less important to the operation than alcohol safety training for this quarter. If the overall costs
of both programs exceed the training budget, and the company's cash flow is tight, it may not be a
feasible option to conduct the upgrade and training at that time. Even though the benefits outweigh the
costs, the program will need to be postponed to a later date, when more cash flow is available and the
training budget permits the cost.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
The cost-effectiveness analysis is often confused with the cost-benefit analysis. It is actually another
tool you can use to evaluate the results of several training programs. This type of analysis is especially
useful when it is difficult to measure the training results dollars, as it allows for intangibles. It is also useful
in analyzing whether the program's objectives would be actually achieved.

The cost-effectiveness analysis needs to be used when training program alternatives have the same goal.
It cannot be used if one training program is for the front desk and the second training program is for
housekeeping, even if customer service is the training topic.
The cost-effectiveness analysis is used:

To choose the best among several training programs

To compare the costs of two or more programs

To compare the cost-benefit ratios of two or more programs

To determine the most cost-effective means for training delivery

To examine ways to reduce an existing program's cost

To select the most cost-effective instructional design method

To determine which medium is best at solving the problem

Calculations. The cost-effectiveness ratio equals total costs divided by the measure of effectiveness. The
lowest ratio, which indicates cost per unit measurement of effectiveness, should be the training program
you select.
Some examples of measures of effectiveness can be:

Dollars

Time

Productivity

Injuries per month

Rooms prepared per hour

Cost-effectiveness analysis, for example, could be used in determining the best method of instructional
design by comparing costs of different delivery methods.
Sample candidates are:

A PowerPoint presentation conducted on site in a classroom versus a video

The use of an in-house trainer rather than an outside consultant

Conducting training on site in a seminar room or somewhere off premises in a training center

This type of analysis is particularly useful when you are trying to determine which medium would result in
a higher transfer of learning back to the workplace,or which is most appropriate in solving the training
problem.
Resources. As you measure the ROI of training, you'll become more aware of helpful resources. These
resources range from data from training researchers to specific organization data, including such entities
as:

Trade magazines

Books

Professional associations

Colleagues

Consultants

Journals

Conference presentations

Researchers

Productivity worksheets

Revenue yields

Historical data from your operation

When Not to Measure

The accuracy of the ROI is only as accurate as the quality of information in the formulas. There may be
occasions when you decide not to measure training output or return on investment.
Typical of these are:

When performance standards are not clearly defined

When the training problem is not clearly defined

When it is uncertain that the performance problem is a training problem

When it is only a performance problem of the person doing the job

When the problem is not worth trying to fix

When nothing would change in workplace performance

When specific, quantifiable data does not exist, an alternative approach to conducting an ROI analysis is
possible. Although this option is not objective, it is a systematic approach to placing a value on which
training program should be conducted.
Step 1. With the operational manager, clearly identify the training problem or gap analysis.
Step 2. Determine whether the problem is a lack of skill or another obstacle.
Step 3. Set priorities for the components of the problem.
Step 4. Develop a plan for training related to each component.

Costs of Not Training

Some would argue that there are no true costs of not training. If you never conduct training, there would
be no salaries, no benefits, no materials, no overhead, and no trainee's time. You could continue this
argument to say that there's no loss of productivity, no paper wasted, no pens, or markers used. However,
the true costs associated with not training are not the expenses, it is the loss of profits or productivity that
your company could have gained with a better-trained work force.

The hospitality industry is a service industry. It provides high-touch encounters for guests in an
increasingly high-tech environment. The competition within the hospitality industry has become fierce.
Competition for labor as well as guests is a new threat that most long-term operators have not had to deal
with previously.
The true cost of not training is intangible. It can be seen in the unhappy guest who tells nine of his or her
friends, who then tell others, all of which threatens your company's reputation. To survive in the serviceintensive hospitality industry, training is a must.
Other examples of intangible costs of not training are:

Loss of uniformity of service

Loss of quality of staff

Loss of managerial time in filling in for the position

Potential for poor service

Low perception of managerial effectiveness

Guest complaints

Potential lost sales

Potential loss of reputation

Potential accident

Potential major problem such as a foodborne illness outbreak

High level of inefficiency

Conclusion
It can be said that the value of an enterprise is vested in its physical assets, its organization, and its
people. Properly integrated, these become the image--or goodwill--of the enterprise that determines its
position in the marketplace. Of the three, two are tools; only one is an enabler.
People are the pivotal catalyst that orchestrates the capital (physical) assets within the framework of an
organization to achieve the service, market, and profitability goals defined and desired by management.
In short, people enable companies to work.
Curiously, however, until recently, the critical role of people was largely unrecognized or ignored as an
asset having any meaningful impact on the financial performance of a property. In the hospitality industry,
this phenomenon has been especially pronounced and made more surprising owing to hospitality's

singular product--service--and its extraordinary dependence on people to deliver that product. In fact,
more people are employed in this industry than any other in the world.
Hospitality is a business of people, by people, and for people, and the better the people, the better the
business. Yet only lately have we begun to place value on nurturing people, on investing in them, and on
training them to grow in their service proficiency. Hospitality leaders today are seeing supportable bottom
line results of their efforts to increase the intellectual property of their work forces. Employee training is
producing what some are calling real ROI--return on individual. These returns come in several forms,
beginning of course with guest satisfaction and return business, but also in measurable results such as:

Reduced absenteeism

Lower turnover rate

Increased morale and team-focused mindsets

Increased self- and job-esteem

Employee training and development historically has been relegated in many organizations to an adjunct
function of individual departments or a part-time task of human resources. It needs to be elevated to a
mainstream effort pervading all locations, all departments, and all functions of the organization. But for
this to happen, training professionals must develop measurable goals that can be translated into dollar
amounts that appear on the corporate ledger. Costs of training must be carefully calculated and compared
with the benefits (in dollars) that will result from the training. Hard and supportable numbers are critical to
budget approval. Important to your budget proposal is the statement of the problems and what they are
costing the organization; this to be followed by the cost of training to correct the problems and the dollars
saved or generated by the training. New techniques have demystified calculating the costs and benefits of
training.
Important to the training and development process is planning and pre- instruction analysis. Work with
individual department heads to identify problem areas, and then determine if it is a people problem-requiring training--or a problem that training cannot correct. These efforts will not only indicate where
needs exist, but help you form the framework for training. Document problem and process analysis in the
budget proposal, even if study determines that a particular program is not cost effective and is not
proposed for implementation.
Important to remember in every step of your training journey is that training is an investment in people,
the organization, and the future. Managers give a respectful nod to training, but their tacit desires are to
see the numbers that justify the expense of training. As a major line item in a property's budget, the
training budget must be subject to the same rigorous scrutiny and financial tests as those of other
departments. The more valid your numbers and the more detailed your documentation, the greater the
potential for your training program to become reality.

Chapter 3
Assessing Training Needs

The Assessment of training needs is a prerequisite to any good training program. Unfortunately, it is also
a step frequently omitted, a casualty of haphazard training planning. Managers often overlook needs
assessment and choose instead training based on intuition or according to the latest hot topic, often on
issues not specific to the organization. See Photo.
Research tells us that frequently less than 20 percent of what is taught in training transfers back to the
workplace. Companies spend thousands of dollars each year on training that fails. Why? These sad
statistics emerge from a common problem: the absence of a needs assessment.
The underlying purpose of training is to help employees work efficiently, attain goals, and solve
organizational problems or gaps so that the organization can meet its goals. To achieve this, you first
must be aware that a problem exists and then define it. The best way to do this is through a needs
assessment. If you skip the needs assessment, you run the risk of having frustrated employees attend
nonproductive sessions and later resist future training.

Beginning the Training Process: Needs Assessment

Conducting a training needs assessment allows you to identify your organization's needs, identify the
needs of your employees, and establish criteria for developing training and measuring its success. Before
we go into the details of conducting a needs assessment, let's look at what it is, who should conduct it,
and why it is needed.
What Is Needs Assessment?
Needs assessment is a systematic process for determining organizational gaps between ideal and actual
performance. The process involves collecting data to determine where the organizational gaps exist and
whether they are problems that can be solved through training. Examination of the gaps focuses on the
causes of the gaps, the extent of the gaps, and possible solutions to them.
A properly conducted needs assessment will lead to appropriate design of training that will correct the
identified gap. Needs assessment focuses on a long-term fix of the problem and allows you to identify
solutions that get at the root of the problem.
An assessment of training needs does many things. It:

Identifies performance areas for which training is needed

Identifies performance areas for which training is not needed

Increases the organization's potential success as training needs are correctly identified

Identifies who needs training

Considers alternatives to training available to the organization

Reduces duplication of efforts

Who Should Conduct It?

The needs assessment should ultimately reflect the opinions and input of many people, ideally including
the training manager, the general manager, upper management, and employees. The training director or
manager, or someone in the training and development or human resources department, is usually the
personwho conducts the assessment.
To be an effective needs assessor, you will need many skills. You will need to become:

Comfortable with assessment methodologies

Knowledgeable about which assessment tools to use when

Comfortable with qualitative data collection

Proficient with data analysis

Interactive with upper management to solicit buy-in of training initiatives and increase training's
alignment with the organization's goals

You'll become the conductor of the needs assessment orchestra, blending many unique organizational
characteristics and individuals toward a common theme of effective training initiatives.
The process of needs assessment is that of identifying needs in the organization. Another common term
is needs analysis, which extends the process further to examine causes of the problem or need, and
prescribes potential solutions.
Why Conduct Needs Assessment?
The needs assessment will allow you to answer many questions. When problems arise, or needs are
apparent, you and the department manager need to identify the root of the problem. The systematic
process of needs assessment will provide you with answers to many questions.
Needs assessment will:

Identify performance problems

Determine whether training will fix the problem

Define the causes of the problem better

Determine who needs training

Determine what needs to be trained

Determine what type of training best addresses the problem

Determine organizational objectives

Determine where the gaps exist in the organizational objectives

Determine how urgent the training is

Determine the desired outcomes of the training

Identify better the items the employee needs to know

Design training that better meets the needs of the organization

Determine the measurement criteria needed in performance

Provide a benchmark for performance

Provide credibility for training needs

Help gain support for training throughout the organization

Allow managers and supervisors to have input in training development

Increase the buy-in and support of managers and supervisors for training

Before You Begin

Multilevel needs assessments provide the most amount of data, thereby reducing unknowns. However,
with multilevel analysis you increase the complexity of the task. If your goal is to reduce food costs by
seven percent during the next quarter, a multilevel analysis will be effective in revealing the different areas
in which training makes sense. If, on the other hand, your training goal is to make certain that kitchen
stewards know the location of the kitchen's MSDS sheets and how to use them, your needs assessment
needn't be as complex.
Several questions you need to ask before beginning are:

What level of analysis is needed?

What information are you going to collect?

Who do you want to include on the assessment team?

Who is it you are trying to assess?

How do you intend to collect the data?

What resources are available to you in analyzing the data?

Other factors you will need to consider are time, money, resources, the number of people involved,
degrees of confidentiality, the ease of administering assessments, validity, reliability, the likelihood of
participant response, the likelihood of participant feedback and interaction, the availability of statistical
software for analysis, your comfort level with statistical analysis, the data collection method that best suits
the problem, organizational support for the assessment, and organizational climate regarding ease of
access to information.
The needs assessment process can be costly and complex. An in-depth assessment may take from three
to six months to conduct. The reality of today's business climate is that you must function with limited
time, money, and resources. When necessary, conduct a simplified version of a needs assessment. In
this chapter we discuss the ideal process; you'll need to understand each part to determine what is
necessary for your organization at any given time.

Identifying Needs
The effectiveness of your training program will depend on how clearly you identify the gaps between ideal
and actual performance. Your assessment of the gaps and precise statements of the problems will form
the basis for your training program. An accurate assessment may also tell you that the gap or problem is
not a training problem at all. The problem's source may lie in organizational processes, equipment, or
other issues that training will not be able to resolve.
Gap Analysis
Gap analysis is the process of comparing your operation's standards to the actual performance of
employees. You compare the two and then identify where there are gaps. Where those gaps occur,
training is usually--though not always--necessary.
One way to express gap analysis is through a mathematical equation where:
ideal outcome - actual outcome = gap or problem
When you define the training needs of employees, you determine what specific knowledge, skills, and
attitudes you must develop or improve to bring your employees' performances up to the property's
standards of service. To accurately measure their performances, you must be able to identify in concrete
terms what your property's standards are. These standards are most often expressed in job breakdowns
and job performance standards.
To better identify the gap, determine if the problem is due to:

Lack of skill

Lack of knowledge

Lack of appropriate systems

Training Problem or Performance Problem

A comprehensive understanding of the complexities of your property will help you identify organizational
problems or needs. An organization's needs are often found in its vision, mission, common goals,
strategic plan, and values.
Examine your organization's goals in definable and realistic terms and then determine those areas that
are not meeting those goals. Express these problems or needs in financial terms whenever possible, as
this is a common benchmark all departments use.
Track down the cause-and-effect relationships between the property's standards and the actual
performances. Training cannot solve all problems. Simply throwing training dollars and effort at a problem
won't resolve it unless it is truly a training issue. Exhibit 1 helps define whether a problem is a training one
or not.
There is a difference between training problems and performance problems. For example, your operation
may be experiencing an increase in guest complaints because of burned food. Culinary training can
improve the skills of the line cooks to decrease the likelihood of burned food. However, you may learn the
root cause of the problem is that the only equipment available is an old stove producing inconsistent heat.
Or consider the problem of a decrease in your property's market share. Initially, you may be asked to train
for guest service or productivity. Yet, closer examination reveals a recent tremendous growth of similar
properties within a three-block radius. An increase in productivity will not gain market share if the guests
are not coming in your door.
Performance problems and how efficiently employees conduct their jobs may initially be perceived as a
training problem. Once you determine that the employee has the skills, knowledge, and systems in place
to do his or her job, closer examination may reveal that a performance problem is not related to training.
Many things outside the training arena can affect employee performance:

Management

Morale

Working conditions

Policies and procedures

Co-workers

Organizational structure

Organizational culture

Equipment

Process systems

Poor hiring choices

You will probably develop your own list of performance problems unique to your property that might or
might not be solved with training.
Because of your position, managers may ask you to pinpoint performance problems in their departments.
Your initial question should be "Does the employee know how to meet the performance standards?" If the
reply is "yes," and the employee consistently does not meet the performance standards, then you should
recognize this problem as not one of training. However, if the manager answers "no," a training need is
identified because the employee lacks a specific knowledge or skill necessary to perform the job task.
Once you conclude that training is the solution, determine what specific problem needs to be addressed.
Trainers have developed several techniques for this, some of which include:

Training needs survey. Survey managers and staff through written questionnaires or personal
interviews.

Observation. Watch employees at work to determine where there is a gap between the
property's standards and the performance of the employees.

Employee surveys. Employees should always be a part of the gap analysis process since they
are the ones expected to meet the established standards and are closest to the problems and
deficiencies that management might observe.

Guest comments. Review informal, unsolicited guest complaints. They can signal that
something is wrong, and that guest needs are not being met. Properties may also wish to
establish ways for continuous guest input through guest comment cards, focus groups, or formal
interviews.

Employee meetings. When there is evidence that employee performance is below property
standards, call an employee meeting in which employees informally discuss the job tasks they
feel they do well and those that need improvement. Employees can then suggest methods for
improving performance and set goals to raise the performance levels.

Inspections. Perform internal inspections the same way government agencies inspect
organizations. You can create an operational audit checklist that lists the key areas of
performance and the standards for each one. The inspection compares actual performance with
the local, state, or federal standards.

Vague Standards
If employees do not know to which standards they are to perform, their performance will certainly not
meet expectations.
Consider this scenario: A manager is not happy with the performance of her employees. Yet she does not
know precisely what the problem is. It is hard to say what is and what is not being done to performance
standards. This is difficult, in part, because standards have not been created or have been vaguely
defined. Compounding the problem are tasks being given different priorities by different supervisors in the
same department.

Sometimes these inadequacies take a while to be noticed, but when task performance becomes marginal
or sub-par, managers take note. It is possible, too, that these gaps are not identified until a new job is
created or technology changes.
When helping to identify these gaps, you and the department manager need to identify what level of
performance would yield the right response. To begin this analysis, ask the manager several direct
questions to get the facts that you need:

What specific problems do you see?

When you offer praise to employees, what specific actions do you praise?

When you ask someone to change behavior, what specifically do you ask them to do?

In a team environment, it will be common for you and the management team to share feelings and
brainstorm ideas. The sharing of information will help you provide direction in determining the specifics of
performance problems.

Organization Analysis
Needs analysis begins at the organizational level with an organization analysis. You determine which
factors are causing gaps in performance and what results the organization wants that it is not yet
achieving.
Numerous internal and external factors will influence your organizational needs analysis. These include:

Organizational needs

Organizational opportunities

Organizational threats

Organizational strengths

Organization's

Mission

Vision

Strategy

Goals

Culture

Structure

Values

Philosophy

External environment

Applicable laws

Union activity

Organizational efficiency

Productivity

Waste

Quality

Labor costs

Food costs

Operational reports

Internal climate

Turnover

Absenteeism

Productivity

Morale

The primary purpose for conducting a needs assessment at the organizational level is to look at the big
picture and ultimately solve the problem, not just create a temporary fix or satisfy this year's training
needs initiative.
If you determine that the training goals are not aligned with the organizational goals, then the training
goals need to change. Organizational needs assessment can also help align the goals of individual
departments with the organization's goals.

The demands and needs for training often exceed the resources. Which training program gets funded and
which is postponed or not offered at all? That decision is one that you and the property's managers will
need to make.
One method for involving other managers in setting training priorities is to list eight or ten training topics
and ask managers: "If you could choose only one of these training topics for your employees, which
would you choose?"
Another method is to ask managers to rank a series of training topics for themselves and their employees.
It is usually ineffective to ask open-ended questions such as, "List the training needs you desire for
yourself and your department."
Other factors to consider when prioritizing training needs are:

The cost of the problem or gap to the organization

Legal or compliance issues

Pressure from corporate or executive offices

Number of people affected

Training initiatives resulting from a changing law or regulation are a high priority. Also, the larger the group
that needs training, the higher is their priority to receive training dollars. Pressure from the executive or
corporate office may also give particular training needs a higher priority. Likewise, if a performance
problem or gap in the organization has a high cost or high risk associated with it if the problem or gap is
not addressed, then you should move it to the top of the list.

Chapter 3 - Competency 2:
List methods for identifying the training and development needs of a hospitality organization.

Identifying Needs
The effectiveness of your training program will depend on how clearly you identify the gaps between ideal
and actual performance. Your assessment of the gaps and precise statements of the problems will form
the basis for your training program. An accurate assessment may also tell you that the gap or problem is
not a training problem at all. The problem's source may lie in organizational processes, equipment, or
other issues that training will not be able to resolve.
Gap Analysis
Gap analysis is the process of comparing your operation's standards to the actual performance of
employees. You compare the two and then identify where there are gaps. Where those gaps occur,
training is usually--though not always--necessary.
One way to express gap analysis is through a mathematical equation where:
ideal outcome - actual outcome = gap or problem

When you define the training needs of employees, you determine what specific knowledge, skills, and
attitudes you must develop or improve to bring your employees' performances up to the property's
standards of service. To accurately measure their performances, you must be able to identify in concrete
terms what your property's standards are. These standards are most often expressed in job breakdowns
and job performance standards.
To better identify the gap, determine if the problem is due to:

Lack of skill

Lack of knowledge

Lack of appropriate systems

Training Problem or Performance Problem

A comprehensive understanding of the complexities of your property will help you identify organizational
problems or needs. An organization's needs are often found in its vision, mission, common goals,
strategic plan, and values.
Examine your organization's goals in definable and realistic terms and then determine those areas that
are not meeting those goals. Express these problems or needs in financial terms whenever possible, as
this is a common benchmark all departments use.
Track down the cause-and-effect relationships between the property's standards and the actual
performances. Training cannot solve all problems. Simply throwing training dollars and effort at a problem
won't resolve it unless it is truly a training issue. Exhibit 1 helps define whether a problem is a training one
or not.
There is a difference between training problems and performance problems. For example, your operation
may be experiencing an increase in guest complaints because of burned food. Culinary training can
improve the skills of the line cooks to decrease the likelihood of burned food. However, you may learn the
root cause of the problem is that the only equipment available is an old stove producing inconsistent heat.
Or consider the problem of a decrease in your property's market share. Initially, you may be asked to train
for guest service or productivity. Yet, closer examination reveals a recent tremendous growth of similar
properties within a three-block radius. An increase in productivity will not gain market share if the guests
are not coming in your door.
Performance problems and how efficiently employees conduct their jobs may initially be perceived as a
training problem. Once you determine that the employee has the skills, knowledge, and systems in place
to do his or her job, closer examination may reveal that a performance problem is not related to training.
Many things outside the training arena can affect employee performance:

Management

Morale

Working conditions

Policies and procedures

Co-workers

Organizational structure

Organizational culture

Equipment

Process systems

Poor hiring choices

You will probably develop your own list of performance problems unique to your property that might or
might not be solved with training.
Because of your position, managers may ask you to pinpoint performance problems in their departments.
Your initial question should be "Does the employee know how to meet the performance standards?" If the
reply is "yes," and the employee consistently does not meet the performance standards, then you should
recognize this problem as not one of training. However, if the manager answers "no," a training need is
identified because the employee lacks a specific knowledge or skill necessary to perform the job task.
Once you conclude that training is the solution, determine what specific problem needs to be addressed.
Trainers have developed several techniques for this, some of which include:

Training needs survey. Survey managers and staff through written questionnaires or personal
interviews.

Observation. Watch employees at work to determine where there is a gap between the
property's standards and the performance of the employees.

Employee surveys. Employees should always be a part of the gap analysis process since they
are the ones expected to meet the established standards and are closest to the problems and
deficiencies that management might observe.

Guest comments. Review informal, unsolicited guest complaints. They can signal that
something is wrong, and that guest needs are not being met. Properties may also wish to
establish ways for continuous guest input through guest comment cards, focus groups, or formal
interviews.

Employee meetings. When there is evidence that employee performance is below property
standards, call an employee meeting in which employees informally discuss the job tasks they

feel they do well and those that need improvement. Employees can then suggest methods for
improving performance and set goals to raise the performance levels.

Inspections. Perform internal inspections the same way government agencies inspect
organizations. You can create an operational audit checklist that lists the key areas of
performance and the standards for each one. The inspection compares actual performance with
the local, state, or federal standards.

Vague Standards
If employees do not know to which standards they are to perform, their performance will certainly not
meet expectations.
Consider this scenario: A manager is not happy with the performance of her employees. Yet she does not
know precisely what the problem is. It is hard to say what is and what is not being done to performance
standards. This is difficult, in part, because standards have not been created or have been vaguely
defined. Compounding the problem are tasks being given different priorities by different supervisors in the
same department.
Sometimes these inadequacies take a while to be noticed, but when task performance becomes marginal
or sub-par, managers take note. It is possible, too, that these gaps are not identified until a new job is
created or technology changes.
When helping to identify these gaps, you and the department manager need to identify what level of
performance would yield the right response. To begin this analysis, ask the manager several direct
questions to get the facts that you need:

What specific problems do you see?

When you offer praise to employees, what specific actions do you praise?

When you ask someone to change behavior, what specifically do you ask them to do?

In a team environment, it will be common for you and the management team to share feelings and
brainstorm ideas. The sharing of information will help you provide direction in determining the specifics of
performance problems.

Organization Analysis
Needs analysis begins at the organizational level with an organization analysis. You determine which
factors are causing gaps in performance and what results the organization wants that it is not yet
achieving.
Numerous internal and external factors will influence your organizational needs analysis. These include:

Organizational needs

Organizational opportunities

Organizational threats

Organizational strengths

Organization's

Mission

Vision

Strategy

Goals

Culture

Structure

Values

Philosophy

External environment

Applicable laws

Union activity

Organizational efficiency

Productivity

Waste

Quality

Labor costs

Food costs

Operational reports

Internal climate

Turnover

Absenteeism

Productivity

Morale

The primary purpose for conducting a needs assessment at the organizational level is to look at the big
picture and ultimately solve the problem, not just create a temporary fix or satisfy this year's training
needs initiative.
If you determine that the training goals are not aligned with the organizational goals, then the training
goals need to change. Organizational needs assessment can also help align the goals of individual
departments with the organization's goals.
The demands and needs for training often exceed the resources. Which training program gets funded and
which is postponed or not offered at all? That decision is one that you and the property's managers will
need to make.
One method for involving other managers in setting training priorities is to list eight or ten training topics
and ask managers: "If you could choose only one of these training topics for your employees, which
would you choose?"
Another method is to ask managers to rank a series of training topics for themselves and their employees.
It is usually ineffective to ask open-ended questions such as, "List the training needs you desire for
yourself and your department."
Other factors to consider when prioritizing training needs are:

The cost of the problem or gap to the organization

Legal or compliance issues

Pressure from corporate or executive offices

Number of people affected

Training initiatives resulting from a changing law or regulation are a high priority. Also, the larger the group
that needs training, the higher is their priority to receive training dollars. Pressure from the executive or
corporate office may also give particular training needs a higher priority. Likewise, if a performance
problem or gap in the organization has a high cost or high risk associated with it if the problem or gap is
not addressed, then you should move it to the top of the list.

Chapter 3 - Competency 3:
Explain how to conduct a job and task analysis.

Job and Task Analysis

Most needs assessments are at the job and task level. These assessments are often the most
comprehensive. This level of needs assessment is called many things: job assessment, task assessment,
position analysis, and job analysis. We refer to this entire component as the job analysis.
The job analysis reveals the components of a job. It is challenging to create this analysis because
frequently people accomplish the same task in similar yet different ways. Two servers won't deliver drinks
in the same manner. Two front desk attendants may check in guests using the same procedures in a
different order. The supervisor of one area may not explain the same task exactly the same way more
than one time. These variations complicate the job analysis process, yet increase its value to the
organization. Standardizing the task by eliminating these variations during a job analysis can produce:

Increases in consistency

Increases in quality

Reduction in time

Reduction in costs

Each job is made up of a series of tasks. Each of these tasks has a standard or best practice associated
with the task. The process of a job or task analysis begins with describing how the work should be done.
The overall job is broken into smaller tasks that are recorded on a task list. In addition, each job or task is
analyzed to determine:

Which skills are needed

What knowledge is needed

What materials are used

Degree of proficiency on equipment needed

Competencies needed to correctly perform the task

The concept behind task analysis is that if each employee performs each task to standards, then the
overall job will be performed to standard as well. Each job functions as a component of the entire
organization. As each employee correctly performs his or her job within the organization, the
organizational goals and objectives are reached.
Several approaches to task analysis have been documented over time. The most frequently used is one
called the systems approach, in which job analysis breaks each job into different processes and
determines the best method for each.

Job analysis is used throughout the organization. It can be the foundation of the job description, or used
for performance evaluation, or serve as the foundation for training for a particular position. It can be used
as a recruitment tool and as a source of performance feedback to the employee.
The job analysis process can be broken into four phases. The first is to develop a comprehensive list of
tasks for each position. Second is to break each task into organizational standards. Third, the department
manager needs to determine the best practice or performance standard, which will identify the quality
needed to accomplish organizational goals. Fourth is to merge these components to construct a
comprehensive job description.
The Task List
During the first phase, you create a task list or job checklist. A job in its entirety is usually too complex to
teach or train as a whole. Therefore, it is broken down into individual tasks. A task can be defined as a
portion, or one component, of the employee's job duties or job responsibilities.
The task list or job checklist is a list of all job tasks, the knowledge needed, and attitude appropriate to
perform the job. In addition, the task list may specify the frequency of the task. For example, the list will
indicate which tasks are completed daily, weekly, monthly, or quarterly. See Exhibit 2 or a sample banquet
server task list.
Some of the numerous sources of information on identifying tasks are:

Observation of employees

Interviewing employees

Interviewing supervisors

Interviewing managers

Interviewing peers

Interviewing executives

Asking employees to write down tasks

Brainstorming sessions with several employees

Review of current job descriptions

Interviewing co-workers

Interviewing customers

Work sampling

Customer comments

Operational reports

Performance appraisals

The Job Breakdown

The second phase of a job and task analysis is breaking down each task previously listed into specific
components, required equipment, supplies needed, procedures to be used, and proficiency scores.
Determine how detailed to make the task or job breakdown based on your organization's standards, the
level of expertise of employees, and the average degree of experience of newly hired employees. You
may choose to include in the task breakdown general items such as hygiene and attendance. Exhibit 3 is
a sample job breakdown.
Delineate the sequence a task should be done in and exactly how to correctly perform the task. It is
possible that new ways will emerge to accomplish tasks from the discussions you will have with
employees and managers. Ask such questions as: "How should the inventory be counted?" "How do you
close out the point-of-sale system and how frequently?"
Sources of information for the task breakdown include the employee, supervisor, manager, co-worker,
customer, observation, and operating instructions and equipment operating manuals.
Job Standards
Results of this phase of the job analysis are also called many things: performance standards, job
standards, quality levels, etc.
Many properties have already developed operational standards, either as corporate documents, parts of
franchise contracts, or as integral parts of their training programs. If written standards do not exist, you
need to create them. Begin by asking operational managers to define their vision for their units. Once you
and a group of managers have defined the end point, break it down by trying to define training outcomes
and specific goals of the tasks.
You are now at a stage where it is ideal to involve employees in defining standards. More than anyone
else, the people who actually perform the tasks for which you are setting the standards will have better
and more accurate information about what the task entails. They can also help keep you from setting
unrealistic standards. For example, an executive housekeeper might wish to set a standard of 12 minutes
to clean a guestroom so that she can meet other productivity standards and budget goals. An
experienced room attendant might tell him that this is an unrealistic amount of time and would result in
important tasks being left undone or poorly done and might even increase the number of injuries among
the housekeeping staff.
Many guests are willing to pay more for high-quality products and services. Conversely, guests will not
frequent your establishment if they perceive products and services to be of poor quality or of low value.
Consequently, job or performance standards and quality levels must be consistent and maintained by
everyone at the property.
Job Descriptions

Job descriptions, unfortunately, are sometimes considered a luxury or a management project to do when
everything else is done. In reality, job descriptions can be an effective management tool and are critical to
the success of the employee in his or her position.
This phase of a job analysis merges task lists, job breakdowns, standards, and evaluation measurements
into a useful tool for all parties. A job description can be used as a personnel tool for recruiting, training,
performance evaluation, discipline, informing applicants about a job, and compensation rates.
A job description should become the standard by which a job is evaluated. Its components include:

Title

Who the position reports to

Who the position supervises

Knowledge needed

Standards of quality

Equipment needed to be operated

An in-depth narrative or listing of the job duties

Chapter 3 - Competency 4:
Identify and describe data collection methods and how data is organized.

Data Collection Methods

As you can imagine, conducting a comprehensive needs assessment generates and requires an
enormous amount of data. Drawing that data from multiple sources can
result in more information, more possible solutions, higher management buy-in, and a closer fit with the
organizational goals.
There are numerous methods by which you can collect data:

Interviews

Observation

Surveys or questionnaires

Assessment centers

Focus groups

Nominal group technique

Advisory committee

Expert opinions

Task analysis

Work sampling

Subject analysis

Job descriptions

Operational reports

As you determine which data collection methods to use, recognize that the greater the number of
sources, the greater will be the reliability of your data. More sources will also increase the likelihood that
your data accurately reflect workplace behavior. A standard rule of thumb is to use a minimum of two data
collection methods.
Factors you should consider in determining sources are:

Cost

Time

Size of group

Location of group

Potential obstacles

The end result you have in mind

Classification
Data collection methods frequently are categorized either by the type of information they produce or
sources of data. General categories include qualitative, quantitative, combination or blended, and extant
data.
Typical data collection methods within each of these categories are:

Qualitative

Interview

Focus group

Committee

Subject expert

Quantitative

Survey

Questionnaire

Benchmarking

Task analysis

Combination or blended

Observation

Nominal group technique

Action research

Work sampling

Subject analysis

Extant data

Job descriptions

Performance appraisals

Annual reports

Trade magazines

Industry standards

Operational reports

Human resources records

Industry literature

Surveys and Questionnaires

The use of surveys and questionnaires is one of the more popular data collection methods trainers use.
Surveys can be very good in identifying organizational problems or gaps. However, they should not be
used exclusively.
Surveys allow you to ask specific questions in a standardized format. They can be administered by mail,
phone, electronically, or by hand. It is especially important that they be well designed. You should
consider either purchasing surveys or having them specifically created for your organization by someone
who is experienced in survey design. Purchased surveys have been tested for validity and reliability and
allow you the comfort of knowing that the questions are not biased. However, they may not be specific
enough to address the issues in your organization.
Surveys are especially efficient if you're gathering information from a variety of sites such as corporate or
franchised properties. Survey design should include multiple choice, Likert scale ratings of one to five,
and primarily closed-ended questions. They should be written at an appropriate reading level, asking
about issues associated only with the specific topic. You may wish to allow some space for open-ended
comments.
If you choose to send a survey or questionnaire you also need to enclose a cover letter. The cover letter
should explain why you are conducting a survey, when you need the survey returned, how you'd like it
returned, and any instructions needed for filling it out. To encourage truthful responses, you should assure
people in the cover letter that their responses will be kept confidential. It is more likely that surveys will be
returned if the recipient places value on what you're trying to accomplish.
The advantages of surveys are:

Efficiency

Appropriate for large numbers of people

Provide anonymity

Higher likelihood of honest responses

Cost-effective

Data analysis is relatively easy

Ease of distribution

Good for quantifiable data

Can be used for small populations

Can be created in a variety of formats

Can be administered under controlled or uncontrolled conditions

The disadvantages of surveys are:

Some might not get returned

May not focus on possible solutions

Requires high degree of technical skill to design

May not address root causes of problems

Focus Groups
Focus groups provide the opportunity for you to interact face-to-face with the participants and address a
number of people simultaneously. They can be structured or unstructured, formal or informal, but to
increase the effectiveness of a focus group, you should be skilled at facilitating group discussions.
Focus groups are typically more successful if the people gathered are of similar backgrounds, similar
work areas, or have common goals. One factor to consider, if you are contemplating using this method, is
whether there will be an adequate number of people willing to attend who will talk freely.
The advantages of using focus groups to collect data are that they:

Draw from many sources of people

Increase the support of ideas being discussed

Allow on-the-spot clarification of ideas

Help participants see others' viewpoints

The disadvantages are:

They require a large time commitment

One or two individuals may overpower the discussion or sway the group

Data may be difficult to quantify

Extant Data
The process of collecting data from extant (existing) data or work records is fairly easy if you have the
support of upper management and therefore access to operational records. Numerous sources of
information have been created for your organization to analyze the overall business. These records can
provide valuable data for preparing training.
Such work records are:

Sales performance

Productivity

Cost reports

Accident reports

Attendance records

Grievances

Records of complimentary meals and rooms and the reasons why they were given

Turnover

Employee performance appraisals

Test results

Planning documents

Policy manuals

Minutes of meetings

Budget reports

These reports provide you with objective data that is easy to access. They are also excellent sources of
information to help you identify problem areas. But there are disadvantages to using these reports. They
can sometimes take a long time to process and they are focused on past events, not the present. These
documents alone usually do not identify causes or solutions and they may require a high degree of skill to
analyze and interpret correctly.
Nominal Group Technique

The process of nominal group technique data collection is that of assembling several managers to
brainstorm training issues. As training manager, you facilitate the meeting and record training issues for
all to see as they're being discussed. You can record issues on boards or flip chart pages. It is important
to allow brainstorming to occur without restraints.
Once the ideas are recorded, group them into common categories, then simplify and clarify them. Once
all members of the group have had an opportunity to share their thoughts, a vote of participants sets
priorities for the training ideas. The voting process can be ballot or open. If major differences of opinion
occur, it is appropriate to schedule a follow-up meeting to set priorities.
The nominal group technique allows several managers to share ideas at one time, promotes consensus,
and encourages management input. It can, however, be very time consuming and requires someone with
facilitation skills.
Interviews
Interviews can be formal or informal, conducted in person or on the phone. They are highly effective when
feelings need to be shared and the sensitivity of the subject is high. Interviews should be structured
enough to provide a common basis for comparison of data. However, interviewing allows for flexibility by
virtue of your control of the process; you can rephrase and redirect questions that the interviewee may not
have understood.
To prepare for an interview, write the questions in advance. Carefully design the questions explicitly so
that you elicit the information you are seeking. Phrase the questions in a way that will attain useful
information. Interviewing allows you to tailor the questions to the appropriate recipient, either manager or
employee.
It is appropriate to ask open-ended questions in an interview. Questions that begin with the
words how and what are more likely to provide useful information.
For example:

What skills do you feel the most comfortable with?

What parts of your routine slow down check-in?

How would you describe your typical day?

What is the most significant change this organization needs to accomplish?

What are the most significant skills that you desire to acquire with the help of training and
development?

What skills would you like to offer to your employees through the training department?

What are your people not getting accomplished in the course of their workday which they should
be doing?

What is your greatest challenge?

What are the most important aspects of the job your employees are doing?

The following are some factors to consider when choosing interviewing as a data collection method:

Schedule interviews in advance

Schedule at a time that is most convenient to the interviewee

Plan questions in advance

Send questions to the interviewee in advance, if possible

Indicate the purpose of your interview

Provide an agenda

Provide opening remarks that restate your purpose

Specify a location

Specify an ending time as well as a beginning time

Provide privacy

Reduce distractions

Reduce interruptions

Explain the needs assessment process

Explain that you're willing to maintain confidentiality

To be effective you need to sharpen your interview skills such as listening, clarifying responses without
leading, focusing on specifics rather than generalities, focusing on tone of voice, and not becoming
distracted.
The advantages to interviewing is that it is flexible, reveals and records feelings and opinions, reveals the
occasional unexpected bit of information, may provide solutions, and is appropriate for a small sample of
people. Its drawbacks are that it is very time-consuming, highly labor-intensive, and can be difficult to
analyze. The data are usually appropriate only for a small sample. It also requires someone who can
report findings accurately.

Interviews can be conducted with employees, co-workers, guests, supervisors, managers, peers, work
teams, or senior executives. This qualitative method of data collection is particularly effective because it
allows you the freedom to express yourself in exploring problems and solutions.
Observations
Observation as a data collection method also can be formal or informal, complex or simple. In the process
of observation, one or more observers watch an employee or manager (noting repeat behavior
especially), then investigate and analyze the work processes that he or she observes. It requires a skilled
observer to be factual and not judgmental.
Observers should be detail-oriented, objective, and accurate. It is important when there is more than one
observer that all observers agree on facts. Discussions with management may lead to better
understanding of specific traits or characteristics unique to that workplace.
This data collection method is often used to confirm information that may be gathered through other
sources. Secret shoppers perform observation as they report back to management specific, objective,
and factual data that were collected during their observations. It is important that the observer not
interfere with the work performance taking place.
The advantages of the observation method is that it usually provides accurate data and it occurs on the
job. It is a good method when collecting data on small populations. It is also effective in measuring
nontechnical tasks such as guest service and interpersonal skills. The drawbacks are that it is highly
labor-intensive and it requires a skilled observer.
Objective Data Collection
To fully analyze the complexities of the organization, it is effective to select several methods of data
collection and different groups of participants--for instance, employees, supervisors, managers, or
executives. Analyze historical data, current operational data, and explore the likelihood of organizational
changes in the future. Do not fall into the trap of relying on only one person's opinion, regardless of the
organizational position that he or she holds. The accuracy of your findings will depend on the variety of
your sources and the methods used.

Organizing Data
Depending on your organization and the intricacies of the needs assessment, your selection of
information sources will vary. Often there are people who can provide you with certain types of
information. These people include senior management, line-level employees, human resources
personnel, department managers, suppliers, competitors, guests, and experts or consultants.
Senior management may provide information on:

Environmental threats

Environmental opportunities

Any pending legal action that will affect business

Organizational strategy

Organizational vision

Organizational mission

Primary goals

Likelihood of organizational expansion

Likelihood of organizational reduction

Their vision of training

Employees may provide information on:

How they learn best

Which recent training was most useful

Which recent training was least useful

Whether they conduct self-assessments

What they like best about their job

What they like least about their job

What is the greatest challenge on the job

What is their level of involvement in the operation

Likelihood of staying with the company

Department managers may provide information on:

Assistance with identifying the problem

Methods they use to provide feedback to their employees

How much interaction they have with hourly employees

How they handle guest comments

How they react to an operational problem

What employee actions are praised

How frequently they conduct employee performance appraisals

What they think the organizational strengths are

What they think the organizational weaknesses are

Their department's on-the-job accident rate

Human resources personnel may provide information on:

Performance data

Turnover rates

Safety rates

Employee grievance reports

Job descriptions

Absenteeism rate for the organization as a whole and individual departments

Suppliers may provide information on:

Industry standards

Their perception of environmental threats

Their perception of environmental opportunities

Their perception of the competition

Competitors may provide information through published data such as:

Annual reports

Stock prices

Articles in trade magazines

Guests may provide information on:

Their perception of the organization's reputation

Their perception of the organization's competition

Where they would be conducting business if they were not at the property

A positive service encounter at the property

A negative service encounter at the property

How frequently they conduct business with the property

What would make them frequent the property more often

Experts or consultants may provide information on:

Industry standards

Environmental threats

Environmental opportunities

Pending legal changes that will affect business

Specifics about their area of expertise

Tools
Frequent communication between training managers and other upper managers encourages the sharing
of information. Many properties receive weekly, monthly, quarterly--even hourly--reports that monitor the
flow of business. These reports can provide useful data to you as you conduct a comprehensive needs
assessment and analysis.
Until you become proficient at interpreting these operational results, solicit the help of an operations
manager. He or she can better tell you what is normal for that department. You'll be an excellent source of
information as you monitor these reports over time for each department and for the organization as a
whole.
Typical of the reports you should look for are:

Pre-test results

Post-test results

Occupancy rates

Turnover rates

Food costs

Labor costs

Overhead costs

Beverage costs

Return on investment

Performance instruments

Absenteeism

Audits

Guest comments

Number of turnaways

Work samples over time

Exit interviews

Attitude surveys

Skill tests

Grievances

Accidents

Trade publications

Conference presentations

Industry standards

Analysis
Analyzing data can be a complex process with involved methods of analysis for each data collection
method. However, information is only of value when you use it to identify trends and benchmarks and
ultimately identify problems from the data.
You must be very systematic and non-judgmental when analyzing qualitative data, to identify common
themes and sort appropriately. Quantitative data is very exact, and complex statistical analysis may not
be necessary. In general, many problems can be identified by keeping quantitative analysis simple and in
the current units that your organization is already using in other operational reports.
As you complete your needs assessment, make recommendations based on the data. The data should
determine whether the problem is one that can be corrected by training. These data will become a pivotal
point in your training proposal. Keep it simple. Make sure it is accurate.

Other Classifications of Needs Assessment

There are two relatively new classifications of needs assessment that may be useful in your organization.
One is called deficiency oropportunity assessment and the other categorizes knowns and unknowns.
Deficiency or Opportunity
In 1992, Rothwell and Srendl classified needs assessment based on whether the assessor was
examining a deficiency in the organization or an opportunity on the horizon. Deficiency needs
assessments are representative of the traditional style. They typically focus on a gap that exists currently
in the organization. The assessor identifies the gaps and determines training opportunities to eliminate
the source of the problem.
Opportunity-oriented needs assessments look forward and try to predict gaps that may occur. By looking
ahead, the assessor is able to identify gaps in advance and take proactive steps in training to try to
prevent them.
The opportunity-oriented needs assessment process can contribute to the strategic planning process of
the organization. It allows the trainer or assessor to make things happen instead of waiting for them to
occur. The trainer or assessor must work closely with department managers to ascertain what these
potential problems or opportunities are likely to be.
Known or Unknown
The basis for this classification is the identification of four different types of needs assessments
(see Exhibit 4). They are classified based on the two axes of "condition" and "problem," each of which
have "known" and "unknown" components.
The needs assessment types are corrective, developmental, adaptive, and strategic. Their characteristics
are outlined below.

The corrective needs assessment:

Analyzes existing problems

Identifies performance problems

Is deficiency oriented

Is traditional

Is reactive

The developmental needs assessment:

Analyzes the problem in the existing environment

Analyzes the problem based on existing conditions

Increases the organization's ability to handle an unknown problem

The adaptive needs assessment:

Identifies new conditions in the organization within the same job type as in the past

Is used when, for example, there is a restructuring or a corporate merger

Is used to determine what training is necessary for employees to adapt to the new conditions

The strategic needs assessment:

Discovers unknown conditions

Searches for unknown problems

Responds to a rapidly changing environment

Anticipates

Is proactive

Looks to the future analysis [endnote 1]

Chapter 3 - Competency 6:
Explain how to use the information gained from a needs assessment.

Working with Results

A comprehensive needs assessment takes you to the root cause of the problem or performance gap. It
confirms that the gap is caused by a problem that can be solved by training. Now what are you going to
do?
Plan Your Initial Training Goals and Objectives
It is now time for you to develop several well-defined training goals and objectives to overcome the
obstacle that was identified by your gap analysis. These goals and objectives should be included in your
training proposal. They should be positive, direct, definable, measurable, and align with organizational
goals. These goals and objectives should clearly answer the question, "Where do you want to end up?"
The training program's goals and objectives will also indicate the criteria for measurement and evaluation
of the training program.
Gaining Support
You will not be able to move forward with your training program until you gain the support of upper
management. As you create your training proposal, write your recommendations based on the data
obtained from your needs assessment. Substantiate your recommendations with clearly written
statements that communicate positively the desired results.
Seek out an opportunity to present your training proposal. This process will allow you to gain support and
answer questions. You know the training proposal better than anyone else; this will be an opportunity to
share your comprehensive report. Take care to relate the needs analysis to the company's bottom line
and you'll be speaking the financial language of upper management.
Determine where training fits into the overall organizational goals. As you're able to better focus the
overall training initiatives, keeping them in alignment with the overall organizational goals, you're better
able to solicit and attain upper management support.
As you achieve results through training, document these results with figures that show the return on
investment that training expenditures provided the organization. As these become known, the perceived
status of training and development within the organization will be heightened.
Get to Know Your Audience
You can better design a program once you have a clear picture of who you will be training. It is quite
probable you have already begun to get to know your audience, as these are likely the individuals you
have been interviewing, observing, or surveying in your needs assessment. Your ability to positively
interact with trainees in advance will increase your credibility in the training room.
There are several ways you can get to know the audience in advance:

Discuss their characteristics with the department manager, human resources personnel, or a
contact person who knows the group

Review the survey responses or pre-session questionnaires before training

Contact other trainers who have worked with this particular group to seek advice

Arrive early and have all of your material set up so you can spend time talking with the trainees
as they arrive

Consider phoning a few trainees in advance to discuss with them pertinent needs related to
training

Different audiences will have different needs. Determine as many characteristics of your audience as
possible before your session. One method you can use is the pre session questionnaire. This is a simple
survey asking a few basic questions of trainees in advance of the program. This process provides:

An opportunity for the trainees to start thinking about the training topic in advance

A confirmation of the commitment to the training program

Insight from responses:

Potential barriers

Potential attitude problems

Actual situations that you can work into case studies or role-plays

Strengths of the group that you can call on for examples

The training level to which the program needs to be designed--not insulting and not over
their heads

There are several factors you should learn in advance about the audience:

How many to expect

What exactly they do in their jobs

How familiar they are with the subject matter

Age range

Attitudes

Beliefs relevant to the training topic

Problem areas of the past

Skill level

Literacy level

Familiarity with each other

Trainee expectations

At what point in the trainees' workday the training will occur

What degree of support for training exists in their immediate work place

Conclusion
Offering training programs in a haphazard manner or based only on the skills of the trainers is not an
effective approach to supporting the organization's goals. Training is a support system designed to
enhance an employee's abilities, and you need to determine what exactly the employee needs to learn.
The training needs assessment is the tool that identifies organizational problems and helps get to their
root cause. Only when you know where the true problem lies can you create an effective training program
that imparts the most effective skills, knowledge, and attitudes to employees that they will in turn transfer
back to the workplace.
The training needs assessment process should be an ongoing or continual process within the
organization. Other organizational areas should become familiar with the process to provide data to you
as gaps warrant.
As you conduct comprehensive needs assessments, it is important to integrate multiple methods of data
collection, as this will increase the likelihood of accurate results. Comprehensive analysis of these results,
and recommendations based on data, will allow you to better identify and offer the effective training and
development programs your organization needs and deserves.

Chapter 4 - Competency 1:
Summarize the history of instructional design and its fundamental principles.

Instructional Design
A builder would never drive a single nail before he had a blueprint in hand. Nor would a computer
programmer begin writing code before she knew what the program was supposed to accomplish. A
restaurant manager wouldn't seat a single guest before the restaurant determined its menu. Yet, many
managers and trainers will skip the instructional design phase of training and move right to conducting the
training.

Several hospitality trainers have stated that managers have no concept of instructional design and
therefore budget little time or money for the task. Unless trainers are able to explain succinctly why
instructional design is important, it is unlikely they will receive the resources that they need to proceed
with it.
So why is instructional design important?
Because it's the training blueprint.
Trainers who use instructional design principles--whether formally or informally--are making an effort to
ensure that learning has taken place. Instructional design is a rigorous process used to both determine
and meet the needs of trainees.
While there are many different instructional design models, nearly all of them stress the use of a
systematic process; identify stages of design, development, and evaluation; and require an initial analysis
stage. Instructional design is the process of applying a set of principles to achieve learning. Exhibit
1 contains a commonly used definition of instructional design.

History of Instructional Design

Instructional design has come into its own as an academic field in the past several decades. It first
became a practical field in high demand during World War II, when thousands of men and women needed
to be trained for war work. There was a strong demand for training films, tapes, transparencies, and
courses. It was during this period that the instructional designer was seen as someone different than the
subject matter expert.
Based on what was learned during the high demand of World War II, the training practitioners began to
make instructional design a more formal discipline. Psychologists and professors began examining
behaviorial science, learning taxonomies, and models for instructional design.
In the 1960s, Robert Glaser and Robert Gagne began to publish their theories on learning and the criteria
to be used for determining whether training was effective. From their ideas, many instructional design
models were developed.
By the 1980s, the computer began to be an important part of instructional design. It brought many of the
academic theories into large corporations as corporate trainers adopted instructional design models into
their computer training. It was in the 1980s that industry trainers became the champions of instructional
design.
In the 1990s, many large firms began creating corporate universities to train their employees. To make
these corporate universities effective, trainers examined the theories that professors and psychologists
had developed, and altered them to fit their needs.

Principles of Instructional Design

Instructional design is a systematic process of providing instruction and training to the people who are
most in need of it. It is learner--centered--everything is centered on outcomes, outcomes determined by a
thorough needs assessment and evaluation. Instructional design is a process that translates general
learning and instructional principles into actual lesson plans, materials, and delivery systems.
This section looks at instructional design systems and strategies and briefly reviews some of the
predominant models instructional designers have used through the years.

Systems and Strategy

The planning of instruction in a highly systematic manner, with attention to the consistency and
compatibility of technical knowledge at each point of decision, is usually termed the systems approach.
[endnote 1]

A systems approach to instructional design typically has the following characteristics:

Large-scale team development

Linear development process

Wide distribution of the system

Problem-solving orientation

What does all of this mean to you as the hospitality trainer? It means that you are not an isolated figure
sitting in an office determining how to train hospitality employees. Rather, you must coordinate a team of
managers and employees to help determine training needs, effective delivery methods, and evaluation
tools. It means that you must be able to articulate the design model that you are using, explain each step
in the process, schedule training tasks, and be able to follow up and document your training steps. It
means that you are more than a purchaser of programs and a lecturer. It means that you are a vital part of
making sure that learning transfer takes place. You are a systems manager who must make sure that
each of the pieces of training is compatible with each other so that they create a dynamic system.
In her book on instructional systems development, Deborah Grafinger wrote that a systems approach:

Is a logical process for dealing with problems of training

Considers practical constraints on time, money, and other resources

Ensures that materials are consistent with each other

Focuses training efforts on the knowledge and skills learners need to do their jobs

Consistently produces well-trained employees when qualified trainers are used

Provides for program evaluation, revision, refinement, and improvement

Works evaluation into all aspects of the training plan from the very start

Develops documentation plans before training begins

[endnote 2]

The systems approach that most trainers used is called ADDIE: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement,
and Evaluate. There are many models that have expanded on this approach, but the vast majority of them
incorporate these five basic phases.

Instructional Design Models

Many instructional design models have been developed, and it is up to you to choose which will work best
for you and your organization. The major models that instructional designers use are:

Dick and Carey Design Model

Hannafin Peck Design Model

Knirk and Gustafson Design Model

Jerrold Kemp Design Model

Gerlach-Ely Design Model

Rapid Prototyping Design Model

Dick and Carey Design Model. One of the most commonly used approaches to instructional design has
been the Dick and Carey Design Model, which uses a systems approach. Exhibit 2 shows the flow of the
steps in the model. This model stresses that each step in the process be done in a particular order as the
feedback from one step will provide the information to perform the next step. Creators of the model state
that "following the process causes the designer to focus on the needs and abilities of the individual
learner and results in the creation of the best possible instruction-motivation that may be individualized or
group paced depending on a variety of learner and context factors." [endnote 3]
Hannafin Peck Design Model. The Hannafin Peck Design Model is a three-phase process beginning
with a needs assessment. You then move to the design phase, and then finally develop and implement
the instruction. As shown in Exhibit 3, this model incorporates evaluation and revision into each of the
phases.
Knirk and Gustafson Design Model. The Knirk and Gustafson Design Model shown in Exhibit 4 is also
a three-phase process, encompassing problem determination, design, and development. During the first
phase, you identify the problem and set learning goals. In phase two, you develop objectives and
determine strategies. Finally, you develop the materials.
Jerrold Kemp Design Model. In the Jerrold Kemp Design Model, you are challenged to account for all
possible factors of the learning environment. The approach is less systematic and more holistic. Factors
that you must account for include subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning objectives, teaching
activities, resources, support services, and evaluation (see Exhibit 5).
Gerlach-Ely Design Model. This model (see Exhibit 6) is used mostly by instructional designers who are
new to the process and have more knowledge about content than instructional techniques. It is
considered a prescriptive model that works better in academic settings than in the workplace.
Rapid Prototyping Design Model. Rapid prototyping models actually break out of the ADDIE system.
One of the weaknesses of most instructional design models is that they are too linear. Even those models
that encourage evaluation throughout the process are typically implemented in a linear fashion by trainers
with limited budgets who cannot afford to return to completed stages.

Rapid prototyping is a model developed by computer systems designers. It involves creating a smallscale prototype of the training program after the first stages of analysis are completed. The prototype
contains many of the key elements of what designers anticipate the final program will need. It is then
tested and evaluated for effectiveness. The prototype is then discarded and work on the full program is
begun.
The rapid prototyping design model is for experienced instructional designers who have a strong grasp of
learning styles and are confident in their experience and intuition. The four-phase process as illustrated
in Exhibit 7 is used to create individual lessons. The stages include performing a needs analysis, building
a prototype, using the prototype to evaluate, and installing the final training system. It is most commonly
used with computer-based training.
Just-in-Time Instructional Design
One objection to traditional instructional design models is that they require too much time and resources
to implement. One expert said, "If you took your time to complete all the analyses according to the
conventional ISD model, your instructional package would be obsolete even before completion. In
addition to tight schedules, today's budgets are stingy, and you have to justify every expenditure." [endnote
4] The response to this, according to this expert, is to use just-in-time instructional design.
Just-in-time instructional design is a development process that suggests trading off resources between
the steps. For example, if you have a highly skilled trainer who worked ten years as a night auditor, you
can skimp on night auditing training design. If the reverse is true, if your delivery resources are very
limited, perhaps your trainer has no experience in the skill which he or she will be training, then extra
resources need to be allocated to the design phase to make sure the instructional package can be used
by anyone.
The second trade-off that just-in-time instructional design makes is among presentation, activities, and
feedback. During the initial stages, each of these components can be developed independent of each
other and then integrated in the final package. This allows you to produce effective instruction faster and
cheaper. Exhibit 8 gives a checklist with ten strategies for just-in-time instructional design.
Key Factors in a Successful Course
The better you are able to understand and apply various educational theories and strategies, the better
you will be able to facilitate successful learning. To help you in your efforts to apply these theories, we
offer the following topics:

Students as adult learners

Levels of learning

Students as Adult Learners. A trainer will be more successful if he or she understands and uses adult
learning principles when working with trainees. For learning to occur, the following conditions should be
present:

L--Let discussion take place. Discussion allows participants to become part of the process and
challenges them to perform at higher levels of learning. Employees should be allowed to
intellectually challenge and discuss ideas, methods, and issues presented in the training. This
discussion takes learning beyond the basic level of retention of information and brings the
participants into higher levels of thought and analysis.

E--Experience based. Adults need to relate the learning material to what they already know.
Students' retention of material learned in the classroom will be enhanced if they can relate it to
their present knowledge. Use employee experiences as learning resources. Adults want to be
recognized for the information and experiences they have accumulated through their past
employment and education. Let them contribute examples and insights relevant to issues being
discussed during the training.

A--Active involvement. Employees are not "receptacles" into which you pour information. They
are active learners and participants in the learning process. The higher the trainees' involvement,
the greater their understanding, retention, and transfer of information, behaviors, or skills learned
during the training.

R--Relevant content. Adults need knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are relevant to their needs.
Focus learning on real-world problems; adult trainees want to know how to deal with such issues.
They welcome examples, exercises, and discussions that focus on realistic situations. Emphasize
how the training can be applied by the trainees. Show trainees how the information, behaviors, or
skills learned can be carried over to and applied in the real world.

N--Numerous activities. Adults have different learning styles. Incorporate a variety of activities
that appeal to differences in learning preferences. In the final analysis, remember to relate
training to trainees' goals. Show them how the information, behaviors, or skills presented in the
training will help them to achieve personal, professional, and educational goals.

Levels of Learning. The human mind can think on different levels. Consequently, trainees' learning can
take place on different levels. Benjamin J. Bloom, a noted U.S. educator, developed a classification
system of six levels of learning. These levels range from simple and concrete to complex and abstract.
They are:

1.

Knowledge--Trainees can recite or memorize objects or concepts.

2.

Comprehension--Trainees can elaborate upon what they have learned. They can explain the
concept or object using their own words rather than words they have memorized.

3.

Application--Trainees understand what they have learned. They can apply the skill or concept in a
real situation.

4.

Analysis--Trainees can look at an object or concept and break it down into its parts. They can
also see the relationship of different objects or bodies of knowledge.

5.

Synthesis--Given the parts, trainees can assemble them to construct a unique object or concept.
They can also unite different bodies of knowledge.

6.

Evaluation--Trainees can judge the value or quality of the object or concept.

For a trainee to be successful at higher levels of learning, he or she first must have mastered the lower
levels. For example, a trainee could not evaluate a banquet menu if he or she couldn't define a quality
banquet menu or specify the component parts of a successful banquet menu.

As a trainer, you must identify the level at which you want your trainees to learn the knowledge, behavior,
or skill. You must then construct training activities that allow them to learn at the level you have
selected. Exhibit 9 gives an example of how Bloom's taxonomy of learning is applied to server training.

Chapter 4 - Competency 2:
Differentiate among the types of analysis trainers perform.
Steps in Instructional Design
Instructional design in its most basic form aims for a learner-centered approach to instruction, an
approach that tries to ensure that learning takes place. This means that all training must center on
learning objectives and competencies--and those objectives and competencies must be determined by a
thorough analysis of learner needs.
Instructional design is also a process that can help a property make its training budget work more
effectively. It is true that instructional design adds quite a bit of development time to a given training
session. However, because of the detailed analysis and design phase, it helps prevent wasted time,
money, and effort on projects that are not well thought out. It helps prevent development of training that
will not meet organizational goals or solve organizational problems.
At this point we will look more closely at each of the ADDIE steps in instructional design:

Analyze: Define the problem, identify the source of the problem, and determine possible
solutions.

Design: Outline the ways to reach the instructional objectives determined in the analyze stage.

Develop: Create lesson plans and lesson materials.

Implement: Deliver the training.

Evaluate: Measure the effectiveness and efficiency of the training.

Analyze
Analysis has several components. It begins with determining who your learners are; what you are trying to
achieve with your instruction; what knowledge, skills, and attitudes need to be taught; and how much
content you need in your instruction.
It is often tempting to skip this stage, especially for a trainer or manager who has been with a property for
a long time. There is a tendency to think that you already know the training needs of your organization
and its employees. A dining room manager may insist that an analysis isn't necessary--he wants a training
program on the point-of-sale system so that there are fewer mistakes in kitchen orders. Or the
reservations manager may tell you she already knows why the conversion rate is so low, and that you
need to train the reservationists on closing a sale. Yet, an analysis might reveal that the mistakes are due
to servers asking the wrong questions or room rates that are unappealing to the targeted market.
It is especially tempting to skip this stage when training budgets are being cut or are non-existent. If the
analysis stage is skipped, you are missing out on valuable training information. Indeed, you are forced to
rely on your own intuition and that of departmental managers. Analysis can help both you and the

property's managers make informed decisions and identify the true training needs and priorities of the
organization. In the long run, the property will save money, time, and effort because the training offered
will be the right training for the right problem.
During the analysis stage, you determine exactly where you want to go and what you want your trainees
to know. Review the overall goal of your training program. Why are you doing the program? What do you
hope your students will gain from it?
Many instructional designers further break the analysis stage down into these parts:

Needs analysis

Problem analysis

Goals analysis

Trainee analysis

Resource analysis

Job and task analysis

Analysis can take place on at least two different levels: the needs assessment of an entire organization
and its individual departments, and the analysis of a specific training need. Here we briefly define the
needs analysis of the organization and then focus on the analysis needed for a specific training problem.
Needs Analysis
Needs analysis is the systematic process of determining organizational gaps between ideal performance
and actual performance. In a needs analysis, you collect data to determine where the organizational gaps
exist and whether they are problems that can be solved through training.
Problem Analysis
The needs analysis will identify the problems that the organization faces. Problem analysis helps you
discover the cause of the problem and whether training is the proper solution. The problem analysis
should also help you discover whether the problem is an organizational problem, a departmental problem,
or an individual problem.
Organizational problems or needs are among the most difficult to identify because of their wide scope.
They are often expressed as "improve morale," "improve guest service," or "increase market share." An
organizational problem analysis will help you determine who gets trained, which jobs need to be
developed, and where the resources most need to go. It can also:

Match training needs to the goals and objectives of the organization.

Match specific individual employee needs to the needs of the organization.

Identify which external forces are affecting the organization's training needs.

Identify which internal forces are affecting the organization's training needs.

Analyze the reasons for high turnover.

Departmental needs are slightly easier to identify as they are typically more specific and related to job
tasks or job positions. Often, departmental needs relate to team building, problem-solving, sales training,
or safety issues.
Problems with individual empolyees are the easiest and most frequently identified. They involve
employees whose performance does not match organizational standards due to lack of knowledge, skills,
training, experience, or motivation.
Goals Analysis
Goals analysis is the stage where you identify the learning changes you hope to see in participants who
successfully complete the training. What knowledge do you want participants to have? What skills do you
want the employees to perform? What behaviors would you like to see the employees practice? To
answer these questions, you need to write a training goal or description and a list of objectives.
Unless you identify the training goal and articulate it, participants will not know what to expect of the
training. A training goal is written from a broad perspective and tells participants what you hope to
accomplish as a result of the training.
Remember that a training goal should focus on outcome, not on method. It does not tell what will happen
during the course, but it identifies the desired result of the course.
Goal analysis helps you identify the important goals of every stakeholder in training. You need to
incorporate the goals of the property, managers, supervisors, and the trainees so that all of them
cooperate in the training process.
Some instructional experts divide goal analysis into two steps:

1.

Categorize goals based on learning domains. The experts recommend dividing goals into ones
developed for knowledge, skill, and attitude development.

2.

Analyze each goal to identify steps in achieving the goal.

Trainee Analysis
During trainee analysis, you identify who your trainees are going to be. At this stage you may have a list
of names or you may just have a general idea of the learning characteristics and needs of the trainees.
Developing a trainee profile can help you better focus your training to meet the needs of the people who
will be experiencing it as well as meet the organization's needs. Try answering the following questions
about your target audience, the trainees:

Which employees need this information?

How experienced are they?

What have they struggled with most in the past?

Why will these trainees participate in this training (mandatory, voluntary, connected to raises)?

How much background knowledge do they have on the subject?

What are their general attitudes toward the training topic?

You need to determine what conditions your trainees should meet before being eligible for the training you
are designing. Must an employee already have a supervisory position before being eligible for supervisory
training? Are there other training courses that must be completed before being able to take the one you
are designing? You must be able to identify what participants must know or be able to do to successfully
complete the training you are designing.
Your trainee analysis will be invaluable when you determine the medium by which you will deliver the
training. For the most learning transfer to take place, you have to select the right medium for your specific
audience. Giving a textbook to a group of employees with low literacy levels will hinder learning transfer.
Putting a group of managers with technology phobias through computer simulation training will also
hamper the transfer of learning. Find out which medium will work best, based on how your specific
trainees like to learn. Consider adapting traditional methods to be more effective for your needs. For
example, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Lodging Association (AH&LA) developed a
series of language-free training videos for use with multinational housekeeping and kitchen staff. The
videos rely on music, demonstration, and internationally understood symbols to communicate with a
group of people who may speak a wide variety of native languages.
Resource Analysis
While the analysis so far may lead you to design one type of program, the resources you have available
may not support that type of program. A resource analysis identifies the resources you will have
available and what the constraints will be on your program.
Training facilities and equipment vary among properties and corporations. Identify the facilities and
equipment that are available to you. This information will affect your choice of learning activities and the
use of support media.
Some of the resources that you should identify include:

Classroom configuration (fixed-position seats, tables, number of seats, size of room,

demonstration equipment available, etc.)

Support personnel and services (secretarial services, assistants, duplication, etc.)

Support equipment (computers, overhead projectors, flip charts, VCRs, etc.)

Community and property resources (guest speakers, field trip locations, projects, etc.)

Job and Task Analysis

Job analysis is the process of determining the tasks each employee needs to perform and the standards
to which he or she must perform them. It is through job analysis that you are able to determine a logical
sequence for training and ensure that all key details are included in training. The task analysis breaks the
jobs down into tasks and specifies the skills and knowledge needed to complete each task.
Job and task analysis produces three things:

Task lists for each job--comprehensive lists of every task that a person performing that job
needs to be able to perform.

Job breakdowns--descriptions written for each task, detailing what is to be performed, the
materials needed to perform the task, the steps to be followed, and any additional information or
tips about the steps.

Job performance standards--specific and objective statements that describe how well the work
must be done.

All of these items are valuable tools for all steps of the instructional design process.

Chapter 4 - Competency 3:
Describe the types and functions of learning objectives in instructional design, and discuss
evaluation criteria and methods.

Design
The design phase involves determining specific learning outcomes and defining the scope of the training.
During the analysis stage, you identified a training goal; now you have to break that goal down into
learning objectives, determine how you will deliver the training, how you will evaluate training, how you
will sequence the content, and what delivery methods you will use.
Learning Objectives
According to Dr. Robert Mager, a world-renowned expert on design, development, and implementation of
instruction, training is effective to the degree that it succeeds in changing trainees in desired directions
and away from undesired directions. Mager discussed the importance of performance analysis and goal
analysis. A clear statement of these results provides a sound basis for selecting methods and materials
for instruction.[endnote 5] We will call these statements learning objectives.
A learning objective is a statement describing an instructional outcome. A learning objective describes
the results--the skills or performance you want the trainees to demonstrate--and not the means of getting
to those results. It is the description of trainee performance you want exhibited to determine competence.

There are many terms that are nearly synonymous with learning objectives. They include learning
outcomes, performance-based outcomes, course objectives, performance outcomes, and competencies.
While each has its own shade of meaning, for the sake of this chapter, we will use the term learning
objectives.
Learning objectives provide a sound basis for:

Selecting content and designing methods for presentation. What are you teaching? How do you
want your trainees to show they have learned the material to your satisfaction?

Evaluating the success of the instruction. By the end of the training session, can the students
make up a room in the required time? Conduct an employee evaluation? Handle a guest
complaint according to property regulations? Prepare a cream soup?

Organizing the participant activities for the accomplishment of the learning objectives. During the
training, will the participants need to write a procedure? Calculate figures? Read a handbook and
summarize the information?

Learning objectives are written from the perspective of what the participant should be able to do as a
result of having completed a specific portion of the training. There should be one learning objective for
each major content topic or section of the training.
In presenting learning objectives to participants, you may want to list the objectives in one of the following
ways:

The order in which they must be learned

The order of their importance

In clusters by major content areas

A good learning objective identifies four components of the training goal to be reached:

1.

Performance: What will the trainees be able to do?

2.

Standard of performance: What are the criteria that will demonstrate competence?

3.

Repetitions of performance: How many times must competence be demonstrated?

4.

Conditions of performance: Under which circumstances will trainees need to be able to complete
the performance?

Performance. Performance, as used here, refers to what your trainees will be doing when they
demonstrate mastery of the learning objective. For example:

The trainee will design five banquet menus.

The trainee will calculate the monthly food cost.

The trainee will diagram the hotel's organization chart and orally explain the relationship between
each department.

When describing the performance you want from participants, write the desired actions clearly. Exhibit
10 lists some action verbs and non-action verbs. The key to clearly stating the action you want from your
trainees is to answer the question: "Can I observe and measure the performance I am requiring?" For
example:

"The employees will appreciate the frustrations a guest feels when waiting to check out..."

"The employees will become familiar with the hotel's standard form for recording guest
complaints....."

Can you observe or measure employees "appreciating" something or see employees "becoming familiar
with" something? It is better if the objectives are written in a way that describes how the employees will
behave when they understand or appreciate the situation. For example:

"The employees will identify typical behaviors exhibited by guests who have to wait to check
out..."

"The employees will complete the information requested on the hotel's standard form used for
recording guest complaints..."

These versions of the objective use action verbs that describe measurable, observable performances.
Performance components in learning objectives can be quite obvious and observable or they can be
internal or mental exercises. Note these two examples:
Example 1: Identify errors in five menus by circling each one noted. While "identify" may not be
observable until the student circles the errors, this objective has included an observable indicator of
student performance, "Circling each one noted."
Example 2: Recall the procedure for making a roux by listing the six steps. Proof of student recall is
evidenced here by the list students generate. "Listing" is not the real objective but the content of the list
students produce is.
After wording the performance component of your learning objective, ask why you want employees to be
able to do it. For example, imagine that you wrote an instructional objective that stated, "List the eight
criteria used to write good banquet menus." Why do you want students to list the eight criteria? Your
response might be, "So they can write well-balanced, attractive banquet menus." Thus the real outcome
or result that you desire is to have employees "write well-balanced, attractive banquet menus." The
learning objective could then be written as, "Using the eight criteria discussed in the training session,
write well-balanced banquet menus for two group functions as assigned." Knowing the eight criteria, what
they represent, and how to use them are necessary so employees can demonstrate the desired outcome.
You will instruct employees about the eight criteria and how they are to be used. However, they do not
need a separate learning objective.
In the hospitality industry, employee attitude is an important concern, especially employee attitude toward
guests. Thus an objective in guest service training might be: "Develop a positive attitude toward all

guests." What is the performance you are asking for here? The statement as written is really just a phrase
that describes a "state of being"; it is not a measurable condition the way it is written.
How then can such "states of being" be described? Ask what employee behaviors would satisfy you that
an employee has a positive attitude toward guests. Your response might be:

Smiles at guests often

Looks directly at guests

Speaks with a positive tone of voice

Answers guests' questions thoroughly

All four of these statements are measurable and observable actions and behaviors that illustrate a
"positive attitude toward guests." Learning objectives could then be written that include all four of these
statements.
Standard of Performance. A standard of performance states those criteria you choose that accurately
show the competence of the employees. These should relate as closely as possible to real-life
competence; for example, it may be necessary to perform a task in less than five minutes if speed is
required on the job. Desired levels of performance are the goals here, not merely the acceptable or
adequate levels.
Examples of standards of performance include:

Accuracy of achievement ("...without error.")

Number of errors allowable while demonstrating performance ("...with four out of five correct.")

Time within or speed at which performance is to be achieved ("...within fifteen minutes.")

Task-specific or industry standards ("...according to the specification on page 36 of the manual.")

Repetitions of Performance. Repetitions of performance refers to the number of times employees must
demonstrate required behavior before it is accepted as adequately learned. Examples include:

"...for three consecutive occasions."

"...for three of four recipes."

"...on the final examination."

Conditions of Performance. The term conditions describes the situation in which your employees will
be required to demonstrate the performance during practice or on tests after instruction. Types of
conditions include:

Resources that trainees will be allowed to use.

Restrictions that you will place on the trainees: "without using the text or class notes, for
example."

Samples of stated conditions include:

"Given a written maintenance schedule, the trainees will..."

"Without using a calculator, the trainees will..."

Exhibit 11 is a learning objective checklist that can be used when writing learning objectives.
Constructing Criterion Measures
One of the hallmarks of the instructional design process is the early development of test questions or
other evaluation measures. Most instructional design experts insist that test questions be developed
before any of the rest of the content, as the content should be focused on what will later be measured and
evaluated.
In Basics of Instructional System Development, Deborah Grafinger writes that determining evaluation
criteria and methods early in the design phase allows you to answer these questions about your
objectives:

Are they testable? Trainees should be able to demonstrate observable, measurable actions
based on well-written objectives.

Do you have the resources to test the learning objectives?

Does the objective test skills needed on the job or do they really test an employee's ability to
describe work rather than his or her ability to do it? [endnote 6]

Donald Kirkpatrick, an expert in the training evaluation field, identified four levels that trainers should
evaluate:

Reaction

Learning

Behavior

Results

The first level, reaction, evaluates how well trainees liked the training. These measures are often the
easiest to construct as they can be as simple as a questionnaire that asks trainees whether the training
met their needs, whether it was well presented, whether the trainer was well-prepared and interesting,

etc. When designing these forms, you should try to make it as easy as possible for the trainees to answer
quickly and briefly. It is common to use a Likert scale of 1 to 5 with space left for the trainees to add
additional comments.
The second level, learning, involves evaluating how effectively you and the trainees achieved the
learning objectives. Exhibit 12 lists some evaluation techniques that can be included to measure learning.
To measure how well trainees have learned, you may need to build in pre-tests (many types exist) and
post-tests.
The third level, behavior, is more difficult to measure than either reaction or learning. To measure
behavior changes, you must find a way to measure on-the-job behaviors and how they have changed.
This might involve getting feedback from trainees, their peers, supervisors, or direct reports.
Perhaps the most important level of evaluation is results. Results evaluation measures training
outcomes. How has the organization changed because of the training? Have costs been reduced? Guest
satisfaction increased? Injuries reduced?
The three right-hand columns of Exhibit 12 suggest which activities and techniques can be used to
evaluate knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

Chapter 4 - Competency 4:
Explain how a trainer sequences content and selects methods and media for a training
curriculum.
Sequencing Content
Sequencing content is a step in which you place content and learning experiences in the order that will
produce the greatest learning in the least amount of time. The sequence of training affects the potency of
your training. Grouping related learning objectives and activities will:

Help trainees with the transition from one objective to the next

Ensure that trainees gain prerequisite knowledge and skills before moving on to the more
complicated areas

Reduce training time

Prevent trainee confusion and failure

Many instructional designers attempt to order their learning objectives according to Bloom's taxonomy-having their instruction begin with developing knowledge and progressing to applying that knowledge after
ensuring it has been understood. These designers classify learning objectives by associating their action
verbs with learning levels. Exhibit 13 illustrates the commonly used action verbs associated with each
learning level.
Once the objectives have been sorted into learning levels, you have to pick a logical structure in which
you will sequence the content. There are several structures to choose from, including:

Known to unknown

Simple to complex

Step-by-step/chronological

General to specific

You then must determine the order for activities within each content section. One sequencing possibility
follows Robert Gagne's nine events of instruction:

1.

Gain attention. Get the attention of trainees by using a paradox, magazine article, demonstration,
analogy, anecdote, photograph, or some other media.

2.

Inform learners of objectives. Tell trainees what they will be learning and what they will be doing.
Build their expectations by telling them the training objectives and how the training will be
structured.

3.

Stimulate recall of prior learning. Relate your current training to situations or knowledge or
experience that your trainees are already familiar with.

4.

Present stimuli with distinctive features. Describe the key points of the training session,
emphasizing distinctive features. Use a variety of techniques, if possible, to engage several
different learning styles.

5.

Guide learning. Present your training in small steps, leading from the simple to the complex.

6.

Encourage active participation. Involve trainees in questioning, discussing, and demonstrating to

confirm that they have mastered the learning objectives. This will also help increase their
understanding and help them maintain attention.

7.

Provide feedback. As trainees respond to your questioning, provide them with reinforcement or
retraining when necessary.

8.

Assess performance. Use a quiz or some sort of evaluative instrument to measure whether
trainees mastered the objectives.

9.

Enhance learning transfer and learning retention. Help the trainees apply their training to the work
environment. Try to include experiential learning activities so that trainees are encouraged to
reflect on and analyze what they have learned.

Selecting Methods and Media

The designer must consider those training methods and media that will best match the learning
objectives. Methods are those activities and instructional techniques that are used to guide the trainee
toward achieving the learning objectives. They are sometimes broken into trainer activities and trainee

activities. Media is typically defined as the object that transmits training. This could be a textbook, a video,
a presenter, a computer, or anything else.
Which methods and media are used is often determined by the type of objective and whether it involves
knowledge, skills, or attitude. Exhibit 14 is a matrix that can help you determine which method works best
for each type of objective.
The next concern is the cost of the method and the media. The benefit of the training should outweigh its
cost, so you need to determine whether the expense of a particular media or activity is justified by its
effectiveness in achieving the learning objectives.
The experience and knowledge of your trainees will also help you choose media and methods. Hospitality
employees are a diverse group that covers a wide range of ages, backgrounds, literacy, and languages.
Your activities have to meet everyone's needs without being too complex or too simple. There may also
be cultural issues that will affect how comfortable your trainees are with particular methods or activities.

Once the objectives have been sorted into learning levels, you have to pick a logical structure in which
you will sequence the content. There are several structures to choose from, including:

Known to unknown

Simple to complex

Step-by-step/chronological

General to specific

You then must determine the order for activities within each content section. One sequencing possibility
follows Robert Gagne's nine events of instruction:

1.

Gain attention. Get the attention of trainees by using a paradox, magazine article, demonstration,
analogy, anecdote, photograph, or some other media.

2.

Inform learners of objectives. Tell trainees what they will be learning and what they will be doing.
Build their expectations by telling them the training objectives and how the training will be
structured.

3.

Stimulate recall of prior learning. Relate your current training to situations or knowledge or
experience that your trainees are already familiar with.

4.

Present stimuli with distinctive features. Describe the key points of the training session,
emphasizing distinctive features. Use a variety of techniques, if possible, to engage several
different learning styles.

5.

Guide learning. Present your training in small steps, leading from the simple to the complex.

6.

Encourage active participation. Involve trainees in questioning, discussing, and demonstrating to

confirm that they have mastered the learning objectives. This will also help increase their
understanding and help them maintain attention.

7.

Provide feedback. As trainees respond to your questioning, provide them with reinforcement or
retraining when necessary.

8.

Assess performance. Use a quiz or some sort of evaluative instrument to measure whether
trainees mastered the objectives.

9.

Enhance learning transfer and learning retention. Help the trainees apply their training to the work
environment. Try to include experiential learning activities so that trainees are encouraged to
reflect on and analyze what they have learned.

Selecting Methods and Media

The designer must consider those training methods and media that will best match the learning
objectives. Methods are those activities and instructional techniques that are used to guide the trainee
toward achieving the learning objectives. They are sometimes broken into trainer activities and trainee
activities. Media is typically defined as the object that transmits training. This could be a textbook, a video,
a presenter, a computer, or anything else.
Which methods and media are used is often determined by the type of objective and whether it involves
knowledge, skills, or attitude. Exhibit 14 is a matrix that can help you determine which method works best
for each type of objective.
The next concern is the cost of the method and the media. The benefit of the training should outweigh its
cost, so you need to determine whether the expense of a particular media or activity is justified by its
effectiveness in achieving the learning objectives.
The experience and knowledge of your trainees will also help you choose media and methods. Hospitality
employees are a diverse group that covers a wide range of ages, backgrounds, literacy, and languages.
Your activities have to meet everyone's needs without being too complex or too simple. There may also
be cultural issues that will affect how comfortable your trainees are with particular methods or activities.

Chapter 4 - Competency 5:
Identify the factors to consider when developing training materials and programs.

Develop
The development stage is when all training materials, documentation, and evaluation are chosen,
written, or produced. The design phase has drawn the maps for how to develop the desired training and it
remains only for you to follow those maps. Yet, rarely are design maps so sophisticated and advanced
that they survive the development stage in perfect detail. Throughout the development stage, you will
need to evaluate whether the developed materials are meeting the needs established in the analysis
phase.
Also, for all that the development stage lacks in complexity, it is often the most difficult and timeconsuming phase of the entire process.
Choosing Training Materials

The amount and type of training materials you will need will depend directly on the methods and scope of
the training program as determined during the design phase. Common materials include:

Instructor guides

Participant workbooks

Manuals

Handouts

Textbooks

Transparencies

Software

Videotapes

Models

Trainee evaluation material

Many trainers are able to save time by using off-the-shelf materials produced by national vendors or
consultants. There are many sources for hospitality-specific training materials, particularly from such
associations as the Educational Institute of AH&LA, the National Restaurant Association's Educational
Foundation, the Club Managers Association of America, and the American Resort and Development
Association.
Whether the materials are purchased from an outside source or developed in-house, it is essential that
they support your training goals and learning objectives. You may even find yourself presenting only parts
of programs--those parts that respond to your organization's specific training needs.
Some of the things you may wish to consider when choosing materials are:

Access

Availability

Cost

Learner characteristics

Content

Objectives

Motivation and incentive

Interactivity and involvement

Learning strategies

Relevancy

Creating Training Materials

The exact process and schedule for creating training materials will vary with the type of materials being
developed. However, there are some guidelines that can be helpful regardless of the material. These
include:

Accuracy. Every piece of your content throughout the materials must be accurate. Even small
mistakes will compromise the credibility of the entire program in the eyes of the trainees. It is
most helpful if you have an editor review any materials. The fresh set of eyes can often identify
material that lacks clarity or has errors in it.

Focus. The training materials need to be tightly focused on the learning objectives. It can be very
tempting to add extraneous or "nice-to-know" information simply because it is available. However,
it takes focus off the main learning points and reduces the effectiveness of the training.

Difficulty level. The training materials need to be appropriate for their audience. If they are too
easy, your trainees will become bored and possibly insulted. If they are too difficult, your trainees
won't understand the information and may become frustrated with its complexity.

Many instructional designers recommend that training be developed in a modular fashion. Each module is
a self-contained unit of instruction that addresses a single job task or element. A module can be delivered
via one training medium or many, as long as the module addresses a single task or skill. Modular
training development is easy to customize to the individual needs of each trainee. A trainee can be given
only the modules that he or she needs to address a specific performance gap instead of being given an
entire training program on an entire job.
Modular training typically means that the needs of more employees are met with fewer training programs.
Changes can be made easily and with less disruption to the entire program. Likewise, training can be
standardized throughout the entire organization by offering modules wherever they apply. You are also
less likely to overtrain or undertrain because you can tailor each program to individual needs.

Some tips for creating materials for various types of media appear in Exhibit 15.

Creating Program Evaluation Materials

You determined in the design phase what types of evaluation materials you would need. Now is the time
to develop those materials and determine how you will store the records for future course revision. Try to
make your evaluation forms easy to understand and easy to complete.
The American Society for Training and Development provides the following tips for building evaluation into
your program:[endnote 7]

Allow enough time for trainees to complete evaluation forms. Don't let trainees take forms home,
though, as they are rarely returned.

Build in time for trainees to reflect on and discuss their own experiences during the training.

Try to include the same number of questions about strengths and weaknesses of the training
program.

Allow for quick, on-the-spot evaluations throughout the training-even if it is simply asking the
trainees, "How are we doing?"

Build in frequent written feedback. You can prepare a written summary of evaluations and discuss
them at the beginning of the next session in a multi-session training course or distribute the
results through pre-shift meetings or company newsletters.

Give participants the option of remaining anonymous in written evaluations.

Design written forms so that you can easily tabulate and quantify the responses.

Consider allowing breaks after each topic for trainees to jot down reactions rather than filling out
an entire evaluation form at the end of the session.

Keep evaluations for future reference.

Evaluation instruments are designed to measure the specific learning objectives of the program. It is
important that every test question or evaluation activity can be tied directly back to the learning objective
or competency. The three most common criterion-referenced tests are pre-tests, embedded tests, and
post-tests. Pre-tests identify skills that are needed before training begins. These can also act as
comparisons to ascertain how much participants have learned. Embedded tests frequently test just one
objective. These tests can guide instruction and let a facilitator know whether training can progress to the
next objective. Post-tests measure the objectives that were taught during training. They typically cover all
of the learning objectives.
Documenting Training
Instructional design is a systematic process and, like all systems, requires careful documentation.
Training documentation can help an organization make decisions about the effectiveness of training, how
to adapt it in the future, and how to use it again. Exactly how much documentation you need depends on
the size of your organization and the type of training that is being offered. It is much more important, for

example, that you carefully document hazardous materials training of housekeeping staff than customer
service training of front office staff. Likewise, if any of the training you are developing is regulated by the
government (such as alcohol server training or security training in some localities), it is likely you will have
to keep extensive documentation.
Developing a documentation plan at this stage will tell you what training records will be kept, how they will
be kept, who will keep them, and how long they will be kept. Most likely your training records will be kept
on computer, in either a database, spreadsheet, or word-processing program. Determine where original
and backup records will be maintained.
Careful documentation also helps to identify whether training records need to be forwarded to a
government agency, corporate office, association, or a union.
Training records might be as simple as a class roster or as sophisticated as a full transcript detailing the
complete performance of the training participant. Once you have designed the record, give copies of it to
the people who will need to fill it out and pull information from it. Make sure that it meets their needs so
that you won't be developing duplicate training records later on.
Some of the data stored in training program histories include:

Who designed the program

Samples of forms

Training plan outlines

Budgets

List of participants

Evaluation records

Chapter 4 - Competency 6:
Define the role of implementation and evaluation in the design of training.

Implement
The implementation stage of instructional design is the actual presentation of the training that has just
been developed. It involves teaching learners how to make the best use of the training material
developed, presenting instruction, facilitating discussions, and coordinating a training program.
The four-step training method, especially when skills training is being implemented, is commonly used
throughout the hospitality industry. The steps are:

1.

Prepare. All of the analysis, design, and development is included in the prepare step. It also
includes creating a schedule for training and setting up the work station or training room.

2.

Present. This involves preparing the employees, beginning the training session, demonstrating
steps, and repeating the steps.

3.

Practice. The practice step allows trainees a chance to practice what they have learned while the
trainer coaches them.

4.

Follow Up. This step has the trainer coaching a few tasks each day while providing positive
support and constant feedback. Many of the activities in the evaluation stage of instructional
design are also completed in this step.

Keeping in mind that instructional design is not meant to be a fully linear process, you should continue
analyzing, designing, developing, and evaluating throughout the implementation process. You need to
observe whether a program is working as it was planned and whether the trainees are progressing
according to plan. If they are not, then you need to make changes.

Evaluate
Evaluation provides a means for both the trainer to improve the training and the learner to make better
use of the training. This phase will determine how much a program needs to be revised before it is offered
again.
You have already planned and designed your evaluation instruments. Now you must simply make sure
that the instruments are used, tracked, and analyzed. Having your trainees fill out an evaluation form is
only helpful if the data from the forms are used to modify future courses.
The results of training are not always immediate. Many of the measurements you take (including those of
employee performance, department performance, sales rates, guest comment cards, and turnover) will
need to be taken at specified intervals after training is completed, sometimes quarterly or even yearly.
When to Take a Different Approach
As painful as it may be to do after putting so much time and effort into developing and implementing a
training program, sometimes the results of evaluation will indicate that you need to try something different.
If trainees are not able to successfully perform the learning objectives, then the training is not working.
Sometimes you need to think outside the box and deliver the content using a method that is better for the
trainees rather than what is most comfortable for you as the trainer. Sometimes it may be that the trainer
is contributing to the lack of learning transfer by using distracting delivery methods or with distracting
mannerisms.

Chapter 4 - Competency 7:
Describe how technology has affected the instructional design process.

Technology and Instructional Design

Like tasks in many other departments in a hospitality operation, the training function has been made
easier with the advent of computers. Technology is able to facilitate much of the instructional design
process by automating some of the basic functions. Some of the most basic ways computers have helped
include:

Data management. Instructional design involves the collection and analysis of a large amount of
data. Data analysis is simplified when the data is stored and sorted with either a database
management program or a spreadsheet.

Task support. You can use computers to help with a variety of instructional design tasks,
including producing graphics, performing processing tasks, and communicating between team
members and other hospitality department managers.

Decision support. You may find computers useful in helping you make design decisions, as they
can give you ready access to information, checklists, templates, and expert system advisors.

Chapter 5 - Competency 1:
Training Tools and Techniques
Trainers must plan each stage of the training session to ensure the stated objectives are met. A critical
component of that planning is creating a road map for the training session itself.
Content delivery methods vary widely. You must create a style and use support media with which you are
comfortable. Different topics will lend themselves better to various activities. Once you have defined
training objectives and know your content, then you are ready to choose techniques for effective delivery.

Openers
The way you begin your training session is critical to the success of the entire session. From the moment
a participant enters the training room, he or she is making judgments, interpreting signals, and
determining whether his or her time will be well spent. The actions you take will help set the tone and
establish your credibility. See Exhibit 1 for a list of common opening activities and the goals to achieve
before a session begins.
First Impressions
You'll never get another chance to make a first impression, so you must make it count. People will
instantly judge you by your appearance and how you behave when they meet you. Once they have
formed that first impression, it is very difficult to ever change it.
What you wear will affect the impression that you make. It is important that you understand the
environment in which you are training and dress in a manner consistent with what is considered
professional. Actual styles of professional dress will vary among companies, industry segments, and even
units within a corporation. Hotels and private clubs tend to be more conservative and formal in their style
of dress. Resorts, casinos, and cruise lines tend to be more casual. However, this will vary according to
the geographic location and the company's culture. What's important is to be dressed appropriately for the
audience. As in a job interview, the trainer should be dressed as nicely or slightly more nicely than the
audience. Your clothes need to be non-suggestive and non-seductive, for both men and women.
Another important aspect of your personal appearance--especially in the hospitality industry--is your
personal hygiene. Your hair should be neat and orderly, nails trimmed and cleaned, and the rest of you
clean and fresh. Pay attention to your posture. An erect posture shows confidence, knowledge of subject,
and enthusiasm.

The degree of enthusiasm you display is contagious. People will only be as interested in the topic as you
show yourself to be. Demonstrate your interest in the topic and in your commitment to their learning by
being enthusiastic and full of energy.
Punctuality illustrates your commitment and enthusiasm to the training and the participants. Being on-site
at least one hour in advance provides you with ample time to prepare the environment. This hour gives
you time to set up, check equipment, and check the visual lines of the room. Find out if your projector
needs a new light bulb and check to make sure the transparencies are focused. Distribute any handout
materials, equipment, and supplementary materials to avoid excessive handing out throughout a session.
Save 15 minutes before the start of a session for casual conversation with participants as they arrive. If
you appear to be finishing flip charts or notes, or are distributing materials, you give the impression that
you are unprepared or scattered.
Everything you do to control the first impression you make helps to establish your credibility. Participants
will be interested in why are you the best person to teach this information. It might be because of your
education, experience, training, positional power, or because you know how to train. The need to
establish credibility will vary with who is in the audience. Line-level employees are less likely to challenge
the speaker's credibility or to judge it. They will accept the fact that they have something to learn and that
this person is interested in teaching them. Managers--upper, mid-level, and front-line--will be more
inquisitive about the speaker's background to determine whether they believe this person has something
of value to teach them. If they perceive themselves as already having the knowledge necessary to
succeed in their job because they've been there longer, they're in the upper tier of the organizational
structure, or are in managerial positions, they may walk into the training session in a challenging mode.
Introductions
There are two types of introductions that are made at the beginning of a training session: the
introduction of the trainer/facilitator and the introduction of the participants.
Trainer Introduction. Participants need to know who is facilitating the training session and how that
person is qualified to do what he or she is doing. Much of the information that can provide a trainer with
credibility can be communicated during an introduction. Three of the most common ways for you to be
introduced are to:

1.

Distribute a written introduction. Provide participants a short biography in writing, including

education, work experience, personal interests, and strengths that make you able to train. The
biography needs to be brief, positive (without gloating), and relevant. The advantages to this
method are that the introduction doesn't take any training time, you're exchanging accurate
information over which you have control, and participants can take it with them for future contact
or reference.

2.

Have someone introduce you. This option provides formality and sets the stage. The person
doing the introducing is probably one of the peers of the audience. Ideally, he or she has the
audience's acceptance and respect. One major disadvantage to this method is that anyone who
arrives late misses the introduction. Also, you as the trainer still have to write it down and create
it. Furthermore, an introducer doesn't always correctly relay the information. A person who is
reading is less engaging to the audience. This method offers limited participant involvement; they
can't revisit it. If they missed it, it's gone.

3.

Introduce yourself. This method is most appropriate for a small group. It is less formal, and most
effective when you work with the participants, you have frequent contact with them, or the
participants are your peers. Many trainers will abbreviate or summarize their introduction so that

they don't appear boastful. They give a synopsis without providing specifics that would have
helped them gain credibility. You shortchange yourself by not giving participants the information
they need to trust in your ability to teach them.
Introducing Participants. The next step in a training session is to introduce participants to each other.
The smaller the group of trainees, the more necessary it is to introduce them to each other. If a group
exceeds 100 people, you will not likely want to make individual introductions. Instead, you may wish to
have people identify by shows of hands where they are from, what positions they are in, or some other
relevant information.
Because introductions take time, you'll want to determine how important it is that the trainees know who
the other people are. It may not be necessary for orientation or a short pre-shift training session; but for
entry-level managers who are going to work with each other, it is very necessary. You also need to
determine the level of interaction participants will have with each other during the training session and in
the future beyond the training session. Another factor to consider is how long the training is. If it's a fiveday session, it's critical that participants are introduced to each other. If it's a 30-minute session, it may be
less important.
You can do introductions quickly. If you have a shorter training session, you can ask everyone to give their
name and to mention one or two things about themselves (such as where they are from or how many
years they've been in the hospitality industry). Longer introduction activities are better when time is not
critical and you want to facilitate greater interaction throughout the session. It's important that you keep
introductions moving so that the participants stay focused and their interest doesn't stray. You may want
to use an icebreaker to facilitate the introductions.
Use nametags. You may think that all participants know each other, but most people are not good at
remembering names. Nametags put people at ease. It also establishes whether people will be called by
their first name or their surname with a courtesy title. Nametags allow participants to communicate what
they want to be called in a non-threatening environment. Finally, it helps you stay on track. Your mind can
be focused on what you are saying, not on instant recall of everyone's name. Nametags need to be large
enough to be easily readable. They shouldn't damage the clothing to which they are affixed. A nametag
style should be chosen that does not hit a woman at the chest line.
Another method to help facilitate participant introductions is to place table tents with participant names in
front of each participant. These are useful when the training room is configured in a classroom layout
where you want to encourage interaction. It is also essential when conducting a panel. Common room
setups that lend themselves to the effective use of table tents are hollow square style,board of directors,
schoolroom, and herringbone. See Exhibit 2 for common room setup styles.
Exhibit 3 contains additional activities to facilitate trainee introductions.
Setting Expectations
Letting participants know what they can expect prepares them for the training they are about to receive.
The opening of a training session is the time to clarify goals and to make sure that everyone is in the right
room for the right reason with the right expectations.
Make a clear statement about the course objectives and the goals of the session. There may be only one
goal; for example, "take apart and reassemble the slicer." Tell the trainees up front, "I expect to take 20
minutes to show you around the kitchen. We'll then spend 20 minutes taking the slicer apart,
reassembling it, and practicing the activity. The final 20 minutes we'll spend talking about safety and
sanitation issues related to the slicer." They then know that the session will be one hour, how you're going
to break it up, and how much time they will be allowed to spend in each area.

Both you and the participants are more likely to accomplish the goals at hand, within the time
expectations, if they are stated clearly upfront. These statements communicate how you expect the
session to proceed.
Setting expectations also allows participants to know where it is most appropriate to ask questions. It also
helps trainees establish a context for the information they are receiving and to know what information they
will be gaining. If there is a quiz or other testing at the end of the session, tell them when they will take it
and what it will entail. Tell trainees when they're going to have breaks and how long they will last.
Give a brief overview of your expectations of the trainees. Participants should know whether they will be
expected to take notes, ask questions, recite the five most important steps, demonstrate a skill or task,
etc. Let them know if you have a lot of games and interaction.
Doing these things helps prepare the participants to learn. Your overview can clarify session goals and
give the trainees a clear definition of how long the session will last, what will be covered, and how
participant learning will be measured.
Developing Interest
In the simplest form, participants are at a training session either because it is required or because they
want to be. They may be required to attend to meet company demands, to fulfill certification requirements,
or to meet state or local regulations. Others may have chosen to participate in training because they are
interested in the topic, are pursuing career or professional development, or simply have a desire to learn.
Be aware that a participant's motivation for being at training will affect his or her interest level. The people
who are there by choice will be more active participants. They are going to have the desire, interest level,
and enthusiasm to seek out new knowledge.
It is much more difficult to engage people who are required to be at the training session but do not want to
be. You need to express to them why it is important for them to know the information you are presenting.
For example, you are conducting mandatory cross-training of hotel supervisors. Your current training
session takes hotel supervisors and trains them in food and beverage service methods. They object to the
cross-training, saying that they are going to work in the front office or in reservations and don't need to
know anything about food. One response you could give them is that the cross-training helps make them
more promotable. As hotel supervisors, they will have to interface with food operations, whether it be
room service, vending, dining room management, special events and banquets, conferences, meetings,
or beverage operations.
Give participants the reasons they should take an interest in the training. Answer the questions "What's in
it for me? How does this apply to me?" Some ways to do this include:

State facts if it is mandatory training.

State monetary benefits. Remind employees that they are being paid for training time, if
appropriate. Several companies link hourly wages or bonuses to the level of training an employee
has successfully completed. See Exhibit 4 to read how one corporation links training to wages.

Give a worst-case scenario: Mishandling chemicals can injure employees or improper food
storage could cause food poisoning in guests.

Give examples they can relate to. Tell them you will save them time, they'll be more productive,
they'll increase their job satisfaction, or any other appropriate example.

Share the cost savings and benefits related to better training. If you performed a cost-benefit
analysis before your training session, share the results with participants.

Point out advancement potential due to training.

Use analogies and metaphors.

Use mini-cases that show the benefits of training and the hazards of not training.

Try to communicate to them that even if the training were not mandatory (if it is), that they would
still want to have the information or skills you are offering, and tell them why.

Making Participants Comfortable

If your participants are freezing or sweating, it doesn't matter what you're saying because the "noise" in
their head is too loud. "Noise" is a term that describes the distractions that a participant must deal with.
There is external noise and internal noise. External noise can be caused by room temperature, visual line
of sight, how crowded a training space is, whether they can hear you, and lighting. Internal noise is what
takes place inside a participant's head. For example, if the participant has to pick up a child at 4:30 and at
4:10 you're still talking and showing no signs of stopping, that participant is no longer paying attention
because he or she is focused on the time issue. Another example might be when a participant remembers
something they have forgotten that has nothing to do with the training session. Exhibit 5 shows how one
trainer helps to reduce the internal noise that threatens to drown out his message.
You can control the noise by controlling the climate of the training environment-both the physical
environment and the mental environment. Make sure the temperature is comfortable. If possible, select a
training room that will be conducive to the training activities. Watch for pillars or windows that will be
distracting to participants. Once the training delivery tools are set up, walk to the back of the room to
ensure they can be seen.
Try to make your training environment as non-threatening as possible. Put participants at ease so that
they're not afraid to speak up and ask questions. Show them you are approachable and that you will not
embarrass them. They need to know that you won't be sarcastic or make a bad example of them if they
make a mistake.
You also need to manage the training environment by showing that you are not going to allow the bully or
the talky person to railroad the conversation. Instead, you as the trainer will encourage interaction, but will
not relinquish control to one of the participants.

Chapter 5 - Competency 2:
Evaluate the effectiveness of icebreakers with groups of different sizes and learner relationships.

Icebreakers
Icebreakers help you establish a supportive, cooperative, and positive climate within the group. They
help everyone get to know the trainer and get to know each other. They can also:

Establish and reinforce group relationships.

Set the tone or theme.

Introduce the subject matter.

Create rapport.

Get participants involved immediately.

Establishing and maintaining rapport is critical to the success of the program, since it will influence the
degree to which the learners are willing to follow you. Rapport can be harmed if trainees are asked to
participate in unsuitable or unfocused activities.
The length of icebreakers often depends on the total length of the training session and the size of the
group. Icebreakers can be short or long. They can be used for small groups or large groups. They can be
complicated or simplistic. However they are formatted, it is important that the facilitator:

Maintain control.

Establish ground rules of etiquette.

Tie the icebreaker to the subject matter.

Accomplish a set objective.

Ideally, an icebreaker will act as a "curtain-raiser" for the next activity and have a natural flow into the
content or subject matter of the training session. Exhibit 6 gives several examples of icebreakers you can
se in your sessions.
Getting Learners Acquainted
When determining the type of icebreaker to use, a trainer should ask himself or herself several questions:

How well do participants already know each other?

How frequently will they interact?

Is teamwork the focus of the training session?

To what degree and with what frequency will they work together?

What sorts of things do participants need to know about each other?

What comfort level will participants have with disclosing personal information?

The trainer needs to be in control of the process of participants meeting each other. Without direction,
participants will choose to either ignore each other or they will take time away from the training session to
get to know each other. By effectively using icebreakers, the trainer can ensure optimal use of time and
the degree to which participants need to become familiar with each other.
Setting the Tone
An icebreaker will be the first, or one of the first, activities of the training session. As with the first
impression, it is critical to make an appropriate and professional impact. The training topic, environment,
and participant profile will dictate many aspects of the training. Allow the icebreaker to set the tone of the
session. Couple content with learning, while effectively beginning your training session.
Icebreakers help set the tone of a training session by:

Creating enthusiasm

Setting a lively pace

Creating a friendly environment that is conducive to interaction

Helping people relax

Helping people recognize the commonalities they share with other people in the audience

Providing a venue for exchange or interaction

Showing an element of diversity

More Time Equals More Intimacy

The type and length of the icebreaker will vary based on the level of intimacy your participants need to
have with each other. If your session will be a long one that requires a lot of interaction, the participants
need to have strong relationships with each other.
Likewise, when participants will need to work together back on the job (such as supervisors, teams, and
departmental groups), there needs to be an environment which builds or develops trust. Upper-tier
managers often have to make decisions that affect other departments. It is important that these managers
be able to work together and trust one another.
When people are coming together from different units or properties and will not see each other again,
there may be less of a need for an intensive icebreaker. Intensive icebreakers are not as effective with
employees who have a high degree of autonomy and little interdependence with other employees, or with
technical employees such as groundskeepers or night auditors.
Humor

Humor can be a very effective icebreaker, but it must be used with caution. There are many hazards to
telling a joke. A joke can fall flat if you're a poor storyteller. You can get off focus or get the giggles and
lose the message you are trying to convey. There are also many types of humor that run a high risk of
offending someone.
If you're good at humor, it can be an effective opening tool. A good joke can loosen things up if it is an
acceptable joke. When used properly, light-heartedness can inject fun into a training session and make it
more tolerable for learners. It's a good way to start off on the right track, especially if the participants are
returning from lunch or have just come from a different tedious session. Humor is a good way to reduce
stress anywhere, including the training environment.
Use humor to:

Start off the session.

Lead an exercise.

Demonstrate that the facilitator is only human.

Some sources of humor include popular publications, old television comedy programs, Internet humor
pages, or a syndicated cartoon strip. Be careful, though, that you get permission to use copyrighted
material.

Chapter 5 - Competency 3:
Identify the different types of exercises and activities that can be incorporated into training
sessions.

Exercises/Activities
The bulk of most training sessions consists of the exercises and activities that communicate the
learning points. These training techniques may vary from straight lecture to simulations and games.
This section will focus on:

Role plays

Case studies

Small group interaction

One-on-one sessions

Shadowing

Simulation

Projects

Panel

Demonstration

Training games will also be treated extensively in the next section.

Role Plays
Role plays help participants develop new skills in a safe environment. They can be interesting,
energizing, engaging, and can build confidence because they allow people to build the skills you are
demonstrating. Trainers frequently use role plays to help participants revisit past behaviors and to explore
and practice new behaviors. They also give participants the opportunity to receive feedback on their skills
and on how well they communicate. Role plays inject a bit of the real world into a training session. There
are four stages to a role play:

Provide background. Provide a valid reason for the role play. Relate it to information just
discussed or information that will follow. Set time limits.

Conduct the role play. Ask for volunteers. Assign specific roles and tasks to participants.
Individuals will either have roles to play or will be observers with specific tasks to accomplish.
Give clear instructions about the roles and about what the observers are to look for. Begin the
role play. Stop the action within the pre-stated time limits.

Debrief the participants. Ask them what they thought. A quick summary is sufficient.

Close the session. Help participants combine the role play activity with the training. Thank
individuals for their participation.

As a trainer, you have to create a script for each person. You need to provide the same script to all
parties, highlighting who is in which role. All of the people involved in a role play should be aware of what
their co-players are doing. It is helpful to use color-coded pieces of paper for an activity if you have more
than one role play taking place. For example, if you are doing a guest service role play in which positive
behavior will be modeled as well as negative behavior, use blue paper for one set and yellow paper for
the other set so you don't get mismatched participants together. Color-coded pieces of paper help keep
trainees appropriately paired, and the trainer organized.
Beware of the overzealous participant. Be prepared if the role play does not enact the content which you
were hoping to have displayed. By involving other participants, you relinquish control of the activity and
people do not always follow directions or act in expected manners. Be prepared to tie the role play back
to the content without being offensive to the actors. Make sure you get the group involved by offering
applause. Small tokens or gifts can also be used to entice people to participate in role playing.
Older adults tend to enjoy role play, whereas younger adults often find it embarrassing. It can work for any
size group. Work at making sure you don't surprise or embarrass anybody.
Facilitating Role Plays. There are several different ways of facilitating role plays. The most traditional
method involves pulling participants from the audience and having them perform a role play with everyone

else watching. You then describe the scenario or provide scripts. The actors perform the role play and the
observers give feedback.
Another option is to divide participants into smaller subgroups and have each subgroup perform the role
play with at least one observer. Participants often find this method less intimidating, as there are fewer
observers.
If you are using the traditional role play format, ask for volunteers to act out the role play. To increase the
likelihood of people volunteering, assure trainees that they will be safe and not be embarrassed. This is
one of the reasons it is important to create a positive environment initially, as you will then be more likely
to get volunteers. People are also more likely to volunteer if you tell them ahead of time that if no one
volunteers, you'll assign someone. If you do have to assign someone, consider using creative methods to
pick people to participate. Assign someone, for example, based on who has driven the farthest, who has
the most years in the present position, shoe sizes, etc.
By maintaining classroom control, you demonstrate trainer leadership and help assure that the passive
participant will not become embarrassed. Always gain people's permission before stretching them in a
role play activity. Exhibit 7 gives some examples of role playing.
Case Studies
In a case study format, participants analyze and resolve a problem individually or in a group. The
problem may be complex or simple, and it may have as many solutions as there are individuals or groups
working to solve it.
The following tips may help you conduct case studies in your training sessions:

Identify the goal or learning objective you want to accomplish.

Prepare a realistic case study. Make sure examples of situations are true-to-life and are similar to
what participants might face in the workplace.

Consider using videos or pictures.

Plan the questions you will use to stimulate participant discussion of the case study.

Plan how the participants will use the case study.

Encourage team problem solving.

Encourage good decision-making.

Encourage good listening skills.

Promote positive participant interaction.

During the case study, observe the groups and provide guidance.

Be prepared to lead the discussion.

Review learning objectives and relate them to the case.

Give the participants guidelines for working with the case study.

Summarize the results.

Emphasize cooperative interaction, with the end result being development of the group's
decision-making skills.

You need to have the entire group read the case study, not just those analyzing it. This facilitates
discussion. You need to encourage group participation and interaction to brainstorm possible solutions.
Where possible (such as during an individual training session or mentoring relationship), allow the
participants to interview an industry professional who is in a position comparable to that in the case. Let
the participant review the case with the individual and ask the individual what he or she would do in that
situation and why.
Exhibit 8 is a mini-case which would be appropriate in a short training session of one hour where
employees and managers are exploring scheduling issues. Case studies allow for discussion of relevant
topics in a third-party, non-threatening environment.
Case Study Guidelines. Some guidelines that you can provide participants for working with a case study
include:

Read the case carefully.

Identify the problem.

Define parameters of the problem.

Analyze the problem.

Identify main characters.

Identify the relationships between the characters.

Create at least three possible solutions.

Identify the best solution.

Evaluate the ramifications of the best solution.

Adjust the solutions as necessary.

Small Group Interaction

Small group interaction is another effective training tool. It is most effective in professional
environments of mutual respect where people see that they have something to be gained from this
discussion. Encourage participants to write down the results of their discussion and then share them with
the entire audience.
Small group interaction can be tied to problem-solving or brainstorming activities. They typically work best
with three participants. Groups of five or more tend to get off-track. As a facilitator, you need to define the
timeline and the objectives. Define what the end-point of the interaction is so that the groups will know
when they've reached it. The trainer needs to be moving around, keeping the small groups on task, and
being available to answer their questions.

Many trainers find it most effective to limit the time to five to seven minutes, as people tend to get sidetracked if it goes much longer than that. While this activity can be done as an energizer, it isn't
recommended for immediately after lunch, as it is too easy for participants to get derailed. Exhibit 9 gives
an example of a small group interaction.
One-on-One
One-on-one training takes place when there are only two people involved: the trainer and the trainee. It is
most appropriate when there is a high level of detail associated with the skill being taught. It's most
effective in a quiet, non-rushed environment with low levels of distractions.
One-on-one training takes much more time than group training. If you have a staff of 30, you have to do it
30 times. There is a danger of the trainer losing interest after a high degree of repetition. The fifteenth
time training is conducted, it's hard to have the same level of enthusiasm as the first time. However, with
repetition, a trainer gains efficiency, and is better able to answer individual concerns.
One-on-one training can create a non-threatening environment for the trainee. It's also a good
assessment situation for the trainer. The trainer can more easily judge whether the trainee is able to
perform the skill. There is also reduced internal noise on the part of the trainee because the person has
the trainer's entire focus. One-on-one sessions indicate that the company places a high degree of value in
the trainee learning whatever skills are being taught.
One-on-one training is an effective method if you have a limited number of people in the position being
trained or if there are language barriers on the part of the trainees. If there are different levels of
education and experience among the trainees, you can adjust what you are doing based on each
trainee's education and experience. One-on-one training is especially effective when it is critical that the
trainer accurately assess the knowledge or skills gained by the trainee, such as chemical mixing or
lifesaving.
One-on-one training also works well for training that involves math. Trainees who have a high degree of
anxiety or fear about training may also prefer this method.
Shadowing
Shadowing is a form of one-on-one training. It occurs when a trainee is paired with a trainer who holds
the position that the trainee aspires to. The trainer must be willing to teach the trainee the tasks of the job.

For successful shadowing to occur, the person being shadowed must have the internal desire to share
knowledge with others.
The process pairs one individual with another and allows the trainee to observe the skills, actions, and
attitudes of the trainer. Depending on the difficulty of the job and the experience and education of the
trainee, the length of time needed for appropriate shadowing will vary.
If the trainer isn't good at the job, or does not want to be shadowed, he or she may exhibit bad behavior.
The person being shadowed needs to be someone who is skilled at the job so that they can train to the
appropriate quality level. Shadowing is more likely to be successful if it is done in a less rushed
environment, at non-peak times, and over a series of days and shifts. Two people should not be paired
together for only one long stretch; smaller increments of two to three hours each are more useful.
Shadowing is easy for management to arrange. The person doing the job knows the job better than
anyone else and is able to create a very realistic learning environment. On the flip side, shadowing is
time-consuming and provides little consistency. The operation has little control over content.
Shadowing also lacks effectiveness when the task being trained is a highly ntricate one or consists of a
high level of detail or a multiple-step process. In certain positions, where the total skill set is not
observable within a set period of time, shadowing wouldn't be indicative of the entire job. The higher the
complexity of the position, the less likely shadowing will be effective. Also, if the trainer and trainee are
from different cultures, genders, or religious backgrounds, points of potential conflict may occur. Pair
people appropriately so that they can work together well.
Don't pick the same persons to be shadowed all the time, as it does take them away from their regular
duties and can burn them out. If employees are acting as trainers, then give them lighter job duties and
responsibilities for that particular shift, because they will need additional time to explain what they are
doing instead of just accomplishing the tasks. Exhibit 10 lists some positions in which shadowing is
effective.
Aspects of managerial positions can be shadowed, depending on the trainee's skill level, experience, and
familiarity with the operation.
Simulation
Simulations are most frequently conducted with technology such as CD-ROM, the Internet, disks, or over
networks. The purpose of a simulation is to create a realistic environment relative to the job for which the
simulation has been created. The learning environment should place the trainee in a position similar to
the workplace. The trainee is exposed to decision-making, time management applications, leadership,
customer service evaluation, and other realistic elements of the position for which the simulation has been
created.
The trainee is usually placed at a computer on which the simulation is already loaded. The trainee needs
to be given any support materials necessary for successful completion of the simulation. The trainee
needs to be comfortable with this learning environment--that is, possess the necessary computer skills.
The trainer should be nearby for guidance until the trainee has begun the program itself. The trainee
should be told briefly what to expect and that he or she will be asked to make decisions based on what
they believe would be the best course of action. The trainee should be told how he or she will be
evaluated and approximately how long the simulation will take. Exhibit 11 lists some areas where
simulation is used.
It is important to assess the trainees' comfort level with computers. If they don't work on a computer,
they're more likely to be uncomfortable with computer-based training. Adult learners don't like to be
tested, and you may be adding to their anxiety by testing them on a medium with which they are not

familiar. A large number of people do not understand how simulations work, so they have a high threshold
of anxiety associated with them. Simulations are typically timed, which also adds to test anxiety.
On the positive side, simulations let you test what-if scenarios in a low-risk environment. They provide
immediate feedback. They are appropriate for higher-level thinking skills and strategic planning. A
simulation is also a very effective training method for trainees who are comfortable with computers. For
computer-literate individuals, you are speaking their language and they are giving you a tremendous
amount of data to analyze in training. People who use technology as part of their job, such as front desk
agents, reservationists, accountants, and engineers are also very good candidates for computer
simulation training.
If you are doing group training, you need to make sure there are a lot of computers available and avoid
any scheduling conflicts with the equipment. It is also wise to have an information technology (IT)
specialist available on-site to assist with technology challenges during group training. An IT specialist will
let you focus on delivering the topic, not solving technology glitches.
Numerous technological simulations are available for purchase. Trainers should purchase these from
reputable businesses that offer IT support. Also, you must go through the simulation yourself in order to
effectively train with it. Know what the simulation results will tell you; know what the simulation will teach
the trainee.
Projects
Projects can be anything deemed appropriate for the work environment. They are frequently done as a
form of one-on-one training. They require a high level of independent study and the trainer needs to be
available for guiding the trainee, defining direction, defining evaluation criteria, defining the end product,
and determining the end point. The trainer also needs to provide assessment at defined steps along the
way. Types of projects that might be assigned to a trainee are listed in Exhibit 12.
Panel
A panel is a planned interactive session where three to five experts are assembled to share their
viewpoints on a subject. These experts compare and contrast their beliefs and opinions on the chosen
topic. Typically, each expert is allowed a few minutes to share a prepared statement. After all panelists
have presented their statements, panel participants respond to questions from the audience. Panelists
may also converse with each other. The facilitator of the panel must ensure that panel members do not
become overly competitive.
To prepare properly, the facilitator needs to invite each panel member well in advance of the chosen date.
The facilitator should provide to each panel member a clearly defined role ("what I want you to do and
what you are supposed to cover"), explain the panel session's time limitations, and caution members
about the importance of courtesy during the panel discussion. Out of courtesy, let everyone know who
else is on the panel. Emphasis needs to be on positive, professional exchange from a common vantage
point. The facilitator needs to provide a framework for the audience.
Panels are most appropriate for general topics where specific performance standards are not required.
Some examples of how panels are used for training are found in Exhibit 13.
Demonstration
Demonstrations are an effective means of showing trainees exactly what topic you are trying to teach. By
using the demonstration method, you teach by example. You as the trainer must be very familiar with the
steps of the demonstration. Advance practice is critical to success.

Effective steps are:

1.

Show once.

2.

Show a second time, talking through each step.

3.

Have the trainee conduct the steps.

4.

Provide feedback.

5.

Repeat.

Demonstrations are most effective when you are training small groups. Depending on the task, three to
five trainees would be ideal. Allow each trainee an opportunity to demonstrate the new skill. Provide
feedback on the trainee's actions, and provide guidance through the steps. Allow the trainee to ask
questions.
Do not attempt a demonstration until you are skilled at the process yourself. Practice several times if
possible.
Some training topics conducive to demonstration are:

Opening a bottle of wine

Trimming a tenderloin

Checking in a hotel guest

Booking an event through a concierge

Taking a reservation

Making a bed

Vacuuming an entranceway

Cooking at tableside

Chapter 5 - Competency 4:
Describe how games can be used for training.

Games
According to Edward Scannell, author of the well-known series "Games Trainers Play," a game "may be
an exercise, illustration, activity, or incident used to present or support the trainee's learning." [endnote 1]

Trainers often use games to reinforce learning. They are an energizing way to illustrate the learning points
of the training session. For example, if you have just conducted a session on team building, you might
select a team-building game that shows how the concepts are put into action. A well-prepared trainer
should introduce the game by briefly indicating the game's connection with the objectives of the training
session.
Games should not be too complicated, and you need to provide clear directions in order for a game to be
successful. Prepare the room for the game and divide participants into the small groups or teams that are
necessary for the game. When you introduce the game, explain to participants how the game will help
them learn the material and remind them that getting things wrong should be looked upon as a way of
learning and not as a source of embarrassment or disappointment. Be ready to negotiate tasks and give
the participants the time that they need. Explain the game's purpose and then give participants sufficient
time to complete it.
Phil Race and Brenda Smith in 500 Tips for Trainers remind trainers to value the things that participants
do and to provide escape routes for them. For example, when a game demonstrates buying and selling
skills, if a trainee does not make a "sale," he or she should not be shamed. Instead, the trainer should
provide appropriate options to the trainee (i.e., suggest to the trainee that he or she approach the
"customer" with a different product or a different price).
The trainer needs to bring closure to the activity by stating its connection to the content, including how
each component of the game is related to each component of the concept. To return to the team-building
example, you might point out which leader emerged, who was the peacekeeper, who was the stay-ontask person, etc. You could then discuss what the group dynamics were, and how they relate to your
specific place of business.
Games provide a means of repetition for the trainer. In order to most effectively teach content, the trainer
needs to provide various means of delivery. A game can reinforce the content presented, providing one
more use of the same material. If you are conducting skills-based training, a game can demonstrate the
use of the skills being taught.
When determining whether it is appropriate to use a game, consider the age of your participants. Older
adults are much more receptive to games than younger adults. People in their teens and early twenties
often resist games and are more concerned about looking foolish.
Characteristics of Training Games
Scannell says that games for training should be:

Brief. They are typically one to 30 minutes.

Inexpensive. No or minimal costs. Props should be simple.

Participative. They must involve trainees physically (through movement) or psychologically

(through visual or mental attention).

Low-risk. If matched to the right context and applied in a positive and professional manner, they
will almost always succeed.

Adaptable. They can be modified slightly to fit a situation or reinforce various points.

Single-focus. Games are often used to illustrate a single point and are usually oriented to micro
issues. [endnote 2]

Improper Use of Training Games

Games are not always appropriate training activities. If they are used too much, they can become
distracting, and there is a risk that the entire session will be perceived as less than professional. Games
should also be avoided when they cause members of the groups to become critical of each other's
actions or one person's actions. Games need to stay action-focused and learning-focused, not get
personal. Games should also not be used:

To kill time

To impress upon trainees how smart the trainer is

To put down trainees

In a manner that is personally threatening or demeaning to the participants

It has been said that good games can get learners heavily involved in the learning process while
introducing the repetition that is so important to adult learning. There are numerous, high quality books on
the market filled with games for trainers. Some examples of games can be seen in Exhibit 14.

Chapter 5 - Competency 5:
Distinguish the differences among support media and describe how support media can be used
most effectively.

Support Media
Trainers make use of many different types of support media and physical tools--especially when
conducting group training. A solid understanding of the principles of choosing, constructing, and working
with support media can help a trainer's efforts.
Handouts
Handouts are materials given to participants during or at the conclusion of the training session. They are
either prepared by the trainer or copied from handout masters included with a seminar package. A word of
caution: If handouts are given too early in a session, trainees begin reading and are not listening to the
trainer. However, if the material is highly detailed, handouts may guide participants as the trainer presents
training materials. Information that supplements or enhances the training can be given at the close of a
training session so that trainees can read it at their leisure to reinforce what was taught. Exhibit 15 lists
guidelines that can make handouts more usable.
Videos

Videos are valuable training tools. To use a video effectively, you must explain how it relates to your
training objectives. You must also make the participants' learning active by combining the video with
discussion, practice exercises, role-plays, or other learning activities.
Videos are an especially useful delivery method of topics that are mandated by local, state, or federal law
or by corporate policy. For example, if a hotel or restaurant chain decides all bartenders will be trained
with a responsible alcohol awareness program, the video method provides the ultimate amount of
consistency. As a trainer or manager, you can know that all bartenders were provided with the same
information. This consistency provides documentation for enforcing rules, and, if needed, pursuing
disciplinary action.
Determine Your Training Objectives. Determine what you want participants to know or do after training,
such as increase awareness, solve a specific problem, or learn new skills or procedures. Determine the
time available for showing the video and for discussion and other activities related to the video.
Plan the Training Session. Preview the video and determine whether there are differences between the
video's objective and your training objectives. Determine if there are any aspects of the video that could
distract participants from your training objectives, such as a setting that is not relevant to the participants'
workplace situations. If discussion materials come with the video, adjust these materials to fit your training
objectives if necessary. Determine whether you want to stop the video to make points, or to watch it in its
entirety and then discuss. Some videos have clearly marked stopping points, others don't.
Prepare Your Materials. Obtain the necessary video equipment and practice using it. Prepare any
content presentation or interactive materials to support the video, such as discussion questions and roleplays. Copy any handouts. Prepare the room so seating and lighting are appropriate. Put the video into
the player and cue it to the beginning. After you have prepared, conduct the video-based learning by
presenting the video and conducting related training activities such as the discussion of the video content
and learning points.
LCD or DLP Projection
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) or DLP ( Digital Light Processing) projection equipment is becoming more
widely used, as laptop computers can be an efficient way to create and transport your presentation.
However, caution should be taken to make sure appropriate equipment, with suitable adaptors, are
available at the training site.
Technology does occasionally fail. As a prepared trainer, you should have another means of
communicating your visuals--overhead transparencies, handouts, or flip charts--prepared and ready to
use if needed.
If at all possible, arrange to have an IT specialist available to assist you in the setup and connection of an
LCD or DLP projector. It is also ideal to know how to reach him or her if an emergency arises during the
training session.
A wireless mouse should be ordered or carried with you to allow for freedom of movement. Without some
remote control device, you are limited to a distance determined by the length of your mouse connection
cord. Before training begins, advance through several slides to adjust focus and ensure connections are
working. See Exhibit 16 for tips on LCD and DLP projection use.

Trainers who use this technology often depend on it heavily, and use less active training methods. Ideally,
you should incorporate the use of technology into a session as one component. Do not forget: Getting the
trainees involved increases the likeliness of retention.
Flip Charts
Flip charts are used to preview a series of points, to clarify or emphasize concepts, and to record material
generated by participants. Exhibit 17 lists tips for using flip charts in a training session.
Overheads
Overhead transparencies are see-through sheets that are placed on an overhead projector. A beam of
light projects the image of the transparency onto a viewing screen. Many seminar packages include
transparency masters that can be reproduced on most office copiers.Exhibit 18 lists tips for preparing
original transparencies and Exhibit 19 lists guidelines for using transparencies.
Presentation software has made the creation of transparencies much easier and has made creative
presentations more accessible to trainers.
Microphones
Nothing is more frustrating to trainees than attending a training session they cannot hear. Most people
believe that their voice projects louder then it actually does. We hear ourselves clearly, and expect others
do as well.
If possible, visit the training site in advance. Ask a colleague to sit in the back of the room and ask
whether they can hear you clearly. Then imagine the room filled with people interacting, moving chairs,
and general noise. Can your colleague still hear you over the noise?
Whenever there is even a remote chance you will not be heard, use a microphone. Others will appreciate
it. Another frustrating trainer flaw is not repeating into the microphone any comments or questions from
the audience. By repeating the question, the trainer clarifies the question with the participant as well as
allows others to benefit from the response. When using role-plays, case studies, or other activities that
involve audience members, you will need to have a microphone available for their use too. Exhibit 20 lists
types of microphones.

Chapter 5 - Competency 6:
Identify how closers can help transfer learning to the workplace.

Closers
As the training experience begins to move into the final segment of the session, it is wise to revisit where
you have been, what you have done, and what you have covered in the training. One effective way to
refresh the points of the day is to have some fun. Typically by now the trainees may be weary and have
low attention spans. By changing gears to a game or activity, you can keep the trainees focused on
learning.

It is important that you maintain enthusiasm for the training throughout the session. Do not allow a long
session or time of day or night cause you to show trainees that you are wearing out. The trainees will
mirror your behavior. If you run out of energy, so will they.
Transfer of Learning
Closing a training session is the time to restate key points that have been discussed in detail during the
training. A logical place to begin this process is with the training objectives. Read aloud the training
objectives. Seek the trainees' consensus on whether they feel the objectives were met. Clarify any areas
of doubt. Answer questions for the trainees at this time. It is especially critical to link the objectives to the
workplace. Remember the main purpose for training is to affect the employee's behavior in the workplace.
Assist the trainees in making the connection from training to job situations.
Closing a session is also an important time to revisit the trainee's question: "What's in this for me?" Adults
will learn more when they are self-motivated to do so. Trainees will have varying levels of motivation and
reasons for being in the training. Hopefully, as the trainer, you know what some of these reasons are
before you close. Revisit these reasons, stating what the trainee can now do, that he or she could not
have done, or done as well, without the session. All trainees want to feel that their training time was well
spent. Restate the obvious, as it may not be as obvious to them as it is to you. Emphasize the practical
application of what they have just learned. It will surely increase
their perceived value of the training.
Closing Takes Time
Closing a session takes time. In the planning stage of the training you told participants a time for ending.
At the beginning of the training session you provided an overview of the agenda. Each trainee will know
what time you need to end. You need to be respectful of their time, and end on schedule.
Although the actual time for closing will vary based on the training topic, setting, and trainees' needs,
there are some rules of thumb for closing. Begin to wrap things up and move into a closing activity:

12 to 15 minutes before the end of a 1-hour session

25 to 30 minutes before the end of a 3-hour session

45 to 50 minutes before the end of a 6-hour session

By scheduling adequate time for closing, the trainees will feel that you were well prepared. They will
perceive a lack of planning if you are rushing to make one more point. You are a professional, and must
bring closure to your session in as professional a manner as you presented your icebreaker and training
activities.
Effective Closers
Closers can be many things. A closer can be as simple as a question-and-answer session, or as
complicated as a detailed simulation. It is important to plan a closer with a high degree of involvement
from the trainees so some do not pack up and leave early. Case studies, simulations, role-plays, group
networking sessions, and brainstorming sessions are all effective closers. You may have more than one
activity occurring at the same time, allowing trainees the choice of which to do, based on the
appropriateness of their job circumstances. Exhibit 21gives an example of a closer.

Closing a Closer
As with any other activity or exercise you conduct, you must bring closure to your closer. You need to link
the closer activity to the training. Why did you do this? What did you learn from it? How does it relate to
the training? What roles emerged from the group interaction? You need to have a clear purpose for the
closer you chose. State the purpose for the trainees so they can see the connection. If you do not take
the time to close the closer appropriately, some trainees will leave the session thinking you just filled a
block of time with something silly because you had nothing left to say.
As a training professional, you want the trainees to leave the session feeling good about their new
knowledge and your performance. Choose a closer that enhances the session and restates the key
points. They will remember most what they did at the end--make it count!

Chapter 6 - Competency 1:
Identify factors that training directors consider when deciding to incorporate technology within
training and development activities.

Training with Technology

Chapter contributed by Paul J. Bagden, Ph.D., CHE

As technology continuously develops and evolves, it changes the way that we deliver, receive, and
analyze training. To keep up with the technology and to harness it to work to its full potential requires an
open mind, the ability and willingness to change, and the wisdom to decipher the optimal combination of
trainee, trainer, and method. One industry trainer said technology changes nearly every six months and
trainers need to stay on top of these changes. Technologies that once seemed out of reach in cost or in
operational feasibility are suddenly becoming accessible. This chapter outlines and reviews the
fundamentals of training with technology within the hospitality industry. It identifies and discusses factors,
characteristics, and criteria essential for the integration of technology into training programs.

Incorporating Technology
Trainers throughout the hospitality industry struggle with the question of when it is appropriate to
incorporate technology into training. Technology must support a program's learning objectives and not
simply be the trainer's latest toy. There are several factors that can help a trainer decide when an effective
time to use technology is. These factors include:

Environment

Course design

Group characteristics

Trainer proficiency

Management support

Technological support

Desired Learning Environment

Training with technology can require a complex environment. There are many factors that need to be
taken into account when integrating new technologies to build a "smart classroom." Some of the
questions that training directors need to ask are:

Is the training room currently wired?

What type of seating arrangement is required?

Is there adequate temperature control?

Is there an appropriate view of the trainer and any projections?

Can the trainees see their notebooks/handouts with the lights off?

Can the audio be heard without distortion?

Will the technology require security/lock-up?

Will the technology require firewalls or user restrictions?

Will the technology be stationary or mobile?

Is the Training Room Currently Wired? High-tech training typically uses two main wiring systems:
electrical and data. Most training rooms already have electrical systems, but modern technologies
require specially grounded, uninterrupted power supplies. A minor variation in power can cause
permanent loss or damage to software and hardware. Extension cords for permanent wirings violate most
electrical codes. Even when extension cords are used for short-term needs, overloading them can result
in severe damage to your equipment. Most accommodations are sub-contracted to licensed professional
in the field since most specifications are too advanced for the novice do-it-yourselfer. Also, if you are
converting a room to accommodate technological training, be sure to check with your local building
inspector to ensure that building codes are not violated. Most likely your property's MIS, engineering
department, or banquet set-up department will be responsible for ensuring wiring is up to code. However,
you need to make sure they know what your wiring needs are early in the planning process in case you
need to make adjustments.
The second wiring system is a data line. This may be a telephone connection or an intranet. It is
important that these lines be physically near the technology. Wireless data line technology is an
alternative. Wireless technology can be an advantageous alternative to hard wiring, particularly when
training in an older structure or if the building is on a short-term leasing agreement. Exhibit 1 provides an
example of wireless services.
What Type of Seating Arrangement is Required? Classroom training allows for a wide choice of
seating arrangements. Trainers may use all traditional classroom seating arrangements providing trainees
still have a clear view of the trainer or projection. If individual workstations are required, they will need to
be designed with technology in mind. In this case, traditional rooms will typically seat fewer trainees.

All trainees should be able to easily view all projections from their seats. This may require staggered
seating and a raised projection. Also, the trainer should not have to turn around or hunch over to view
notes, a monitor, or a projection. A designated trainer's console and remote controls are a welcome
addition to most smart classrooms.
Is There an Adequate Temperature Control? Computers, projectors, and other technologies typically
generate heat that will alter the cooling load of the training room. Ideally, rooms with technology should be
kept cool (60-68 degrees F) and dry. Heat and humidity can destroy many types of hardware. If a
building's heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system requires periodic downtimes, avoid
training on these dates and power-down all technologies.
Can the Trainees See Their Notebooks/Handouts with the Lights Off? Many technological displays
are best viewed with reduced lighting. Unfortunately, turning out the lights can make it difficult for trainees
to take notes or read any printed material they have. To overcome some of these difficulties, a trainer
might make use of such innovations as brighter projections, backlit projection, and zone lighting. The
trainer may also use a special directed lighting for viewing trainer supplements and notes.
Can the Audio Be Heard Without Distortion? Standard speakers on televisions or computers are not
typically designed to be heard by a full-sized training room. Most non-commercial speakers distort at
ranges above that required for a typical living room. If audio quality is lacking, even the best video and
simulation presentation can be skewed. One solution is to use a multimedia sound system.
Will the Technology Require Security/Lock-up? Even with prices dropping and technology becoming
more affordable, equipment can still be a major investment--and a popular target of theft. Secure it to
prevent theft or damage. Individual anti-theft devices vary from wire cables to full enclosure cabinets. On
a larger scale, full security systems lock entire rooms, corridors, or buildings.
Will the Technology Require User Restrictions? Restricting access to technology can help trainers
track learning and also reduce unintentional altering of software. Software applications require limited
support and can range from a few hundred to several thousand dollars. Avoid telling others your
passwords or making them easy to guess. Otherwise, the restrictions are useless. These restrictions are
especially important if the material is proprietary, copyrighted, or if there is a need to limit access. User
restrictions can range from password protection in a computer-based module to a firewall in an on-line
lesson.
Will the Technology Equipment be Stationary or Mobile? Trainers often move to many different
locations to present their training. Therefore, training modules are sometimes designed to be relocated.
Trainers need to make sure that the equipment is properly secured and protected so that it is not
damaged during transport.
Course Design
Traditionally, courses that have integrated technology were criticized as being nothing more than the old
lesson with a few "bells and whistles." The integration of technology can and should be much more than
this. It should be an evolution of the lesson that will enhance its delivery and comprehension. You should
take full advantage of the medium you choose to deliver your training program and be aware of its
strengths and weaknesses.
Carefully avoid making the same mistakes with technology that were made in a traditional training format.
For example, a poorly written role-play can be equally poor, or worse, when delivered via video streaming.
To facilitate effective delivery of subject matter and course design, consider these points:

Determine whether the lesson is conducive to technology. Technology can simplify a difficult
description of a process by presenting it in an animated, three dimensional approach. It can,
however, make a simple lesson appear complex, leading to lowered trainee comprehension.

Remember that knowledge acquisition, not technology, is key. While technology may seem
exciting and innovative, it may not enhance all lessons. Keep in mind the core purpose for
training: to convey knowledge in a manner such that it can be attained and retained. You must
avoid integrating technology for the sake of technology. Instead, determine how new technologies
can contribute to the overall training process.

Use third-party support options. Trainers need not re-invent the wheel. Several third-party
companies produce software that may fit, or can be easily modified to fit, some or all of your
lesson needs. Find out whether the software company provides additional support materials.
These modules often have texts, software, test banks, and Website links at dramatically reduced
prices.

See Photo.

Chapter 6 - Competency 2:
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of various types of technology-based training and
development activities.

Selecting Technology
Integrate technology according to the needs of the trainees and the competencies being trained. Resist
the temptation to design lessons around the use of technology instead of viewing technology as a support
mechanism or delivery medium. When this happens, the training becomes secondary to the "toy," and the
training goals suffer.
There is also a wealth of technology choices that can be made. A trainer may incorporate something as
simple as a presentation program to prepare slides or as complex as fully computerized training
simulations from remote locations. How does a trainer choose what types of technology and the extent to
which it will be incorporated? There are several factors:

Characteristics of the trainees

Time available for training and training preparation

Resources and the accessibility of equipment

Trainer proficiency

Management support

Trainer and trainee technical support

Trainee Characteristics

For effective training to take place, the course must be well suited for the trainees. Trainers need to
evaluate trainees, and determine the extent of technology integration based on the following trainee
qualities:

Willingness to learn: Trainees should be motivated to complete all lessons. Optimally, this
motivation to learn should be intrinsic, or from within. Trainers, management, and fellow
employees need to help create an environment that fosters this motivation. Bonuses are
examples of motivators; however, intangible rewards such as achievement awards and peer
recognition may have equal or more meaning to employees.

Time management skills: Trainees can easily lose track of time on lessons, or procrastinate,
preventing them from completing self-paced lessons. Trainees with good time management skills
will be more likely to complete lessons in a timely manner.

Problem solving skills: Problems will inevitably occur. Trainees with developed problem-solving
skills will have less difficulty overcoming these challenges.

Basic computer skills: While software packages are being made increasingly user-friendly, a
minimum level of familiarity with the technology is suggested. If minimum knowledge is present,
trainees will not dwell on the newness of the technology, and will spend more time concentrating
on the actual lesson.

If the trainees have different levels of comfort with technology, consider regrouping the training sessions
to pair like trainees. Then, groups will equally respond to accommodations made by the trainer. Any pretests or needs assessments done to determine where trainees' comfort levels are may also serve as
trainee goals for future growth.
Some trainers have questioned whether factors such as gender and age contribute to the success of
trainees. To date, no significant difference in training between men and women or any age group has
been recognized. Also, there is no one right size or number within a group. Instead, the anticipated levels
of support typically dictate size constraints. You can estimate ideal group size by conducting small-scale
tests of new lessons.
Planning Resources
Another important aspect of planning for the use of technology is identifying necessary equipment and
what budget is available for them. Begin with a diagram of the training room and all of its potential training
programs. Be sure to list only as much media as necessary to adequately teach each lesson. Then,
consider how long the technology will be in place. Can future conversions be made to new technologies
or platforms as technology advances and your training needs grow? Exhibit 2 provides a recommended
list of workstation specifications.
One option that can minimize the time risk is to rent or lease all equipment and software instead of
purchasing it. Renting can save initial training dollars, but it can also be a very expensive long-term
option. If there is a need for multiple training rooms or off-site training, purchasing portable units is often a
viable option. Beware that any transportation of equipment can cause severe damage and cause training
fiascos.
Another consideration is the element of time. Technology often requires more initial time than it saves. A
rule of thumb is that it takes twice the amount of time to prepare a course using a new technology than to
prepare a course using traditional technology. As trainers and organizations travel the training curve, the
benefits of efficiency and enhanced delivery typically outweigh the disadvantages of additional time.

Trainer Proficiency
Content knowledge combined with a distinct ability to help others learn are critically important to all
trainers. Unfortunately, much more is required to effectively deliver a lesson via technology. When these
lessons produce poor results, it is often not that trainers are deficient in content knowledge or even bad
teachers. In fact, training is what they do best! Rather, it is more common that trainers cannot convey the
lesson in an appropriate manner using the new technology. They are disoriented by the newness of the
technology. Trainers need to be comfortable with the equipment they are using. It also helps to have the
following characteristics:

Confidence. You need to feel relatively confident about the lesson and the technology. Practice
helps to overcome the newness of technologies. The more confident you are, the more your
trainees will be at ease as they encounter new situations and new technologies.

Positive attitude. Your attitude should be positive. Be enthusiastic about delivery methods. Both
enthusiasm and negativity are contagious and will spread to the trainees. Quite often, small
problems will occur. Trainees will respect you if you are able to adapt well to these situations. If
you do not respect the delivery method, a trainee may assume that the lack of respect is also
extended to the organization and the material being delivered. Consequently, trainees may not
take the lesson seriously and learn the desired outcomes. Your positive attitude should also
extend beyond the classroom-you should be willing and able to accept new tasks with ease. This
will also help to overcome pitfalls with technologies or trainees.

Ability to generate ideas for improvement. No training program is perfect. In fact, all programs
should be evaluated and improved. Don't rely on management or the software company for every
solution. It is often the trainers who work with the materials who have the best ideas for
improvement.

Ability to work as a team player. Trainers should also work as a team. Considering all trainers as
a team often works well because each can complement the skills of others. Team meetings, log
books, co-training and overlapping schedules all help to facilitate this.

Practice before every lesson. It takes longer to become proficient when using a new or different
delivery method. To help lessons run smoothly, plan to review all lessons from start to finish at
least twice before delivering each training session. Do this even if you have delivered the lesson
many times. Slight variations in equipment or set-up can be quite alarming when delivering a
lesson.

Develop personal goals to improve your skills in each of the above areas. Revisit these goals often to
ensure that the desired objectives are on track.
Management Support
Incorporating technology into learning must involve a minimum level of support from management.
Technology training in large organizations is managed through an internal document commonly referred
to as a "technology plan," or a "tech plan." Strategic plans have their origin in education, but they have
been quickly adopted by the business sector.
The tech plan is integrated with the vision, goals, and objectives of the organization. It contains detailed,
desired outcomes as well as plans for expansion. If an organization is large enough, a director of
technology will typically write the tech plan. However, even the smallest of businesses should have some

sort of technology plan. Once established, managers often refer to it when establishing day-to-day
operational protocol.
Currently, larger organizations are associated with having highly developed strategic plans. For example,
Marriott Corporation uses guiding strategies upon which lower-level decisions are made. However, as
technology increases and competition continues to increase, strategic plans are expected to become
more common in all types of hospitality organizations, large and small.
Ensure that a tech plan is followed by establishing and monitoring realistic goals generated from the tech
plan. Management and trainers should work together to consider integrating the following competencies:

Set goals. Setting goals is typically the first step of managing technological training. Goal setting
requires much analysis. Some factors to consider include the tech plan, the abilities of the
trainers, and the current status of the training program. Make sure that goals are clear, attainable,
and measurable. Once established, all must buy into the process. As a result, goals will provide
trainers with known expectations. These goals can be used to measure and track
accomplishments daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly.

Accept change. Be willing to accept that the integration of technology will inevitably cause
change. Change causes all of the standard business stressors. This change will also generate
both acceptable and unacceptable risks. Consider making a list of all possible risks. Laying risks
out on paper often yields a macro view of the overall operation. Potential errors may be
concentrated in one area. While all of these risks cannot be eliminated, many of the unacceptable
ones can often be reduced with minimal effort.

Empower. Do not expect managers to know every aspect of implementing new training
technologies. Empowerment is defined as a mechanism by which responsibility is given to teams
or individuals. It can be a building block in which management and employees share in the
commitment to achieving goals.[endnote 1] For example, in the absence of management, a trainer
with a broken computer improvises by bringing the trainees behind the front desk to demonstrate
the check-in process during a slow period. According to the philosophy of empowerment,
management would support this reasonable decision. As a result, the trainees were effectively
trained, and the training schedule was not compromised.

Use a team approach. Management should also consider taking the role of a coach. This will
facilitate teamwork, enabling the organization to meet its training needs. With this approach,
management and trainers can work together to develop solutions. Trainers should keep in mind
that they serve as a valuable resource to both management and one another because they work
with the lessons and technology on a daily basis.

Benchmark. Benchmarking is defined as a strategy of copying the best- practice methods of a

specific function.[endnote 2] The specific function can be a similar or a totally different process; it
can be internal or external. For example, imagine that bulky wires from technology equipment
present a hazard to trainers and trainees. Look internally at how other operations within the
property hide wires. Benchmarking internal processes may include observing how other training
divisions hide wires, or how the front desk hides its wires. You could also seek solutions
externally from other businesses. Examples of this may include observing how movie theaters,
banks, or cash registers in grocery stores hide wires.

Trainer and Trainee Technical Support

Technical support for the trainer and trainee is essential for any program using technology. Support is
typically categorized as being either in-house support or outside support. Both of the categories have
advantages and disadvantages. Depending on the size of an organization, in-house support, or onpremises help, may be available. In-house support, while close in proximity, can be very expensive. It is
also very difficult to maintain an adequate support staff. Competent technological support personnel can
demand high salaries because of the current employment demand.
Outside support can also be an effective alternative if used only on an intermittent basis. Most software
manufacturers offer toll-free hotlines. While these services can be tedious, a number of companies have
recently improved their levels of service. Most recently, this support has been enhanced with the use of
cellular telephones, toll free numbers, e-mail, and real-time chat.
Trainees typically require on-going technological support throughout the training process. A trainer that is
competent with the technology can provide a majority of this support. Some organizations offer an on-site
coach available to facilitate the process. This coach may serve as both technical and content support.
Using this "coach" type of plan has been very successful in larger organizations, such as Marriott.

Chapter 6 - Competency 3:
Identify criteria that training directors use when selecting technology for a specific training or
development activity.

Types of Technology-Based Media

There are many types of technology-based media that can be used in training: video, computer-based
training, computer-aided instruction, and Web-based training.
Video
Using video during training is thought of as an old standby. Video has provided low-cost, high quality
visual and auditory instruction for nearly 25 years. When considering a medium, video should be
compared to all other available means. Advantages of video include:

Overall cost low

Ease of administration

Portability

Minimal support

Consistent information

The ability to start and stop at trainees' and trainer's pace

The ability to either buy products off-the-shelf or create them

Reasonable cost of revisions

Familiarity with the medium

Improved attention of some trainees

The disadvantages are:

Lack of interaction between trainees

Lack of personalization

Lack of control by the trainer

Lack of group interaction

Stigma attached to the medium

Despite its less-than-raving reputation, video is a tried and true medium that is commonly used
throughout the hospitality industry. It is primarily used with other media or as an alternative medium. Many
modules include a video element, which can accommodate many learning objectives. Trainees are
familiar with the technology and can view it at their own pace. However, video alone offers no interaction
between the trainers or the trainees. It is not personalized and can be laborious to view when overused or
when it contains mundane material. To overcome these points, consider incorporating some of the
following guidelines:

Introduce the module. Set the stage. Give an overview of the content and explain the context.
Brief the trainees on the learning objectives.

Be positive. Promote the positive factors of the video lesson.

Remain during the viewing. If used during a class session, make all efforts to remain attentive to
the video lesson, even if you have seen it many times.

Recap and review the highlights of the video. Trainees sometimes lose concentration or focus
during all types of lessons, missing valuable information. Consider integrating a worksheet or
study guide to assist in presentation of main ideas or learning objectives.

Computer-Based Training
During the late 1970s through the 1980s, the personal computer replaced the mainframe as the primary
computer tool. As personal computers developed and prices decreased, software was developed
producing better quality tools for training.
Computer-based training (CBT) can be defined as a delivery method in which the lesson is delivered on
a computer without trainer involvement. The lesson is typically saved on a floppy disk, hard disk, or CDROM. More recently, training is delivered via hand-held devices such as personal data assistants.
See Photo.

Generally, CBT software is purchased in one of two forms: out-of-the-box or customized. Out-of-the-box
software may come as a set of disks or CD-ROMs or be downloaded via the Internet. These applications
come with installation instructions and minimum operating standards for the computers on which they will
be played. Some applications may be networked, or simultaneously used by multiple workstations, and
others may be stand-alone units that typically require installation or a disk at each workstation.
CBT advantages include:

Improved learning because multiple modes of media are used

The ability to proceed at trainee's pace

Immediate feedback from the computer

Trainer spends more time as coach and less as administrator

Consistent content

CBT disadvantages include:

Implementation costs

Hardware and software required

Moderately costly revisions

Technological support required

Program may not have interaction

Unfamiliarity of medium

Difficulty deciphering content

CBT often uses multiple forms of media such as text, audio, and video. Because various media are used,
different types of learners are accommodated. For example, a learner who gains little from basic text
presentation of the introduction may later be intrigued by the graphic moving illustrations. Adapting to the
learner's interest in the illustration, the lesson may be attained and the learning objective fulfilled.
CBT also allows a learner to progress at his or her own pace, making it an efficient use of the learner's
time spent on each module. As lessons are completed, built-in testing modules can provide the learner
with instantaneous feedback. This reduction of training time and test administration also prevents
interruptions caused by scheduled training sessions.
Also, organizations are not limited to predetermined modules or lessons. Most CBT lessons can be easily
altered, removed, or rearranged to accommodate the individualized learning objectives of the learners.

Despite these advantages, implementation costs include hardware, software, customization, and
maintenance of the system. Hardware often includes a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and a central
processing unit (CPU) for each workstation that ranges from $600 to $2500 depending upon capacity
requirements of the software. Generally, desktop computers are a less expensive choice that is easier to
maintain and upgrade than laptop computers. Many companies are now looking at delivering training
through their point-of-sale systems, thus reducing the additional equipment that a property would need to
purchase.
Software can range from thirty to several thousand dollars depending upon the needs and size of the
company. Customization of standard out-of-the-box software is generally simple; however, large
expenses can be incurred when major revisions are required. While computers are becoming more robust
and relatively problem-free, even occasional maintenance and upgrade of computers can be quite costly.
Maintenance fees assessed from software or hardware vendors can range from 3 percent to 10 percent
of the original purchase per year. Additional charges include on-site issues and hardware upgrades that
are not typically covered in the maintenance contracts.
Learners may not be familiar with the media being used. This may also cause anxiety that detracts from
the planned lessons. Therefore, all learners should be assessed for basic computing skills before
beginning the CBT lessons. Some employees will require extra training time resulting in an increased
overall cost of training. Additionally, some employees may have difficulty deciphering the content of the
lessons due to the newness of the medium. In these cases, employees are often given an alternative
familiar medium such as video or text.
The components of a CBT course may involve a combination of different aspects such as:

Tutorials

Drill and skills

Problem solving and games

Simulation

Tutorial components are very common. They are used to present new factual information such as
introductions, rules, and basic applications. Drill and skill components are also very common. New
information or ideas are presented and they are drilled or presented, and then tested for skill or
comprehension. Problem solving and games are somewhat common. Problem solving promotes higherlevel attainment such as application. Games are an ideal way to practice knowledge attainment without
the association of a standardized test. Lastly, simulation is becoming more common as software
technology develops. It is a convenient way to practice in a learning environment. It allows consequential
testing where outcomes of learners' decisions are made known. Learners are often more motivated and
engaged in the learning process.
A CBT module may include one or more of the above aspects. For example, a customer service lesson
may begin with a tutorial of the guest service policies. A drill and skill test would verify knowledge
attainment of the policy. Afterwards, a case study may be presented as a game or problem-solving
feature.
Computer-Aided Instruction

Another popular training option is instructor-led training using computer or video simulation, or computer
aided instruction (CAI). It generally consists of a Web-based browser and is used to assist regular
instruction. Like CBT, it allows many different media to be used. However, CAI allows live interaction
between the trainer and the trainee from a distance. Its advantages include:

Improved learning because multiple modes of media are used

Immediate feedback from a trainer or fellow trainees

Individual attention given to trainees

Geographic independence

Disadvantages include:

Requires increased coordination for trainers

Requires increased technological support

Requires some additional computer hardware and software

Dependency on a network connection

Connection speeds vary causing skips and delays

Newness of technology may take away from the learning

CAI has a distinct differentiating feature from CBT in that it employs live feedback with the trainer. This
increased interaction allows real-time conversations between the trainer, the trainee, and other members
of the class emulating a traditional classroom. For example, a learner at a distant location may have
freedom to perform some modules and homework, but will be able to attain a feeling of being present in a
virtual classroom with a live trainer through a network connection. Learners can be provided with
individualized attention whether they are two miles or two continents apart. This interaction promotes
structure, clarification, retention, motivation, and timeliness of completion.
Despite these advantages, additional support is required to orchestrate a quality networked connection
between the trainer and the trainees. Trainers often require technical support staff. Trainees are given
additional responsibility to ensure that they are properly connected at the correct time that the virtual class
is being held. Slowed connections may cause skips or delays that can detract from the lessons.
Additionally, many trainees may be hesitant or have apprehensions that could detract from the lessons. In
these cases, alternative, familiar media such as text, video, or traditional classroom instructions are
provided.
Web-Based Training
Web-based training (WBT) is instruction delivered by computer that is connected to the Internet or an
intranet. Its popularity has spread throughout the world. Information is presented similarly whether

delivered on an intranet or the Internet. WBT can use a number of media and can have one-way or twoway interaction between the trainee and the trainer.
One-Way Interaction. One-way interaction refers to the lack of a direct relationship or communication
between a trainee and a trainer. Similar terminology includes "linear," "asynchronous," and "noninteractive." This is similar to CBT, but over an intranet or Internet connection. Therefore, this medium
would share the advantages and disadvantages of CBT. Trainees are typically at a distance, and the
modules are passive to the viewer.
It should be noted, however, that advances in technology have made it possible for a trainee to interact
with a computer in a manner that is similar to a realistic experience. Trainee input is subjected to
consequences. In this, trainees can use the incredible power and consistency of a computer. For
example, a trainee could view a scenario of a guest complaining. A correct response from the trainee will
elicit a smiling guest and advance the program to more a difficult phase. A wrong answer might show a
video clip of a guest becoming hostile.
As advanced as it is, however, problems are usually present. Live support is not available to help
overcome glitches or answer uncommon questions. Also, most trainees progress through modules at their
own pace. While this can save time, seat-hours can vary and it is sometimes difficult to be sure that the
person taking the training is the person who is supposed to taking it.
Two-Way Interaction. Two-way interaction refers to an on-going relationship or communication
between a trainee and a trainer. Similar terminology includes "non-linear," "synchronous," and
"interactive." CAI may be an example of this. Two-way WBT has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of two-way interaction WBT are:

Improved learning because multiple modes of media are used

Can be easily linked to other resources

No major software issues, inexpensive for trainee

Potentially cost effective

Potential for current information

Individualized attention between all members

Geographic independence

Since WBT may encompass CAI, many of the advantages are similar. Multiple learning modes, links,
examples, and resources can be incorporated to assist the learning process. For example, a live
message from the president of the company regarding new vision points can be followed by a virtual tour
of a property demonstrating the impact of the vision. Software is relatively problem-free and content
information is easy to update and keep current, and training dollars per head can be reduced in
economies of scale. A distinct advantage is the ability for geographic independence. Consistent
interaction with a live person emulates the traditional styles of instruction and gives trainees a sense of
individualization and familiarity during their training. A trainee can be located anywhere in the world.

Disadvantages of two-way interaction WBT are:

Newness of technology may take away from the learning

Increased coordination for trainers

HTML and computer knowledge required

Increased technological support

Reliance on an Internet service provider, connection, and software

Internet access required

Security and privacy

As with all technological media, the newness of the technology may take away from the emphasis on
training. WBT requires increased coordination for the trainers. All course materials must be digitized to be
transmitted. This requires extra time, software, and support to convert existing materials. The entire
training depends on a connection between all involved. If the connection is slowed or broken, the content,
presentation, and interaction are severely damaged.
In the end, WBT can be a cost-efficient means of training. However, it is currently considered new and
relatively uncharted territory. More recently, faster connection technologies using radio waves and fiber
optics have been developed to produce relatively problem-free connections during the training. These
technologies are, however, still considered to be in their infancy.
When deciding upon types of technologies for training, be sure not to draw lines between lessons using
technology. Instead, try to integrate a variety of technologies throughout the lessons. Some trainees may
prefer and excel with one medium and have difficulties with others. Therefore, it is suggested that trainers
alternate the various delivery methods to accommodate the various types of learners.

Distance Learning
Distance learning was one of the first training areas to adopt technology to achieve its objectives.
Moore's classic definition of distance learning states, "Distance teaching may well be defined as the
family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning
behaviors, including those that in a contiguous situation would be performed in the learner's presence, so
that communication between the teacher and the learner must be facilitated by print, electronic,
mechanical, and other devices." [endnote 3]
Keegan suggested a more encompassing definition comprising five interdependent elements:

1.

The separation of teacher and learner

2.

The involvement of a teaching organization that oversees the creation, implementation, and
follow-up support of instructional services

3.

The use of technology to impart instructional services

4.

The use of two-way communication between the student and the teaching organization

5.

The use of an individualized learning setting, apart from other students

[endnote 4]

Garrison and Shale argued that a less restrictive definition of "distance education" would be more
appropriate. They adopted a set of minimum criteria:

Distance education implies that most communication between the teaching organization and the
student does not occur face-to-face.

Distance education uses two-way communication between the student and the teaching
organization.

Distance education uses technology to support two-way communication.

[endnote 5]

Distance learning used print as a medium for many years. This was very popular until the evolution of
sound and video technologies in the 1950s through the 1970s. In the 1980s, the multimedia personal
computer facilitated the integration of text (type), video, and sound in a computer-based training. In the
1990s, the evolution of the Internet enabled the multimedia computer to be networked to anywhere in the
world. No longer were modules limited to information on a disk or CD-ROM. Instead, data was transmitted
and received between the trainer and the trainee at high speeds. See Photo.

Chapter 6 - Competency 4:
Describe the challenges involved in designing and delivering a Web-based course.

Design and Delivery of Web-Based Training

For Web-based training to be successful, you must select the proper technology through rigorous
research. You then need to ensure that the program is designed and delivered well. According to EI
Hospitality Network, only a small percentage of the hotels surveyed use the Internet as one of their
training tools. That is predicted to increase because more properties will soon learn the benefits of
improved accessibility, quality, and cost-effectiveness that training on the Internet offers.
A hotel and leisure executive report said that globalization no longer makes it cost effective or strategically
viable for hospitality organizations to teach at a single location. "The human element is the most important
factor to the hospitality industry. Ensuring that they are uniformly well-trained across geographically
distant locations is becoming an increasing issue." [endnote 6]
One example of Web-based training being delivered in the hospitality industry is the American Culinary
Federation (ACF) teaming up with Ingrain of Portland, Oregon, to produce an on-line training program. In
the fall of 2001, ACF implemented an on-line training program offering more than 30 hours of mandatory
certification courses. They are targeting students such as food service chefs and managers who cannot
attend traditional brick-and-mortar classes. The courses are totally virtual in that no one is tied down to
specific meeting times, project dates, quiz dates, or any other traditional classroom schedules.
Some basic steps in developing Web-based training are:

Choose the course.

Establish technology standards.

Establish course framework.

Provide needed resources and feedback.

Choose the Course

When designing and delivering a course, one of the first decisions is whether it will be instructor-led or
learner-led. Instructor-led refers to two-way interaction between the trainer and the trainee. Similar
terminology includes "non-linear," "synchronous," and "interactive." Learner-led refers to one-way
interaction. Similar terminology includes "linear," "asynchronous," and "non-interactive."
When deciding, consider the available resources. Instructor-led training requires additional time and
support. In fact, instructor-led training often requires more instructor time than traditional classroom
instruction. Please note that location is not a problem.
Also consider whether the material is already available in print or video form. Can it be easily conveyed in
that format without the constant intervention of an instructor? Conversions to an instructor-led medium
could be costly. If material is presently in, or could easily be converted to, a digitized form, then instructorled is a more viable option. This is particularly true if information is in a Web-ready (HTML) format.
After this decision has been made, the outcome will steer the type of technology medium to be used. For
example, if a decision has been made to teach a course
using the instructor-led design, then WBT would be a likely technology medium.
Web-Based Hybrids
All of the described media can be combined to best suit the needs of the organ-ization. Choose the media
according to the learning needs and objectives. One technology can be construed as redundant and may
not appeal to all types of learners. To respond to this, develop hybrids by combining the available
technologies. For example, a traditional classroom lesson on front desk operations may be facilitated by
the integration of a computerized model showing the actual screens. Another example is placing software
programs on "learner mode" where inputs are not integrated with the entire property management
systems. Some of these hybrids can even be connected with real-time simulations from properties using
the Web. See Photo.
Establish Technology Standards
Trainees must have the proper hardware and software to participate successfully in technology-related
training programs. Standards must be in place to ensure that connectivity is possible. These technology
standards should be outlined in the technology plan. Whether or not the parent organization is
responsible for supplying the equipment, minimum requirements should be set. Typically, a system
administrator or technical support representative would write these requirements. They would include:

Minimum CPU speed

Storage and memory space

Connection speed type

Software

Establish Course Framework

The next step is to establish the course framework and determine how each element of the training
program will be adapted to Web-based training. Some of the elements include:

Testing: Some organizations test according to strict guidelines, while others test using the honor
system. Many fall somewhere in between the two. The level of significance and consequences of
the test should dictate the safeguards in place. Safeguards include log-ins with passwords,
designated testing times, and specific testing areas.

Schedules: Whether at a distance or not, start times and stop times should be set. Technology
may allow trainees a wherever-whenever opportunity, but due dates should be firm to maintain
framework. Firm dates make a trainer's job easier, and problems are often brought to light in a
timely manner if completion dates are set.

Teamwork. Trainees enrolled in Phoenix Institute, an on-line training university, may never have
personal contact with their trainers and fellow trainees. Yet they will form high-achieving teams as
the groups progress together throughout their curriculum on on-line classes. Phoenix Institute
offers a curriculum where trainees remain in a group throughout their enrollment. These groups
begin and finish together; although they may never meet, they form a bond that makes distance
less of an issue. A train-when-you-can approach may fit in some cases, but structure has been
shown to be very effective at retaining throughout training. When groups are established, strict
guidelines should be set as if they were physically present.

Provide Needed Resources

Management must allocate the proper resources for training to be successful. Without adequate
resources, even the best training designs will fail. Trainers and trainees will become frustrated, and
training goals will not be easily met. Some of these resources include:

Financial support. Realize that equipment breaks and updates must constantly be made.
Investing in technology is not a one-time purchase, but a commitment to continual support and
upgrades. It is increasingly common to give trainers extra compensation when using new delivery
methods. This may be in the form of reduced training loads, extra preparation time, or reduced
class sizes.

Feedback. Schedule regular meetings so that trainers and trainees can provide information on
how successful the course is.

On-going communication.

Positive reinforcement.

Chapter 6 - Competency 5:
Describe factors to consider in combining technology-based training with traditional training.

Blending Technology with Traditional Techniques

As an alternative to diving headfirst into a full-scale technologically advanced training program, many
organizations have opted to ease into technological training by integrating various technology media into
an existing traditional training sessions. This is more commonly known as technology integration. Some of
the possible media for inclusion are: video, audio, property management systems or point-of-sale systems
on a trainee mode, e-mail, Internet resources, and on-line texts. This has proven to be a very successful
segue into larger, complex training systems. When considering technology integration, the following
advantages apply:

Many of the materials can be converted into technological media as time allows.

Trainers and trainees can slowly adjust to the new methods.

A large initial investment is not required.

Technological support systems are not as complex.

Disadvantages include:

Technology is not taken as seriously.

Trainers are not always trained.

Chapter 6 - Competency 6:
Explain how technology can be used to track training and development activities.

Evaluation Using Technology

All training needs to be evaluated, whether it is traditional or technological. However, particular notice
should be given to technological training because it is new, unprecedented, and introduces many new
criteria. See Photo.

Trainee Evaluation Using Technology

Below are considerations to take into account when beginning to evaluate your success:

Pretest. Consider testing all trainees before the training session. This testing does not have to be
limited to content, but can assess other factors such as computer aptitude and motivation.

Assess all stakeholders. A stakeholder is defined as anyone who has a vested interest in the
outcome of the training process. Various levels of assessment do not have to be limited to the
trainee.

Be consistent. Evaluate the consistency of training with technology. Technological training

accommodates trainees at various levels. Generally, adults will learn best in the manner that they
are most comfortable. Also, an intermittent technological error could have a dramatic effect on
only certain trainees, producing varied outcomes.

Measure knowledge and skill retention. A significant amount of resources have been extended to
produce a technologically advanced training module. The evaluation of retention, or knowledge
acquired, however, is often limited to multiple-choice questions. Consider alternative evaluation
methodologies such as practical applications and scenarios.

Understand the implications of results. The bottom line is one example of an evaluation of most
training applications. But before jumping to conclusions, consider this: correlation does not imply
causation. Just because profits have increased does not necessarily mean that the training was
responsible. In reality, numerous other factors could have attributed to the profit of the operation.

Course Evaluation Using Technology

The media change, but the sought-after information remains the same or expands. Very little research is
available comparing the use of technology in evaluation. This is partially due to the multitude of training
variations. Despite this, training using computerized modules can be very advantageous for analysis.
Technology can help to track development in the following three ways:

Time on task analysis. Technology can track the progression of a trainee through self-guided
modules. It can report how much time was spent viewing each module, by trainee or by class.
These data can be compared to the test.

Test-taking analysis. Technology can also enhance the testing procedures. Simulations can be
built. Test questions can also be presented in a consequential format that asks more questions if
answered wrong and goes to other sections if answered correctly.

Support analysis. Technology can also record the nature and amount of the problems. The
problems can be categorized, pinpointing problem areas. This analysis can be used in troubleshooting and improvements for future updates.

Trainers are also evaluated using technology. As with all trainer evaluations, response rate is crucial.
Typically, trainees are most willing to respond if they were displeased with some aspect of their training.
Therefore, it is very important to strive for a 100 percent response rate from trainees. To accomplish this,
trainees should complete evaluations as close to the end of the course as possible. Some programs
survey employees during the training, but close to the end. This way, trainees must complete the
evaluations in order to finish the training.
When evaluating distance education, other tactics may be used. E-mail surveys, faxed surveys, Webpage surveys, and telephone follow-ups can all serve as adequate methodologies. Consider that a
computer prompt can be very impersonal and therefore easy to reject. Seriously consider the outcome
before incorporating a "remind me later" message. Also consider making it a necessary component of the
course. If evaluations are customary in the organization, trainees are familiar with it, so consider making it

slightly different from the traditional surveys. This way, the repetitive nature of surveys will not affect the
outcome.
Also, remember to not only ensure anonymity, but make the anonymity known and believable. Even the
best safeguards to preserve anonymity can be spoiled if there is disbelief in the system.

Chapter 8 - Competency 1:
Explain the importance of training departmental trainers.

Training the Trainer

Training is a function that is spread among many people within an organization. It is rare for a property to
employ a single trainer who performs all training for each person within the organization. Many of the
people who conduct the daily, operational training at a property train only part of the time. These
department-level trainers typically hold another position in the operation but have been selected as a
trainer because of their skill, ability to teach, or attitudes.
Departmental trainers may be hourly employees, supervisors, non-supervisors, or department managers.
These people play an essential role in training, as they not only pass along skills and knowledge, but they
play a pivotal role in helping new employees become acculturated to the organization.
Departmental trainers need to have an excellent working knowledge of the job skills and procedures they
are training people in. They have to understand the mission of the property, be flexible, have good
listening skills, and be respected by others in the organization.
Your role in department--level training will most likely be that of training the trainers-preparing
departmental trainers to develop learners and achieve the property's training goals. You may also be
responsible for selecting trainers, which makes it important that you know what qualities make a good
trainer.
This chapter will provide an overview of how departmental trainers are chosen and trained. Then it will
review the four-step training method--the method most commonly used by departmental trainers for skills
training--the learning process, communication skills, and ways to support departmental trainers through
certification.

Training Overview
Training, particularly on the department or line-level, prepares employees to do their jobs effectively. It
describes job procedures and helps employees develop skills to do their jobs at the proper levels of
performance. Training can be given to new employees and, when necessary, to employees already on
staff.
In hospitality, trainers must train the three S's--standards, service, and safety:

Standards--Training employees on job standards means demonstrating and providing information

about the specific job tasks required of employees and the acceptable standards of performance
for job tasks.

Service--Effective service training should include an overview of hospitality, how guest feedback
is used, the difference between external and internal customers, and behavior modeling of
appropriate service behaviors.

Safety--Safety training involves training employees in how to maintain their own personal safety,
maintain guest safety, recognize safety hazards, and react in the event of an emergency.

Training Methods
Department trainers must use a variety of training methods to provide information and feedback to
employees. Depending on the size and training needs of your property and the individual department,
department trainers may not have much control over the method they use to deliver training. However, it's
important that they understand the benefits and limitations of each training method for those times when
they are called upon to use them.
Consider sharing your expertise with the department trainers, telling them which methods you have used
and what has worked well. Encourage them to be creative in their training approaches and to choose the
method that will best meet the training objectives. See Exhibit 1 for an activity that you can conduct with
department trainers to help familiarize them with the following training methods.
Group Training. Group training is when a qualified trainer conducts group training for a number of
employees at the same time. It is particularly useful when the trainer must provide the same information
or skills to several employees at once. It can be more interactive than one-on-one training, and
employees benefit from the expertise and experiences of other trainees. However, it does require
significant planning efforts and can be more difficult to control. Department trainers use this method only
rarely. It is much more common among property-level trainers, training managers, and consultants.
One-on-One Training. This method trains individual employees. It can take place before, during, or after
a shift and either on or off the job. It gives the trainee individual attention and immediate feedback. It is a
method that allows the trainer to individualize the training to meet the specific needs of the employee
being trained. However, it also provides little opportunity for team building or interaction with other
trainees.
On-the-Job Training. This training is conducted at the work site. It can be more cost effective than offthe-job training because the training is conducted during normal business hours in actual work settings. It
provides maximum realism since it is performed in the actual work place. It addresses a trainee's specific
needs and is especially effective for one-on-one training.
Off-the-Job Training. This type of training is conducted away from the actual work site, often in a
conference room or a private office.
For a training method to be effective, it should:

Motivate trainees to improve their performance.

Structure tasks from the simple to the complex.

Clearly demonstrate desired skills.

Provide for active trainee participation.

Provide an opportunity to practice new skills.

Provide timely feedback on trainee performance.

Provide some means for reinforcement while trainees learn.

Be adaptable to specific problems.

Encourage positive transfer of knowledge and skills from training to the job.

Identify why training is important to the employee.

Use a variety of training techniques to keep the trainees' interest.

Qualities of Good Trainers

Too often, department-level trainers are selected based solely on factors such as their availability, length
of time with a property, or because they are the department's highest performer. Yet, these characteristics
are not necessarily qualities that make a trainer good. True, trainers should be available and have ample
time to train employees. They should also have been with the property long enough to understand its
culture and be able to perform all tasks up to standards. However, there are many other qualities that a
good trainer needs to have.
Good trainers:

Know and can perform the job skills and procedures

Understand the mission of the company and reflect the organizational culture in their actions and
words

Understand the qualities of effective employees and model/train those qualities

Have a personal commitment to excellence in all areas of performance

Are respected by trainees and other employees

Show respect for other individuals and enjoy working with different types of people

Have excellent communication skills

Are flexible

Display a consistent positive attitude

Have the ability to make decisions and solve routine problems

Show enthusiasm for their job, the department, and the organization

Have self-confidence

Display that they enjoy training

Are able to encourage trainees to think about how the training applies to their jobs

Have the ability to persuade trainees to set goals for themselves in training

Are accessible, open, and invite trainees, through their words and actions, to ask questions

Encourage trainees to find better ways of doing job tasks

Have excellent active listening skills

Understand and display the importance of recognizing and praising even the smallest successes
of trainees

Encourage and support trainees

Share their experiences and even their mistakes with the trainees

Have a good sense of humor and use it as a training tool

Spend the time necessary to properly train employees

Reward employees for training achievements

While no single person may have all these qualities, you can work with the departmental trainers so that
they develop the qualities and skills they lack. Consider preparing an action plan for departmental trainers
to improve in each of the training areas listed above. Help them develop learning activities for themselves
and follow up on their timetables.
Understanding the Jobs Being Trained
Before training begins, the departmental trainers have to know what trainees need to learn. They have to
be able to describe exactly what an employee needs to learn in order to do their jobs. They need to know
what the employees must do and how they must do it.
Some of the most helpful tools for departmental trainers are task lists and job breakdowns. A task
list tells what tasks an employee in a certain position must perform. When trainers are preparing for

training, the task list will tell them what tasks a trainee should be able to perform after the training is
completed.
Each task on a task list has its own job breakdown that tells how to perform that task. The job
breakdown lists the task's steps, how the trainee should perform the steps, and how well he or she should
perform them. Exhibit 2 shows a sample task list and job breakdown.
Make sure that your property's task lists and job breakdowns are up to date and that all departmental
trainers have a copy that they can use for training. Be sure to solicit feedback from these trainers on a
regular basis about whether these tools are helpful or whether they need to be modified or updated.
Another helpful tool are job descriptions. Current job descriptions for each position can help define the
job and its requirements. It should also indicate which of the tasks are most important. A job description
can be used in:

Preparing for training, to identify what tasks a trainee should be able to perform after the training
is completed

Orienting and training a new employee so that he or she understands the basic responsibilities of
the position

Evaluating the employee's performance on the job

In addition to task lists, job breakdowns, and job descriptions, departmental trainers also draw from their
own personal experiences. They are familiar with the job(s) they are training and are better able to:

Communicate steps for performing required job tasks.

Provide feedback.

Answer questions.

Evaluate trainee performance.

One of the important goals of training is to ensure that employees can do their jobs at a level that meets
basic quality and quantity standards. This means that the trainers must know how well a trainee should be
able to do each job task by the end of the training. They should be familiar with the property's standards
before the training begins and train the employee so he or she can do the job task to the desired
performance level.
Evaluating Training
Because department-level training is so important, it must be evaluated on an ongoing basis. This
evaluation will let the trainer know whether the training was successful and whether either the training
needs to be improved or he or she needs additional development.
Evaluating the results of a training program is often left to the training manager, yet the departmental
trainer should be encouraged to make some effort to find out whether employees are using the
knowledge and skills on the job that they learned in training.

Exhibit 3 provides some observations a departmental trainer might make and what the reason and
solution might be for each observation.

Chapter 8 - Competency 2:
Outline how trainers use the four-step training method to train employees.

Four-Step Training Method

Many trainers--especially departmental trainers--use the four-step training method o train both new and
experienced employees. The four-step training method is a basic model that can be used to implement an
on-the-job training program. The model is general enough to be used in group training programs as well.
The steps in the four-step training method are:

1.

Prepare to train.

2.

Conduct the training.

3.

Coach trial performances.

4.

Follow through.

Consider providing departmental trainers with a checklist similar to the one found in Exhibit 4.

Step One: Prepare to Train

Many trainers think they know the skills required of employees so well that they can teach them to others
without any thought or preparation. However, it is easy to forget important details if training is approached
without adequate trainer preparation. The training session will be most effective if the trainer is skilled in
the area being taught. The trainer should be willing to follow the job breakdowns closely so that the skills
are presented in a logical sequence. When this is done, the trainees are better able to understand and
remember the steps necessary to perform the job.
Planning for training involves preliminary steps that are taken to answer the following questions:
Who?

Who should be involved in the training?

How many trainees will be involved in the training?

Who needs to cover the trainer's and trainees' job responsibilities during the training session?

What?

What topics should be covered?

What are the employees' expectations for the training?

What audiovisual aids and equipment will be needed for the training?

What other materials will be needed for the training?

Where?

Where should the training take place?

Is the training space available or do I need to reserve it?

When?

When should the training take place?

When will training be least likely to interfere with business operations?

When will trainees be most alert?

Why?

Why is the training needed?

How?

How should the training be conducted?

How will employees' special needs be met during training?

Emphasize to departmental trainers that everyone involved in training should know their role and when
they will be called upon to do their part. A training plan and agenda helps ensure that the training is
delivered in an organized manner and is thorough and complete.
Departmental trainers should begin by writing training objectives. Training objectives state what a trainee
should know or be able to do after training. Task lists, job breakdowns, and job descriptions help identify
what should be included in objectives. The trainer's goal is to have the trainee do the tasks at the
performance level set by the property. Training objectives need to be updated or adjusted as necessary
for a specific position or situation based on changed procedures or information.

In order to make the best use of the training time available, the trainer should prepare a detailed plan
about how he or she will help the trainees learn the knowledge and skills required for each task. This will
be a step-by-step plan of what to do during the training.
The departmental trainer needs to determine the best method for the trainee to learn the information and
skills presented during training. These methods might include demonstration, role plays, shadowing,
practice, etc. Often, the training method depends on who is being trained, what tasks will be covered,
where the training will take place, and how many are being trained.
Scheduling is another important preparatory task. The departmental trainer needs to decide how long
each training session will take and should schedule training during times of low business volume. Trainee
and property needs will also influence the preparation of a training schedule.
If possible, departmental trainers should train employees at the workstations where they will be working.
They should make sure the trainees are standing or sitting where they will actually be performing the task;
otherwise they may watch the work done from a reverse angle, which might confuse them when they try
to do the task themselves. The trainer also needs to ensure that the training is conducted in a room that
has appropriate ventilation, space, and seating.
Finally, the trainer needs to set up the training area before the session begins. This is an opportunity to
check that all equipment is in working order and the room is set up in a manner that will enhance the
training. The trainer should also check room temperature and prepare any needed materials or equipment
in advance.
Exhibit 5 is an exercise that you could walk departmental trainers through to help them prepare for
training.
Step Two: Conduct the Training
Once the trainer and trainee have been prepared for training, the actual process can begin. At Sea World
Adventure Parks in Orlando, Florida, they use the T.R.A.I.N. acronym to conduct on-the-job training. The
acronym is:
Teach by showing.
Repeat until comfortable.
Ask questions.
Imitate work conditions.
Note good performance.
Additional suggestions for conducting the training include:

Prepare the trainees. Motivate trainees to learn. Do this by showing how the trainees' jobs fit into
the overall operation and why they are important. Let the trainees know the benefits of the
training, such as helping them to do their jobs better. Explain the session's training objectives.

Begin the training session. It is important to start on time and take breaks as necessary. First,
trainers should establish the learning objectives. Then, they should explain each step they will
cover and tell why it is important. Be sure the trainees understand property standards and know

that the standards will be used to evaluate their performance. Make sure that the trainers provide
a consistent and standardized delivery from person to person and from class to class.

Demonstrate the steps. As the trainers explain the steps, they should demonstrate them. They
need to arrange the steps in the order that they should be done. They should also encourage
trainees to ask questions whenever they need additional information.

Avoid jargon. Jargon is language that is technical or specific to an industry, such as "edible
portion" in the kitchen or "ADR" at the front desk. Let trainers know that they should use words
that employees new to the hospitality industry or your property can understand. The jargon can
be picked up later. Consider providing trainees with a list or glossary of terms used at your
property.

Take enough time. Trainers need to go slowly and carefully. They need to explain and show each
step thoroughly and be patient if the trainees don't understand right away.

Repeat the steps. Encourage trainers to go over all the steps at least twice so the employees
completely understand the process. When they show a step the second time, they should ask the
employees questions to see if they understand. Then they should repeat the steps as many times
as necessary.

Step Three: Coach Trial Performances

After the trainees feel that they can execute the duty or task in an acceptable manner, the trainer should
allow the trainees to perform the procedure alone. This is a trial performance. The trainer's job at this
point is that of coaching these trial performances.
Once the trainees appear to understand each step, the trainer should ask them to demonstrate and
explain the steps. The trainer may allow the trainees to practice in an on-the-job situation, or by using
activities, exercises, role playing, or case studies. Trial performances let the trainer check to see if
trainees really do understand. Trainers should not do the tasks for the trainees or interrupt the
performances unless the trainees are in danger of hurting themselves or others.
Trainers should praise trainees when they perform correctly and gently correct them when they don't. This
is also a good time to review the proper procedures again. Trainers should also be sure that trainees can
perform each step and explain its purpose before they move on to the next step.
Step Four: Follow Through
Follow-through can be a part of the training session or it can follow it immediately. The trainee should
continue to perform the new duties on the job after his or her trial performance to gain further speed and
accuracy. The follow-through may be a formal evaluation of learning and program effectiveness, or a
less formal observation.
Departmental trainers should be encouraged to observe trainees to see whether they have carried their
training experiences over to the workplace. They should provide feedback about how the trainees are
doing and remind them of what they learned in training. Finally, they should stay available to their trainees
to help them solve any problems that come up related to what they were trained on.
Some suggestions for following through with training include:

Coach a few tasks each day. Trainees can't handle too much information at once. Limit a
coaching session's information to what a person can understand and remember. Then conduct
additional coaching sessions for the remaining information at a later date.

Evaluate the trainees' progress. Ask the following questions to evaluate whether the trainees
have met the training objectives. Did they learn? Are they applying what they learned? If the
trainees haven't learned or aren't applying what they've learned, you`ll need to provide further
training and practice. Evaluation may or may not take place immediately after training. Some
follow-up evaluation may take place at 30-, 60-, or 90-day intervals.

Continue positive support. Let the trainees know when they perform well and what they are doing
correctly after training. Positive feedback boosts confidence levels, reinforces good work habits,
and increases motivation. Employees need to know that someone noticed that they are doing a
good job.

Correct the trainees when necessary. If trainees are not meeting performance standards, first
compliment them on the tasks they are doing correctly, then show them how to correct their bad
habits, and explain why they should adjust their actions. Corrective feedback is used to show
employees what they can do to work more effectively and confidently. It helps employees develop
good work habits and increases motivation. Tell trainees where to seek help if you won't be
available. Employees need to know that someone cares whether they do a good job. Many
managers and trainers fail to correct their employees because they don't want to offend them. But
not correcting employees when necessary just sets them up for failure, which may in turn lead to
poor guest service.

Get the trainees' feedback. Let the employees evaluate the training they received. This can help
improve training efforts for them and for other trainees. Exhibit 6 provides some sample questions
that trainers can ask trainees.

Chapter 8 - Competency 3:
Describe the learning process and the factors that affect it.

Learning
Training is defined as any activity that results in learning. It is important, then, that departmental trainers
consider exactly what learning is and what trainers can do to positively influence it. Learning is defined
as gaining knowledge or skills through experience or study. In other words, if people perform differently
after training, then learning has taken place.
The effectiveness of employee training is affected by how well trainers recognize and apply basic learning
principles, including principles of adult learning. Departmental trainers should be aware that individuals
often have different learning styles and are motivated to learn by different things. Training can be
customized to meet the individual needs of a trainee.
People learn best when they want to learn. Employees have to be motivated in order to learn. Since the
desire to learn is largely self-motivated, a trainer is limited in how he or she can motivate a trainee.
However, a trainer can make an effort to understand what most people expect from training and relate
training to each trainee's interests and needs.

Adults look for many things in a training situation. They want:

Professional growth, not grades. Some employees have had bad training experiences.
Compliment and encourage employees during training. If correction is necessary, do it positively,
in private. Explain that the training is to make their job better, not to record a grade on their
performance.

Practical training. Show the employees how they can use and benefit from the information and
skills presented in training.

Job-related training. Be sure that training is directly related to the employees' jobs.

Appreciation of their past experiences. Let employees know that their experience and knowledge
are valued. Make the training an extension of that experience.

Comfortable, relaxed training. Training will be more successful if you provide an informal
atmosphere. Treat the employees as professional co-workers and make the training environment
fun.

Participation. Employees don't want you to lecture them; they want to be actively involved in
training.

There are many factors that can affect a person's ability to learn. The departmental trainer must recognize
that people are individuals who have different levels and types of abilities as well as different needs. Their
backgrounds differ in terms of capabilities and life experiences. Training programs must have the flexibility
to accommodate the individual differences of all participants.
An important step toward dealing with individual differences among trainees is to be aware of some basic
factors that affect the learning process. The following factors could affect how trainees will learn, which
can make a difference in how the departmental trainers present training:

Demographics

Diversity

Disabilities

Education level and literacy

Job experience

Delivery style of trainer

Trainers should adapt their training style to accommodate the special needs of trainees. This means that
they need to understand that diversity in the work force is the rule, not the exception. Sometimes
differences such as age, gender, race, or disabilities can cause prejudice, bias, or judgment on the part

of the trainer or the trainee. It's illegal to discriminate against a trainee because of these differences.
Trainers must be sensitive in how they present information. They shouldn't make comments that can be
perceived as belittling a trainee's background or special circumstances. It is also important to have
patience and use demonstration and participation techniques whenever possible to help communicate the
training.
Make sure that trainers know what resources are available. Keep a list of translators who can help when
language differences present a learning barrier. Develop a list of other employees at the property who
have special skills that can aid in training, such as fluency in a foreign language or sign language. Know
what areas of the property are accessible to employees with disabilities. Know which tools are available
(such as video) to help train employees who can't read.
Maintain awareness among all trainers of special needs. Make arrangements for trainees with special
needs when necessary. When training employees with disabilities, make an effort to schedule training in
areas that are easily accessible. Make requests in advance for special services such as translators, and
schedule training around the availability of these resources. Spend more time with trainees who have less
job experience.
Help trainers discover ways they can alter their delivery style to accommodate the learning styles of
trainees. Teach trainers to observe trainees and understand how they are remembering information, then
adapt their training to meet the learning needs of the trainees. Help trainers develop tools such as
handouts and other visual aids for trainees who appear to be visual learners, use more discussion and
ask questions for auditory learners, and create substantial hands-on practice opportunities for kinesthetic
(tactile) learners.

Chapter 8 - Competency 4:
Describe the communication process.

Communication
Communication is one of the most important skills a departmental trainer can
possess. Communication is the successful exchange of information from one person to another. The
good news is that departmental trainers--and anyone else, for that matter--can learn to communicate
better. Communication is a skill, and--like all skills--requires practice.
The information on communication in this section details the types of skills and information that you
should be sure that departmental trainers either have or know. If they do not, it is your responsibility to
provide training for them in these areas.
The Communication Process
Communication is a two-way flow of information that requires all participants to provide and receive
information and also to demonstrate an understanding of the information. Communication is sending
verbal and nonverbal messages, receiving the messages through listening and observation, and
understanding both the content and intent of the message.
The communication process involves three channels or elements of communication: vocal, visual, and
verbal. Vocal is the voice of the speaker, his or her vocal variety, quality, rate, volume, and vocalized
pauses. Visual refers to what we see of the speaker. This includes eye contact, posture, gestures, and
facial expression. The verbal element is the actual words of the speaker.

The words we use don't always tell the whole story. While we like to think that the words we speak have
power, the real power in our communication is nonverbal. We communicate with more than just our
spoken language. The trainer will interpret the visual and vocal signals that trainees send when
interacting. In addition, the trainees will react mainly to the trainer's nonverbal signals.
Albert Mehrabian of UCLA found that in group communication, 55 percent of the message is received
from visual cues, 38 percent from vocal cues, and 7 percent from verbal cues. These results indicate that
93 percent of the information trainees get from trainers comes through the nonverbal channel.
If we had our eyes closed and several people we knew came up and spoke with us, we could probably tell
who each person was, even though we couldn't see them. This is because everyone's voice has unique
characteristics. Consider the following vocal characteristics and how they apply to your voice.
No one likes to listen to a person who never alters the tone or inflection of his or her voice when speaking.
This is called speaking in a monotone. People who speak in a monotone sound as if they're not interested
or excited. As a trainer, adding variety to the tone of your voice will add interest and enthusiasm to the
words you speak.
It's important for a trainer to have good vocal quality. This means the voice should not be nasal or
breathy. A trainer needs good vocal quality to add authority and believability to the words he or she
speaks.
A trainer should speak at a rate of speed that allows people to understand and remember what is being
said. This means the rate should not be too fast, especially if the message includes many details or
technical information. On the other hand, if the information is not technical, the rate should not be too
slow, or people will become bored or offended.
How loudly or softly you speak will be decided, in part, by how noisy the workplace is. In addition, you
may want to raise the volume of your voice if you wish to emphasize a point. However, if you always talk
loudly, it can have a negative effect on trainees. At the same time, never speak so softly that you can't be
heard.
Vocalized pauses are made when a person makes sounds such as, "um," "er," or "ah, " or repeats
phrases such as "you know" or "like that." If you find that you use vocalized pauses, make a deliberate
effort to eliminate them from your speaking. Vocalized pauses make people sound as if they're unsure of
themselves. A trainer
always wants to speak with confidence.
When people communicate, they get a great deal of information by looking at one another. As you read
about the following visual elements, think of how you use them when talking with trainees.
Eye contact is looking a person in the eyes when talking with him or her. It is perhaps the most powerful
form of nonverbal communication. When you use eye contact in communication, you're really saying, "I'm
interested in you. I'm paying attention to you." Alternatively, when you don't use eye contact people
generally think you're unsure of yourself, are lying, are uninterested, or don't care about them. As a
trainer, using eye contact says you're confident about yourself and you care about the person with whom
you're talking.
Posture is how you hold and carry your body. Your posture sends very clear messages. For example,
standing or walking with rounded shoulders or in a slouching manner sends a message of being tired,
unassertive, or bored. Trainers should carry themselves with ease and confidence. This means standing
upright with your shoulders back in a relaxed, not stiff, manner. Carry your body as if you feel good about
yourself, and your trainees will get the message.

Gestures include moving your hands, arms, shoulders, and even your head as you speak. Use gestures
to help explain or support what you're saying. Gestures add information and variety. As others watch you
speak, they can learn much from your gestures. For example, if you play with your hair, chew on your lips
or fingernails, or repeat movements such as drumming your fingers, others may conclude that you are
uneasy or bored.
The expression on your face reveals a lot about your attitude. By simply watching your facial expression,
others can learn whether you are happy or sad, angry or confused. Facial expression is very natural, but
some people avoid using it. Not only is it uninteresting to talk to a person with a deadpan face, but it also
makes us uncomfortable because it's so unnatural. We should also remember that facial expression is not
always completely reliable. Many of us, for example, have learned to fake a certain facial expression
when we think it is expected. Finally, facial expression does not always match the words a person is
speaking. When this happens, we tend to believe the facial expression and not the words.
Verbal communication is what a person actually says when speaking, not how the person says it. When
you have information you wish to share, whether you're presenting it to one person or 100, the following
guidelines will help you make your verbal communication more effective:

Keep it simple. The most important guideline in speaking is to KISS--that is, Keep It Short and
Simple. What's the one main idea you want your listeners to remember? Be able to say it simply,
in one short sentence. People generally can't remember a lot of information. Therefore, don't
provide information that doesn't relate to the one main idea you're presenting. Don't overload your
trainees with information.

Explain or provide an example. Once you've stated the point you're trying to make, express the
point in different words to explain it. You can also present an example of what you mean. This will
help your trainees understand and apply your point.

Use clear, direct words. The point of speaking is to have the trainees understand your message.
Therefore, use language that can be easily understood. Don't talk over your trainees' heads.

Respect your listeners. Keep your trainees' interests in mind. Let them know how the information
will help them and tell them how to apply it. If you're speaking with one individual, use the
person's name. People are complimented when their names are used. Finally, always treat your
trainees as people who are important.

Repeat your main idea. Before you finish your message, repeat your main idea. Repeating the
main idea will emphasize it and help the trainees remember it.

Check for understanding. Ask if you can clarify anything or if your trainees have any questions. If
you wish to check whether the trainee understood the message correctly, try comments such as,
"I'm not sure I said that clearly; let me hear what you think I said."

Chapter 8 - Competency 5:
Identify techniques to help reduce speaking anxiety.
Speaking Anxiety

All performers, speakers, and trainers experience speaking anxiety when facing a group of people. This
anxiety is a natural, intelligent reaction to the importance of the situation. It shows that the speaker
understands the importance of the task.
Comedian Bob Hope once commented that he never gave a performance that wasn't preceded by his
standing offstage feeling sick to his stomach with anticipation. However, when he went onstage to
perform, he channeled those feelings into constructive energy. He cared about his topic and his audience
and used this energy to do his best job.
The following tips should help you channel your body's nervous energy and prepare constructively for the
training session:

Practice. Read your training material aloud, standing up, and, if possible, in the training room.
Practice eye contact, looking where the participants will be seated.

Visualize. Pre-set yourself for success. Visualize yourself successfully leading the training
activities. Your attitude and confidence will help determine the quality of your presentation.

Have fun. Relax and enjoy yourself. The participants want to have a good experience, and they
will support you. Be confident and energetic, and the session will be positive for everyone.

The truth is that everyone experiences speaking anxiety at some point. Even trainers who are very
familiar with their material can become anxious about presenting the information. However, the more
prepared you are, and the more you practice, the easier it will be to overcome your speaking anxiety and
channel that energy constructively.

Chapter 8 - Competency 6:
List characteristics of effective listeners.
Listening
Many people believe that hearing is listening. That is, if we can hear what a person is saying, we're
listening. Listening goes far beyond just hearing, however. Good listening involves four distinct steps.

1.

Paying attention

2.

Attaching meaning

3.

Evaluating the message

4.

Responding and remembering

A good listener is an active listener. That is, the listener is an active participant in the communication
process. He or she is involved verbally, nonverbally, mentally, and physically. As a listener, you can use
several verbal responses to a speaker. You can encourage the speaker by making occasional comments
such as, "I see," "Tell me about that," or "That is interesting." You can ask the trainee questions when a
point is not clear or when you want more information. You also can get involved verbally by using a
technique called paraphrasing. When youparaphrase, you repeat to the speaker in your own words what
you think he or she has said. Paraphrasing allows you to check with the speaker to see if you have
correctly understood what he or she was trying to say.

As an active listener, a trainer should give trainees good nonverbal feedback. Most importantly, this
means using good eye contact--look at the trainee as he or she talks. Give appropriate facial or head
responses such as a smile or a nod of approval. As an active listener, you also should observe the
speaker's nonverbal behavior. While the person speaks, listen for the main idea he or she is presenting.
Summarize the points the person is making. You also can get involved mentally by asking yourself if there
are things the speaker is saying that are not clear to you. Sometimes, it makes sense for you to take
notes. For example, if a trainee has a question you can't answer immediately, you may need to write it
down so you have it for later reference.
Poor listening habits can be broken. Interrupting is a clear message to the speaker that you think that
what you have to say is more important than what he or she is saying. Hearing a person out is a
wonderful compliment. It says, "I care about what you have to say." Avoid prejudging. Listen to the
speaker's point of view. Don't assume you know the point the person is making until you hear him or her
say it. Don'tscript-write. Concentrate on the speaker and what he or she is saying to you. Don't allow
yourself to mentally prepare your response while the person is still speaking.
We all have emotional triggers--words, issues, and personalities that seem to excite us or irritate us
emotionally. As trainers, we must keep our emotions in check. When a trainee speaks with you and
touches one of your emotional triggers, try to concentrate on the issue, not the emotion. If you keep
control of your emotions, you'll keep control of the situation.

Certification for Department-Level Trainers

There are many different ways that you can provide professional development opportunities to
department-level trainers. You might provide a library of resources, mentoring sessions, one-on-one
training, or group seminars. You might also encourage your department-level trainers to participate in the
Certified Hospitality Department Trainer (CHDT) program developed by the Educational Institute of the
American Hotel & Lodging Association.
Any hospitality department trainer who is responsible for training employees in his or her department is
eligible for the CHDT program. Professional certification is considered a symbol of expertise and
achievement. It demonstrates an employee's attainment of an increased level of competence and
provides a way for others to recognize his or her professional status.
The CHDT study guide is designed to help improve the skills of hospitality department trainers. It helps
them to:

Understand training responsibilities.

Identify qualities of successful trainers.

Understand and evaluate different training methods.

Understand the steps involved in preparing for, conducting, and following up on training.

Identify the factors that affect learning.

Improve communication skills.

Evaluate the appropriate use of audiovisual aids in training programs.

Improve group training and one-on-one training skills.

Prepare for the CHDT certification exam.

Chapter 9 - Competency 1:
Describe how hospitality companies benefit from comprehensive, effectively conducted employee
orientation programs.

Orientation and Socialization

Just as first impressions are crucial to guest perceptions, an employee's first encounters on a new job are
vitally important in his or her adjustment to a new organization. Employees who are warmly welcomed
into the organization are more apt to feel that their decision to join a particular company is validated. This
hospitable start to employment, followed by an orientation program providing thorough, helpful information
and continued socialization or mentoring processes, can greatly expedite the employee's successful
acclimation to the company. Continued socialization or mentoring processes and a well-planned,
comprehensive on-the-job training program can set the stage for success and decrease the likelihood of
turnover during an employee's first few weeks of employment.

Orientations
Studies show that the first 30 days are crucial to the success of most new hospitality employees. That's
when most new hires either receive proper orientation and go on to become successful, long-term
employees--or receive poor orientation and then become overwhelmed, discouraged, and resign. When
an employee resigns after just a few weeks on the job, the property loses all the time and resources it
spent on recruiting and hiring that employee. In an industry that can experience turnover as high as 200
to 300 percent each year, it's not difficult to see that orientation is absolutely crucial to efficient operations.
In addition to reduced turnover, numerous other benefits attend effective employee orientations. Good
employee orientations:

Satisfy the new employee's need to know about where he or she will be working.

Improve morale and contribute to employee motivation.

Increase employee commitment through an introduction the company's mission and philosophy.

Communicate to the employee what is expected.

Show how individual jobs fit into the overall company mission.

Help put the new employee at ease.

Orientation is introductory instruction concerning a new environment or organization. This instruction

generally helps answer employees' questions in these three categories:

Job-related issues. What are the property's standards, management expectations, and policies
and procedures I must follow?

Cultural issues. How should I act? What are the rules? What's my relationship with management?

Job responsibilities. How do I learn to do this job? How do I use the equipment? How will you
evaluate my performance?

Chapter 9 - Competency 2:
Distinguish general orientations from departmental/specific job orientations and pre-employment
orientation.
The General Property Orientation
Most orientation programs include two components--a broad, general property orientation and a specific
job orientation. In the general property orientation, company policies and procedures that pertain to all
employees are explained. Typically, the organization's mission is explained and discussed, as is the role
of employees in meeting company goals. The general property orientation provides a great opportunity to
discuss the history of the company, including information on the founder or inception of the business. New
employees beginning work at Disney World in Orlando, Florida, learn about Walt Disney and what led to
the birth of Disneyland. Employees entering Ritz-Carlton properties gain information about Csar Ritz and
the rich history signified in the Ritz name.
Orientation is also an excellent forum to discuss the concept and importance of service as it applies to
both guests and fellow employees. Examples of exemplary service can help new employees connect
actions to the company's mission statement. Role plays or even a video featuring existing employees
displaying excellent guest service can accommodate multiple learning styles as adult learners see actual
work applications. Most general orientation sessions include employees from various departments and
organizational levels. This is an opportune time to reinforce the team concept and the notion of the entire
organization working toward quality service delivered seamlessly.
General employee benefits and basic safety rules are typically included in the general property
orientation. A tour of the property is always a welcomed segment because this is one of the few times that
some employees will have a chance to visit other building areas: banquet servers and cooks, for example,
seldom have a reason to visit guestrooms in a hotel and, likewise, room attendants and front desk
employees typically have little occasion to go into kitchen areas. Having a chance to see the entire
operation can enhance the employee's appreciation of the property's numerous functions and the
necessity of running it smoothly for optimum guest service.
This orientation may also include a welcome by managers from the many functional areas, division heads
or management team members, and the general manager. The visibility to the new employees of middle
and senior management is significant in several ways. A sincere welcome by the senior management
team can validate a
new employee's importance to the team. Often, the managers will discuss their own careers, which can
be quite motivational for new employees thinking of growth and career opportunities with the company.
The managers may also address particular priorities in their operational areas which support the message

of quality service. It is also advantageous for the new employee to be able to connect names and faces of
senior managers.
Another benefit of the general property orientation is that of providing a consistent beginning for all
employees--everyone receives the same overview.
The new employee's supervisor or manager is ensured that overall policies and procedures have been
explained as well as other basic information regarding standards of conduct and expectations of
employees. Many companies implement a policy that an individual cannot start working until he or she
has completed the general employee orientation. This policy reinforces the importance of this vital first
step and demonstrates the organization's commitment to the individual employee's success.
Unfortunately, some companies claim that they provide a general orientation program for new employees
when, in reality, they provide only a time for paperwork processing and completing forms. Although this is
a necessary step for the newcomer, completing forms should not be the primary focus of the orientation
time.
The exact topics of an orientation program will vary among properties. The topics should help employees
get off to a good start by explaining the importance of each job, why property rules and procedures are
important, and what key workplace issues can affect them. The orientation can provide employees with
information that will help them get along with their co-workers, supervisor, and guests.
In hospitality, it is important to immediately communicate to new employees the importance of the guest
and guest relations. The orientation should include material that communicates the culture of guest
service to employees.
Most orientations encompass multiple levels of information. The agenda may be as follows:

A warm welcome to the new employees by the orientation leader. This person may be the
property's training director, a member of the training staff or human resources department, or a
designated employee from another area.

A welcome by department heads, division heads, and the general manager.

A videotape presentation, with handouts, about the organization's philosophy, mission and goals,
and the integral role of employees in meeting the mission and goals.

Distribution of manuals and other materials.

A review of policies and procedures. The following are just a few examples of policy topics that
typically are included, along with other important policy information:

Safety

Fires, accidents, and emergencies

Uniform/dress code standards

The salary and performance review

Grounds for dismissal

Punctuality and absenteeism

Smoking/eating/drinking

Substance abuse policy

A discussion of benefits.

A discussion of guest and employee relations.

A completion of personnel forms.

A tour of the property.

Important to the success of a general orientation program is that it be well- orchestrated, involving a
number of organizational leaders and members. As the new employee's first extensive experience with
the organization, the program must leave the impression of a professional, well-planned, relevant,
informative, and interesting event.
A new employee orientation checklist is a helpful tool in double-checking that all information is covered
with each employee. Exhibit 1depicts such a checklist.
The new employee and his or her supervisor sign the form. Often in orientation sessions, new workers will
sign that they have received a copy of the employee handbook, it has been reviewed, and they have been
given the opportunity to ask questions regarding its content. Documentation in the form of signed copies
of the orientation checklist and receipt of the employee handbook can be extremely helpful in the future if
questions arise regarding whether the employee was informed of certain policies or procedures.
New employees, especially new employees who have never worked in a hotel, restaurant, or club before,
are going to be bombarded with new phrases, acronyms, and buzzwords. Be careful about using
hospitality jargon during orientation. There may be some essential terms that you have to introduce, but
make sure you define them before using them.
A take-home orientation kit containing materials and additional information gives the employee the
option of taking additional time to read and review the information, as well as share it with family members
and friends. Exhibit 2 lists sample items that can be included in such a kit.
The person coordinating and conducting the general orientation sessions has a tremendous effect on
both the new hire and the organization. Even though a number of people will play a part in the
implementation and delivery of orientation, typically there is a leader. Depending on the organization, the
orientation leader will spend the first day, two days, three days or more with the new employee group.
Selection of the appropriate orientation leader(s) is a key task, and should take into account the following
criteria:

The knowledge and character to be a role model for what the organization stands for, including
professional image and demeanor

Excellent communication abilities

An overall understanding of operations, and the functions and tasks of each department and
position

A demonstrated respect for others as well as someone who has earned the respect of others
throughout the organization

Flexibility and the ability to adapt quickly to change and different situations

An appreciation and understanding of adult learning and diversity in the way people learn

Creativity in using different training techniques and methods

Enthusiasm and a high level of energy

An important attribute of the orientation leader is that he or she be able to approach every orientation as a
one-time opportunity to reach each new employee, even though it may be the fiftieth time in a year the
leader has conducted the orientation. Similar to a stage actor, this leader has to make each orientation
session the best performance possible.
The Specific Job Orientation
The specific job orientation usually is conducted in the new employee's actual department to familiarize
the individual with his or her specific job responsibilities and the work environment. It covers topics
directly related to the job, including responsibilities outlined in the job description, work equipment, the
working environment, and a tour of the department and work areas. Often included are the relationships
between the department and other departments, policies and procedures specific to the department, and
potential career tracks.
An effective specific job orientation can produce numerous benefits for the department, supervisor, and
employee. Consistency in orienting all new incoming employees helps ensure the maintenance of
standards as well as quality service in meeting guest expectations. Employees learn the correct,
preferred, coherent way, which helps departments run smoothly and consistently. In learning how to do
the job correctly, the employee enjoys a feeling of accomplishment as his or her self-esteem grows, which
effects morale positively.
There are some things to avoid, however:

Do not assign jobs that are too easy. This prevents the employee from getting a realistic feel for
the work or may even give the employee the impression of being incompetent or incapable.

Do not provide sketchy, incomplete information that sets the employee up for a "sink or swim"
experience in the new job.

Do not turn the new employee over to an existing employee for the job-specific orientation
process. The new employee can learn bad habits.

Do not over-emphasize paperwork. When too much emphasis is placed on getting tax forms
completed, going over benefits, and other formalities, employees may not feel like they are really
part of the company.

Do not give new employees so much information that they feel overwhelmed. Outline the
information briefly and then refer them to handbooks or other print materials for further
information.

The job analysis process produces three things that can be useful for providing new employee orientation:
task lists, job breakdowns, and job standards. The task list provides you with an excellent tool to plan your
employee orientation. Realistically, new employees cannot be expected to learn all of the tasks before the
first day on the job. Study the task list and then rate each task according to whether it should be mastered
before working alone on the job, within two weeks on the job, or within two months on the job. Select the
tasks that must be learned before working alone on the job and include these in the orientation
session. Exhibit 3 has a new employee t raining priority chart for room attendants.

Once you've decided which tasks you'll teach in each session, turn to the job breakdowns and use them
as a lesson plan for training. Job standards help employees understand how well each task must be
performed to meet the property's needs. Exhibit 4 contains a sample training schedule for new
employees.

Pre-Employment Orientation
Becoming familiar with the organization can actually begin in the pre-employment stage with the period
between an employee's hire date and start date. Organizations have found that by providing new
employees with certain material to read about the organization they have a jumpstart on the orientation
process. The materials typically given to the new employee on his or her hire date are:

A handbook or brochure describing the company's history, philosophies, mission, and goals

Product and service brochures, as well as information on client or guest groups usually served

The property's annual report

Organizational and departmental charts

Written policies and procedures relevant to the employee

Internal publications

Schedule of upcoming orientation events and the planned training program

Preliminary job training materials, if applicable

The pre-employment orientation can also include welcoming notes from supervisors and managers
who will be working with the employee. The new employee, even before starting work, has been provided
with tangible and positive indicators of the employer's commitment and support.

Chapter 9 - Competency 3:
Identify the orientation activities that continue after new employees complete initial orientation
sessions.
Orientation Activities
The culture of an organization will often dictate what type of activities arechosen for the orientation. One
organization may choose a very fast-paced, fun style of orientation, whereas another might emphasize
the elegance and comfort of a property and the dignified nature of the staff member's position. The format
and activities chosen will also vary depending on how many new employees are being orientated and
how much information needs to be passed along.
Types of Orientation. When developing an orientation program, decide early what type of orientation is
desired and how to adapt it for different group sizes. Recognize too that the delivery of orientation will
vary based on who is doing the orientation; therefore, the program should be flexible enough to
accommodate different managerial styles without the program losing the same, basic message.
Some common orientation types include:

Group sessions

Individual sessions

Self-orientation

Mentor sessions

Each type has its advantages and disadvantages, depending on the property's circumstances. These
advantages and disadvantages are listed in Exhibit 5. You may also choose to combine more than one
type of orientation.
Group sessions bring all the new employees together at the same time. These sessions are usually very
structured; new employees typically are given a schedule of speakers and activities, with a timetable of
how long each activity will last. Group sessions are commonly used at seasonal properties or when large
groups of employees are hired at the same time. This method is efficient because the people conducting
the orientation have to present the material only once. It also gives new employees a chance to meet
each other and begin to form team relationships. They can even help answer each other's questions and
share common concerns.
By definition, group sessions cannot provide the same degree of individual attention that other orientation
types might. A group session cannot be tailored to the individual needs of each new employee.
Depending on the size of the group, there may not be time for everyone to ask all the questions that they

have. Likewise, some new employees may be too embarrassed to ask questions in a group setting. In
these instances, it is important that you implement good follow-up measures to answer questions.
Individual sessions are the most common option chosen when only one employee has been hired. These
sessions typically involve a meeting between the person conducting an orientation and the employee,
with perhaps a presentation by the general manager as well. Typically the person conducting the
orientation will provide the new employee with materials either before the session or at the session's
beginning. New employees can be encouraged to ask questions, and the length of the session can be
flexible enough to cover the materials and answer all questions.
Individual sessions can be very comfortable for a new employee. He or she can set the pace of the
meeting, and the person conducting the orientation can skip topics if the employee has similar experience
with another property or department. The person conducting the orientation can also spend more time on
a topic if the new employee seems confused or uncertain.
The drawback to individual sessions is that there is no guarantee that all new employees are receiving the
same information. Someone who has conducted several orientations may find that some items he or she
covered with the first new employee may have been unintentionally overlooked with the next new
employee.
In self-orientation, the property provides new employees with orientation material and a cover letter that
refers them to their supervisor or department manager for the answers to any questions on the material.
For self-orientation to work, a fairly comprehensive resource guide must be developed that is written very
clearly and is self-explanatory.
Self-orientation can be a very efficient way to conduct orientations for everyone, but it does limit the
opportunities for socialization. Also, because there is no face-to-face question-and-answer period, the
new employees may leave some questions unasked, feeling perhaps that the questions are too
insignificant to interrupt another person's workday. There is also a danger that employees will assume
that they understand something, only to be surprised later when they discover they have misinterpreted it.
Mentoring (making use of a trusted, experienced advisor) is growing in popularity in the workplace. It is
becoming recognized as a personalized way to communicate information, standards, and values to new
employees. More details on mentoring will be provided later in this chapter.
Selecting Activities. Once the type of orientation that works best for the property is chosen, you need to
decide which activities to include. Orientations can be as simple as a one-on-one discussion or as
elaborate as a multimedia presentation with a panel discussion afterwards.
Some common activities to include in an orientation are:

Tour of property

Discussion/overview session

Meal

Slides or media presentation

Panel discussions

Distribution of printed material

Question/answer session

Implementing Orientation. Once you have determined the format of the orientation, the activities to
include, and which materials will need to be distributed, it's time to actually conduct the orientation. Exhibit
6 gives an orientation implementation checklist that details six of the steps to conducting an orientation:

Set orientation objectives.

Deliver orientation materials.

Plan the agenda.

Inform the involved parties.

Conduct the orientation.

Follow up with new employees.

Exhibit 7 gives tips for conducting a specific job orientation.

Creative Approaches to Orientation

Orientations should help make a person feel welcome. One orientation consultant points out that
companies often throw parties for employees when they leave the company, so why not throw a party
when employees start? It can reinforce the excitement they feel and more quickly help them become part
of the team.
The employee's new supervisor should always be personally involved in the orientation, even if he or she
does not directly conduct it. The supervisor can play a role outside of the formal orientation by being
present when the new employee starts work, takes a lunch break, and leaves for the day. Some experts
even suggest that supervisors either go to lunch or assign someone to go to lunch with the new employee
for the first week.
Some organizations are moving their orientations online. While a complete online orientation program-especially at hospitality organizations--would limit the socialization, it can reduce the amount of time spent

on paperwork and basic questions. A Web site can also make sure that such information as checklists,
safety documents, and benefit information is easily available to all employees. Exhibit 8 shows how Duke
University has moved part of its orientation program on-line. "This is just one tool in the entire Duke
orientation process," says Nancy Denenberg, special projects manager, Duke Learning and Organization
Development. "All new campus employees hired by Duke are encouraged to use this Web site." Duke's
long-term plans are to make the site more interactive by including video, quizzes, and employee
interviews.

Orientation Follow-Up
One of the typical problems of orientation programs is trying to cover too much material in a short period
of time, resulting in the new employee feeling suffocated with too much information. Beginning orientation
at the pre-employment stage helps in spreading the information over a longer time frame and providing
the new employee with a chance to read, assimilate, and comprehend the information. For example, an
employer might conduct an orientation follow-up two to three weeks after the employee begins working.
Some employers use an orientation follow-up session that covers a number of topics, including:

An update on how the first weeks of employment have been going, including the training process
to that point

More detailed information on benefits that have a waiting period or that the employee may need
to soon select and complete paperwork for

Questions for employees which would tend to be more specific than during the initial days of
employment

Organizational updates, including upcoming employee events or training opportunities

A more in-depth discussion of employee performance reviews and other employee-related

procedures that may have been only briefly covered in the initial orientation

At the orientation follow-up, allow employees to ask any questions they still have about the property or
their specific jobs. Supervisors can then answer these questions and help employees set realistic goals to
work on before their first performance review.
The Re-Orientation Approach
Some companies find an annual re-orientation for all employees is helpful to refresh and update
information regardless of how long they have been with the property. The re orientation can be done by
department or division or as a general employee meeting. The re-orientation may provide a short
refresher section on guest standards and service, lateral service to other employees, or other pertinent
organizational issues. It also provides an opportunity to introduce new management staff, present
updates on property growth, and give accolades. The session could also be used to explain new policies,
procedures, or benefits and conduct tours of new or renovated facilities that all employees may not have
previously seen.
Factors Important for a Successful Employee Orientation
With both the general employee orientation and job-specific orientation, it is important to remember that
all employees have specific learning needs that are as meaningful as in-depth job-related training. In
designing the orientation process, it is important to consider:

Language and cultural differences among employees. An increasing number of organizations are
translating information for employees. Many job placement agencies that specialize in placing
non-English-speaking employees offer the option of sending representatives to translate
orientation sessions for the new workers.

Varying literacy levels among employees. Illiteracy can exist in any language. There should be a
high level of sensitivity to this fact, particularly since the general orientation sessions can include
employees with varying skill levels. Giving all employees the opportunity to take written materials
home to review can be advantageous for the employee who has limited reading and writing
abilities and who may gain assistance from a family member or friend. It is also possible to recruit
current employees to act as mentors.

Your enthusiasm. General orientation sessions can, and should, be high-energy, enthusiastic
sessions. One caution, however, is to not promise new employees things that, in reality, cannot
be delivered. For example, career opportunities are often discussed in the general session,
including the company's policy on transferring or relocating to other departments, divisions, or
properties. The company will likely have a number of success stories of people that have started
in entry-level positions and are now senior managers and in corporate-level positions. These
examples are inspirational to any employee, particularly one just entering an organization.
Factors or criteria that determine career advancement should also be briefly reviewed, such as
job performance, flexibility, and supporting the company's culture and mission. Such a discussion
is more appropriate than a simplistic, "Join us and you'll go to the top" message that can later
damage the company's credibility.

Your approach. Think of creative and varied training methods and techniques. The use of role
plays, games, and other interactive techniques increases participation and retention and can add
a great deal of fun to the orientation process.

Convenient reference material. Provide new employees with training aids to help refresh and
support information from the orientation session that they may be called on to use in their jobs.
For example, if the hours of operation of various outlets in a hotel are briefly mentioned in the
orientation session, give employees a card with these hours noted. The Ritz-Carlton Company
provides all new employees with the company's credo and "basics of service" in a laminated card
format.

Setting a good example. Serving the orientation group a meal, as a guest would experience,
directly models guest service standards. This is a very effective way of instilling even more pride
and excitement in the new employee. The money spent in impressive meals and breaks, in
treating the new employee as a guest, is a good investment.

Evaluating Orientation
Like any other training program or process, orientation programs should be evaluated for success.
Orientations have gotten the unfortunate reputation of being dull but necessary programs where
employees spend a day or two filling out forms and taking a tour. Many managers have complained that
orientations, especially general orientations, are ineffective and that the employees do not learn enugh
from them.
Yet, when an orientation program is effective, the results are very measurable and beneficial to the
property. Turnover is reduced, employees are more committed to the property, and team relationships are
formed more quickly.

Ohio State University researchers decided to evaluate how effective the university's orientation program
was after it went through a redesign in 1995. They surveyed 116 people who had joined the university in
80 different departments and held 70 different job titles. They were able to collect information from people
who went through the new three-hour general orientation and from those who chose not to go through it.
The orientation included presentations, a videotaped welcome from the president, a video of the
university's mission, history, and structure, and a notebook of information. New employees also
participated in an exercise to help them become more familiar with the university's traditions and jargon.
Fifty-five people in the sample participated in the orientation. All of them filled out a questionnaire when
they were hired and then 10 weeks after they were hired or after they took the orientation. In 2000, the
university compiled the survey results and discovered that employees who attended the orientation were
better socialized in the area of goals, values, and history. They also displayed higher commitment to their
employer. A third discovery was that those who attended orientation formed better relationships with their
colleagues--perhaps because they were able to join in on conversations and begin relationships with coworkers sooner.
Such a survey can be done on a smaller scale at your property to determine whether the orientation
program is effective. Simpler evaluations may involve having new employees fill out an evaluation form
after orientations, talking to new employees' supervisors, or following up informally with new employees to
ask what information given during the orientation was most helpful and what would have been helpful to
include that wasn't.

Chapter 9 - Competency 4:
Describe the socialization process that continues after the initial orientation sessions.

Socialization
Orientation and socialization are both important to the new employee, but the wo differ in distinct ways.
While orientation is typically thought of as a type of training program encompassing one or several days,
socialization is a longer, less-structured process. Socialization to the organization involves the employee
learning the culture of the organization and includes the growing understanding of company values,
norms, and behaviors that are consistent with the success of the company. An understanding of these
factors results in a greater likelihood that the new employee will "fit in" at work. While this process begins
with information covered in the orientation program, the true acculturation to the work environment may
take from several weeks to as long as a year. Several dimensions have been identified for socialization
learning: performance, proficiency, language, people, politics, organizational goals, values, and history.
[endnote 1]

The socialization process is extremely important. For individuals who do not gain the cultural or social
information they need or who perceive the information negatively, the outcome typically involves leaving
the organization. This turnover is most often seen in the first 30 days of employment. Research shows
that new employees who are effectively socialized are more productive more quickly than those who are
not adequately socialized. Socialized employees quickly learn which values are of the highest priority and
put these values to work in their jobs. Effective cultural socialization has also been linked to organizational
profitability, employee performance, and loyalty.
See Photo.

Different stages of the socialization process have been identified. The first phase, anticipatory
socialization, involves formed expectations prior to job entry. The encounter stage has been labeled
"reality shock" and involves organizational entry and adjustment to the actual working environment. The

third stage, the insider stage, is characterized by the socialization process being complete, with the
employee receiving full acceptance as an organizational member and settling into his or her role.
Socialization, however, is a dynamic process that occurs throughout one's career. New phases of
socialization occur with job changes, career changes, and moves to other companies.
Designing the Socialization Process
Organizations can take a planned approach in helping employees "learn the ropes. " One of the first steps
in this process is for the organization to have a clear understanding of its own culture, including the
values, norms, and behaviors that are of greatest importance to effective employee performance. Every
organization has a culture, although some are stronger than others. Each company's culture is unique.
Cultures are quite complex and particularly difficult for a current employee or manager to
comprehensively describe. Symbols, ceremonies, stories, rites, rituals, and norms are indicators of a
company's culture. These characteristics are more easily identified and described than the shared beliefs,
values, and assumptions that form the foundation of the culture. Retaining a consultant to explain the
organization's various cultural components
has proven beneficial to several organizations. Qualities to look for in a culture consultant include:

An appreciation of the unique aspects of the company's culture; a "cookie cutter" or stereotype
approach is shunned.

An understanding that the role of managers is not to control the culture of their organizations, but
facilitate, lead, and direct the culture.

An appreciation of employee input and an eagerness to seek out what employees think and what
they are doing. What employees believe, versus what they should believe, can be invaluable
information.

An understanding that all companies have their own culture. Avoid consultants who suggest that
a company buy, create, or borrow a culture. Every company's culture is different and one
company would not want to buy another's.

A knowledge of the difficulty of understanding culture. Find someone who appreciates that
cultures are difficult to understand and will search for the fundamental values, beliefs, and
assumptions.

An understanding that labels on cultures such as "bad," "good," "strong" or "weak" are
inappropriate.

An appreciation that there is no quick fix for cultural ineffectiveness. Cultural change takes time
and can be traumatic at times for employees and the organization. Realize that making changes
in the organizational culture is a long-term commitment.

A knowledge that cultures are multi-faceted. There are typically many cultures and subcultures
within the organization, each playing a role in the whole.

Effective cultural management can be taught to managers, and this can be done through an effective
culture consultant. Look for a consultant who will develop managers to function as cultural managers after
the consultant has left. The three roles that managers play in cultural management are:

1.

Assessor--finding out what the culture stands for.

2.

Spokesperson--spreading the culture.

3.

Change agent or facilitator--effecting cultural change as deemed appropriate in positively

influencing the culture in needed ways.

Approaches to Socialization
There are a number of approaches to the socialization process, with no one approach always being
optimum. Each property should develop its own socialization program, taking into account the unique
culture of that company. There are some general choices that managers developing a socialization
program must make. They must decide whether their program will be:

Formal or informal. In formal strategies, newcomers are segregated from other organizational
members. In informal strategies, newcomers are included with current employees and much of
the learning takes place in the work environment.

Individual or collective. Newcomers either go through socialization alone or with other

newcomers.

Sequential or non-sequential. Newcomers either go through identifiably different stages of

socialization or one single, transitional stage.

Fixed or variable. Fixed strategies are tied to a fixed timetable; variable strategies are not.

Tournament or contest. In tournament strategies, newcomers win to move onto the next
socialization stage. In contests, newcomers are given multiple opportunities to succeed.

Serial or disjunctive. Serial strategies involve current members teaching newcomers to "act as we
act." Disjunctive strategies allow for new behaviors.

Investiture or divestiture. In investiture strategies, newcomers are given information. In

divestiture, old habits are taken away.

Some typical organizational processes, although not thought of as socialization, actually do contribute to
the indoctrination of the employee in the company's values, norms, and traditions. For example, the new
employee shadowing existing employees, as in the buddy system, does provide some opportunities to
see values and norms in play. Selecting the appropriate employees to shadow is crucial, because the
company wants the new employee to gain an understanding of the organization's true culture. Crosstraining and requiring employees to gain experience in various nonsupervisory positions before moving
into management also reinforces the socialization process. This is a common practice in many
hospitality organizations.
A more structured approach used in conjunction with less structured socialization techniques is
mentoring. Mentoring is a learning and professional development process in which an experienced
employee, the mentor, socializes another employee, the learner or protg, to the largest context of the

organization. The mentor provides a number of interactions that socialize the newer, less experienced
employee, including the following:

Helps the protg develop an understanding of the realistic nature of the organization, including
working relations among employees, protocol, organizational politics, traditions, and other
unwritten procedures and practices

Provides the protg with additional contacts in the organization that can supplement and
reinforce the socialization process

Shares sources of information such as strategic plans, marketing reports, and management
briefings that build on the understanding of values and norms

Serves as a role model, demonstrating values and behaviors desired by the organization

Acts as a sounding board in providing advice, fielding questions, and listening to the ideas or
impressions of the protg [endnote 2]

The mentoring process can take place on an informal or formal basis. With the informal approach,
mentors and protgs find one another and gravitate into the mentorship roles. In formal mentoring
programs, there is a structured pairing of mentors and protgs. A number of sources state that the
informal approach is favored because of the important contribution of the initiation stage involving the
more experienced employee, typically a manager, having a sincere interest in helping and supporting a
particular less-experienced employee. The formal approach, involving the structured pairings, does
provide the organization with more control over who is mentoring whom. The formal process should also
include training for the participants (mentors as well as protgs) and some type of evaluation process.
Even in formal mentoring programs, participation should always be voluntary for both mentors and
protgs.

Chapter 10 - Competency 1:
List the steps in the four-step training method and describe the training issues involved with each
one.

Hourly Employee Training

Why should hotels, restaurants, and other service businesses bother to provide hourly employees with
not merely adequate training, but excellent training? One of the primary characteristics of a service
business is that the "product" is produced and delivered at the same time. The impact that one hourly
employee can have on guest satisfaction is so great that no service organization should risk having an illprepared employee in any guest-contact position.
When hourly employees hear the word "training," they probably think of a single training session, lecture,
or demonstration. As a trainer, you are aware that the actual delivery of training to trainees is only one
small part of a greater training system that begins with a needs analysis and is suffused with evaluation.
If you are the organization's training director or manager, you may not be the person training hourly
employees; in this case, your role is often that of supervising or evaluating the training done by others.
The actual trainers of hourly employees may be their supervisors or other hourly employees. The

importance of training for hourly employees cannot be overestimated, however, so training programs for
hourly employees should be monitored and supported by departmental managers as well as the training
department. The organization should provide resources to the hourly employees' trainers, such as trainthe-trainer programs, support materials, follow-up materials, training development education, and
recognition programs.
An increasing number of hotel guests, especially guests who are part of a group, ask the hotels that they
are considering doing business with what kind of training their employees go through. There is more of an
awareness and expectation that employees should be well trained. Some meeting planners ask whether
hotel employees have received emergency training or even basic guest service training. They want to
know how much the hotel they are considering does in the employee-training area. In this and in other
ways, training for hourly employees (or the lack thereof) can have a direct effect on a service
organization's bottom line.

The Four-Step Training Method

By the time hourly employees walk into a training session, trainers have already spent numerous hours
on preparation, which includes a needs analysis and the design and development phase of training. After
the training session or sessions have been delivered, more hours will be spent in the follow-up phases of
coaching and evaluation. Therefore, training is truly a never-ending process. You must always be
prepared to modify it, to make sure it addresses the training needs of the organization and the particular
employee(s). Throughout all stages of the training process (see Exhibit 1), you will take an active role in
making sure that the training is relevant to the employees being trained and in ensuring a high degree of
learning retention.

Many trainers use a four-step training method to train hourly employees. The four-step training method
is a basic model that can be used to implement training, especially on-the-job training. The model is
general enough to use in group training as well as one-on-one training. The steps in the four-step training
method are:

1.

Prepare to train.

2.

Conduct the training.

3.

Coach trial performances.

4.

Follow through.

Step One: Prepare to Train

Training sessions are most effective if the trainer is skilled in the area being taught. However, a danger
many trainers of hourly employees are susceptible to is that of believing that, since they know the skills so
well, they can teach them to others without extra thought or preparation. It is easy to forget important
details if training is approached without adequate trainer preparation. The trainer should be willing to
follow job breakdowns closely and use other training tools so that job skills are presented in a logical
sequence. When this is done, trainees are better able to understand and remember the steps necessary
to perform their jobs.
Needs Assessment. Many organizations assume that training can be a cure-all for every problem. Truly,
training can address many organizational needs and help managers meet organizational goals.
Oftentimes, though, training for hourly employees is treated as an immediate aspirin when performance
standards are not met. However, when performance problems stem from such factors as improper tools
and equipment, insufficient supervision, and/or inadequate support from other departments, training is not
the route to an immediate solution. Therefore, all trainers need to develop expertise in identifying when
training is the proper and appropriate solution for the situation in question.
Some questions to ask in terms of whether training is needed include:

Are the employees new?

Is there an increase in guest/customer complaints?

Are managers always fighting fires and running from crisis to crisis?

Is there high turnover?

Is there an increase in employee absenteeism?

Are new equipment or procedures being introduced?

Are there high costs due to waste?

Is there an increase in work-related accidents?

Is there an increase in the number of work mistakes?

Is there an increase in employee complaints?

Is employee productivity at its maximum?

Is performance up to property standards?

It is important for you to identify and use sources of data that can provide valuable information regarding
training needs. These data sources include performance reviews, absenteeism and tardiness records,
employee grievances, turnover reports, guest comment cards, letters from guests, logs of guest
comments and incidents, workers' compensation records, budget variance reports, repairs and work

orders, records of work delays (i.e., banquet functions not running on schedule, delays in serving
restaurant guests, check-in delays), exit interviews, employee opinion surveys, percentage of return
business, productivity reports of all kinds, one-on-one interviews with employees, comp reports (detailing
how many complimentary meals or rooms were given to guests and why), and feedback from supervisors
and managers.
Once you have identified training as the correct response to a situation, you still need to identify the
training that needs to be done and what the priorities for training are. For example, training front office
staff on smiling and proper guest interaction is useful, but may not be appropriate if the root cause of the
performance problem you are trying to address is that front office staff members do not know the front
office computer software well enough to perform up to property standards in all situations.
Trend Analysis. A trainer should analyze apparent trends as part of his or her preparation for training.
Trainers can look for trends among departments or shifts within a department, among levels of employees
(in terms of organizational levels), and among employees of similar tenure. Are these trends happening
more with new employees, or with experienced employees? In essence, trainers should be among the
most insightful individuals in terms of the day-to-day operation of the business. This doesn't mean that a
trainer should know how to serve banquet dinners, but the trainer should know what's going on in the
banquet department, and if, for example, there are a number of back injuries among the banquet serving
staff, the trainer should know how to find the root cause of the problem and design a training program to
correct it (if, indeed, the root cause lends itself to a training solution).
Job Analysis. Job analysis involves two steps: creating a task list and developing a job breakdown for
each task. A task list and job breakdown can make training much easier. A sample job analysis form used
by Six Flags Theme Parks is shown in the chapter appendix.
A task list is an excellent tool for new employee training. During orientation and initial training, new
employees learn a lot about their jobs and what will be expected of them, but they don't learn every job
task or receive training on every possible situation they will face on the job before they actually start
working. Therefore, the trainer should rate each task according to whether it needs to be learned before
the first day on the job, within a certain number of days or weeks on the job, or within a certain number of
months. That kind of ranking helps set priorities for which tasks should be focused on first in training
sessions. Exhibit 2 shows a sample task list for a PBX operator.

A job breakdown is a type of lesson plan for training; job breakdowns can also be used as learning guides
for self-directed study (see Exhibit 3 for a sample job breakdown for a PBX operator).

A job breakdown lists all the steps that must be performed to do a job task properly, essentially outlining
what employees must learn during the training. Job breakdowns can direct the trainer's instruction and
make it less likely that critical steps or points will be overlooked. The job knowledge sections that are a
part of some job breakdowns indicate knowledge areas of special importance for specific aspects of the
job.
Job analysis is a vital training tool for new employees, but it also can be revisited for more senior
employees to determine whether retraining is needed in some areas. A job analysis can form the basis for
performance evaluation and be used as a recruiting and selection tool by interviewers who are trying to
determine whether the skills and abilities of job applicants are a good match for a particular job.
If a job changes, its job analysis should reflect the changes, whether they involve new performance
standards, new service systems, new equipment, and so on.
Setting Training Objectives. Training objectives should outline what a trainee should know and be able
to do after training. Task lists, job breakdowns, and job descriptions will help you set training objectives.
The goal is to have the trainee do each job task at the performance level set by you or the organization.
Training objectives should be observable, measurable behaviors. They are an essential part of helping
trainers determine (during the evaluation stage of training) whether the training was successful. A useful
training objective might read:
The employee will be able to stock a bathroom with all appropriate amenities in an attractive manner in
three minutes.
Having specific objectives benefits the trainee and the trainer: it provides focus for the training activities,
helps alleviate trainee stress by clearly explaining what will be covered in the training sessions, and
makes it more likely that objectives will be reached because they are specified up front. Goal-setting
research says that when specific, high-reaching goals are set, they are more likely to be reached than if
there are no goals or the training is very general. Most people respond positively to goals.
With clearer learning objectives, the trainer can more easily facilitate the session. The trainer is better
able to see how the trainees are progressing and make adjustments. The trainer also is able to highlight
different aspects of the training in relation to the objectives.
Sometimes training sessions do not focus on achieving easily measured financial results, such as
increasing restaurant revenue by selling more desserts and appetizers. For example, the success of a
training session that focuses on building employee skills in dealing with frustrated, agitated customers is
harder to quantify. Relying on guest comment cards or guest feedback can be misleading, because
variables other than those targeted by the training might affect guests' perceptions. How can a manager
or the departmental trainer determine whether the training has been successful? One approach is for the
trainer or manager to observe employees in situations involving angry guests and evaluate whether
employees are dealing with the angry guests in an appropriate fashion, displaying the interpersonal skills
that were taught in the training sessions.
Know Your Participants. Learning involves change, and people instinctively resist change. Realizing
this, trainers must take specific steps to establish a positive, supportive, and nurturing training
environment to diminish the trainees' natural resistance. Giving thought to the right environment for
training can maximize the receptiveness and attentiveness of the audience, whether that audience is one
hourly employee or a group of them. If trainers take the time to understand the psychological aspects of
training, they can create environments that help employees learn, retain what they've learned, and apply
what they've learned to their jobs.

One method some trainers use when preparing to train is force-field analysis. This analysis involves
cataloging the positives and negatives of training. You should ask yourself why trainees would embrace
training and why they might resist training. This information can help you diminish the negatives or
restraints when designing training, and maximize the positive driving forces to make trainees more
receptive to new information. To understand the positives and negatives, you need to know your audience
and who needs to be trained. A force-field analysis helps you get to know the group and find out more
about it. It will also ensure you do not walk into a group cold to deliver a training program. Not knowing
anything about the group of trainees will not only affect their willingness to learn, it will also have some
ramifications on group dynamics and might reinforce the barriers that some of the trainees may have
already put up before the training even begins. Therefore, doing your homework to find out the individual
characteristics of the trainees has multiple payoffs.
Find out whether the trainees are from a single department. If they are, try to discover which people are
positive and which are the naysayers, what are the reasons the department should pull together and be
supportive of training, what are the reasons trainees might feel threatened--on a group as well as an
individual basis. How dependent are they on each other to accomplish their work and to meet their goals?
On the other hand, trainees may belong to many different types of groups with different training desires,
such as:

Employees who have the same type of job, but are not considered a team--food servers from
different outlets, for example.

Employees from the same department, but who do not work together--employees from the golf
pro shop and employees from the tennis pro shop, for example--all employees of a club's
recreation department, but employees who do not work together.

Members of special project teams--for example, a country club might have a special project team
that is formed every two or three years, whenever the PGA tour event that the club hosts comes
around.

Employees who have different levels of interest in and acceptance of the training, based on
whether they were required to attend, encouraged to attend, or chose to attend--for example,
CPR might be a requirement for lifeguards at a resort, while the resort's food servers are only
"strongly encouraged" to attend, and, for all other employees, CPR training is strictly optional.

Other questions to ask when preparing for training include: Is the training part of an individual's new-hire
process? Is it part of a cross-training program for experienced employees? Is it training that will help an
experienced employee acquire a promotion? Is it retraining? Is the retraining tied to a performance
improvement plan that the employee's job security may hinge on? All of these different types of training,
and different types of trainees, will have an effect on the training and how receptive trainees will be to it.
[endnote 1]

Differences in Learning Styles. Let's join a hospitality organization in the midst of a training session,
and see the different learning styles that are evident:
A wine seminar at the local country club is being conducted to educate employees on wine and food affinities and ways to suggest pairings to
members. As we look around the room at the employees tasting the wine, we see a variety of learning styles in action. Dominic is writing
meticulous notes as the instructor provides adjectives describing the taste sensations. Lindsey is using her artistic talents to draw pictures to
illustrate food and wine possibilities. Ben is listening intently and taping the session, so he can listen to it again at a later time. The tasting
opportunities, along with the PowerPoint slides and handouts that the trainer is using, facilitate a diversity of learning styles.

Although it may be unrealistic to individually evaluate each employee's learning preference, it can be
assumed that a diversity of learning styles will exist within a group of workers. Approximately 30 to 40
percent of people are primarily visual learners, 20 to 30 percent are primarily auditory learners, and 30 to
50 percent are primarily kinesthetic (tactile, learn-by-doing) learners.
A person's learning style is the way the person "concentrates on, processes, internalizes, and remembers
new and difficult information and skills."[endnote 2] Each person has a learning-style preference, and is most
comfortable in a learning environment that addresses this preference. Exhibit 4 describes some of the
characteristics of each learning style.

Trainers who employ ESP in training sessions can address all learning styles. "ESP" stands for:

Explain it in words.

Show it in overheads, pictures, graphs, charts.

Practice it with games and role-play activities.

[endnote 3]

Be aware of your own learning style and become comfortable with other learning styles. Don't use just the
techniques that appeal to your learning style. Be sure that you can be heard and seen simultaneously.
Switch styles several times in each session. Have brightly colored markers and highlighters on hand.
Provide trainees with drawing paper, or cover tables with paper tablecloths that can be drawn on. Track
major points on a flip chart or chalkboard as the session progresses. Switch the way information is
conveyed if participants seem to be losing attention.
Selecting Training Methods. The training method used for hourly employees is most often dictated by
the type of training being offered, the number of employees that need training, the physical space, the
timing, how many sessions are required, the level of job experience among the participants, the type of
task involved, and the resources available.
Some of the methods commonly used to train hourly employees include:

Demonstrations

Role plays

Shadowing

Games and simulations

Seminars

Group discussions

Other training methods that are often used in the hospitality industry, particularly for hourly employees,
are lecturing and self-study (using how-to manuals and other written material). Although these methods
are time-efficient and may be conducive to handling large numbers of employees, important principles of
adult learning-involvement, feedback, and active learning-are not addressed with these methods. If a
training program employs only self-study materials and lectures, retention of the training material by
trainees will probably be very low (seeExhibit 5).

The other decision a trainer must make is whether the training will be delivered to an individual (one-onone training), or whether the training will be delivered to a group of people at the same time. There are
advantages and disadvantages to using one-on-one training. Advantages include the ability to
individualize the learning pace; an employee is able to progress at his or her own speed. One-on-one
training can also accommodate a variety of employee learning styles. It allows for participation as well as
facilitates employee understanding and retention. In the practice of actual skills, it provides clear feedback
to employees concerning their progress.
The main disadvantage with one-on-one training is that it is time-consuming. If there are several people
who must be trained, the training must be repeated for each trainee, and there is the risk that different
standards will be communicated or that information may get left out after the trainer has repeated the
training several times.
Group training also has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Group training tends to be very
time-efficient, because many people can be trained simultaneously. You can reinforce the importance of
team dynamics and organizational team work. With more people, you are dealing with more varied
personal histories and backgrounds, which can lend an enriching element to a training situation. Since the
training message is given once, it will be consistent among the group.
The disadvantages of group training include the challenge of finding a pace and a package of training
techniques that is right for the group. A larger area is needed, which may mean that the training has to
occur during slower times or off-hours. The immediacy and directness of trainer feedback is not at the
same level as with one-on-one training. It can also be difficult to adapt the training to special
circumstances, such as varying language or literacy skills among group members.
Develop Lesson Plans. Lesson plans should contain the content of each training session, the training
processes involved, the employees to be included, the time frame allotted for training (15 minutes, an
hour, half a day, etc.), the appropriate location and time, and a list of all necessary equipment and
supplies.
The lesson plan should outline ways to directly relate the training to job performance. If you are teaching
a job skill, you may wish to begin by refreshing your memory of the organization's performance standards
for the job, then the essential steps in the task. Exhibit 6 shows a sample lesson plan for training.

Gain Support. Part of the preparation for training includes marketing the training experience to the
trainees and securing management support. Upper management should endorse the employees'
involvement in training, show enthusiasm for the training, and create or support some sort of recognition
program for employees going through the training process.
Before the training, managers can support the training by:

Learning about the courses

Meeting with employees to identify training objectives

Communicating the reasons for training to employees, and explaining to them how they will
benefit from the training

Providing an outline of training to employees and meeting to discuss it with them ahead of time

During training, managers can:

Endorse the training by excusing employees from their work so they can attend the training
sessions.

Visit training sessions.

Minimize the number of times workers are interrupted during training sessions.

Reinforce and be supportive of the learning process and content.

Be available for questions and feedback.

After the training, managers can:

Meet to debrief employees about the course.

Use the language or material from the course in day-to-day operations.

Structure opportunities for employees to use their learning.

Make learning a part of the workplace culture.

[endnote 4]

There are many ways to market training. You might create catchy, colorful notices, fliers, or paycheck
stuffers. You might put training promos on the company intranet or even make personal visits to
employees in their department. Some trainers use creative "teasers" to establish an environment that
encourages people to think of training as fun or as an adventure. This helps to turn some of the anxiety
related to training into positive anticipation. It also communicates that training can be fun and exciting, so

that employees, instead of dreading training and trying to opt out of it, begin to look forward to the training
and don't want to miss it.
Step Two: Conduct the Training
Once the trainer has prepared for training, the actual training session(s) can be conducted, which brings
us to step two of the four-step training method, "Conduct the Training."
There are many acronyms and formulas for how to present training. Sea World in Orlando uses the
acronym shown in Exhibit 7.

A more commonly used description is "tell-show-do-review," for the training of job tasks and skills, and
"tell-highlight-emphasize key points-quiz-review answers," for general job knowledge training. See Photo.

"Tell" goes beyond simply telling participants what they are going to learn. It involves reviewing the
training session's objectives and giving trainees an overview of what is going to be covered in the
session. This sort of preview helps reduce anxiety. Telling participants that they'll have a chance to
practice and review a concept is also helpful in eliminating the fear that they're going to be thrown out to
do a job before they are ready. There also should be an introduction of the trainer and the trainees.

During the introduction, give "housekeeping" tips, such as when breaks are scheduled, or where the
restrooms are (if the training is held at a site unfamiliar to trainees). The more information that can be
shared about what the training session is going to be like, the more you will be able to diminish anxiety
about the unknown and break down resistance to the training.
If an evaluation is planned, it should be introduced in a nonthreatening way. Let trainees know that they
will be evaluated only after they are prepared, and that you will allow them to practice and have feedback
before there will be any sort of evaluation.
Tell trainees what is in the training for them and how they will benefit. This is where it helps to know the
participants and what their individual motivations might be, so you can personalize your message for the
group and address multiple benefits. For some employees, a monetary benefit might be involved. For
others, the benefits might be career promotions. For others, the benefit might be the positive feedback
that is more likely to be forthcoming from guests. Important benefits also include a greater feeling of
accomplishment, greater job satisfaction, and less frustration over not being able to accomplish job goals.
Explain Steps. Trainers should explain each step while it is demonstrated and outline why it is important.
Some pointers for demonstrating:

Go slowly.

Make sure everyone can see and hear.

Sequence the tasks properly.

Segment and pace information. Instead of going straight through on an entire task--presenting,
uncorking, and pouring wine for guests, for example--you might want to break the task down into
smaller, more easily learned segments.

Discuss quality standards and the service orientation of the establishment.

Highlight safety issues at each step.

Go over each step at least twice.

Emphasize standards that will be used in evaluating performance.

Avoid jargon. If there are unfamiliar or industry-specific terms that have to be introduced, explain
them fully, including how they will be used on the job.

Make sure your pacing is appropriate. Watch for signals from your participants that you are going either
too fast or too slow. Have some training techniques that can be used for a group in which you have
diverse skill levels. For example, you might have part of a group wanting to go on at an accelerated pace
and others who might want a slower pace; in such situations, you may need a backup trainer or assistant
who can help in individualizing the training (while being careful not to stigmatize anyone). Or you might
have employees pair up to teach each other the skill. You may also be able to give materials out for
individual review.

Step Three: Coach Trial Performances

It is during step three--"Coach Trial Performances"--that trainers who are training in job skills (rather than
general job knowledge) ask trainees to demonstrate the job skills and to explain each step. Trainers
should reinforce what trainees are doing; praise for a correct performance is absolutely essential. Trainers
should be sure each step is understood before moving to the next. The trainer needs to stay patient and
let trainees work at their own pace. Every good effort should be complimented. Exhibit 8 gives some tips
for coaching a nervous trainee.

Unless the trainees are going to hurt themselves, they should be allowed to continue with a particular
step, even if they are doing it wrong. Intervene if there are any safety risks (to the trainees themselves or
to others), but otherwise try not to stop them mid-stream. Many trainees will correct themselves if left to
their own devices, and working things through is a vital part of the learning process. Only move in with
corrections and tips once the trainee has completed the step.
After you have demonstrated a task, the sooner trainees have an opportunity to practice what they've
seen, the better. Retention is greater when there is a minimal time lapse between the explanation and
demonstration stages and the practice stage. Don't do the task for the trainees. Gently correct them when
they don't do the task correctly. Review the proper procedures again and be sure they can perform each
step and explain its purpose before moving on to the next step.
Step Four: Follow Through
It is vitally important for employees to know that support exists if they have questions, problems, or
challenges down the road after a training session. Let them know who they can talk to and seek
assistance from.
Two important elements of follow-through are continued coaching for trainees and evaluation of the
training's effectiveness.
Coaching for Trainees. Coaching has to be ongoing. How long the coaching period should last will vary
for each employee. Some employees will need more direct, closer coaching than others. Ongoing
coaching and feedback help employees refine their skills. In the case of new employees, it is much easier
to correct minor performance problems during the first or second week of employment than when the
employee has done it the wrong way for several months and the wrong process is ingrained into his or
her job performance.
Positive reinforcement is essential. Build on information and provide additional training in appropriate
segments. Once trainees have basic information, they need to be able to deal with special situations.

Training becomes a continual process. See Exhibit 9 for ways to help make training stick as you build on
information and help trainees develop more skills.

Evaluation of Training Effectiveness. Evaluation is an essential part of any training program--whether it

be for hourly employees, supervisors, managers, or executives. There are many layers of evaluation:
evaluation by the trainer, by the trainee, and by the trainee's manager. When evaluating the training
session itself, trainers should refer to the original learning objectives and determine whether they were
met on several different levels:

Employee reaction

Learning acquired

On-the-job behaviors

Bottom-line results

Most training sessions should have objectives in all four of these areas. Say you have just completed a
training session on upselling appetizers and desserts. A training objective for employee reaction might
read: Training session is enjoyed by all employees. This is the ideal that trainers should strive for.
However, this objective has no impact on the job; that's why trainers should have objectives in the other
three areas as well. An objective that measured whether learning was acquired might read: Employees
can list appetizers and desserts that they can suggest to customers. While that objective is measurable
and specific, it is difficult to say whether it would change performance on the job. An objective that
measures on-the-job behavior might read: Observe employees accurately describing appetizers and
desserts, and appropriately selling them to customers. An objective that evaluates the bottom-line results
of the session might read: As a result of the training, appetizer and dessert sales increase by 15 percent.
A mistake that some organizations make when they have not properly determined the training objectives
for a training session is to afterward simply ask the employees if the training was enjoyable. This provides
them with limited data about the training's effectiveness--in effect, they are only measuring employee
reaction. A session that is enjoyable for trainees might not have a positive effect on employee productivity
or job performance. Most managers want to see a bottom-line benefit to training, either in generating
more revenue or realizing cost savings. If training objectives are in line with helping the organization
achieve bottom-line results, the training department is much more likely to be seen as an indispensable
part of the organization, even during economic downturns when the viability of training is more likely to be
questioned.
Some methods trainers can use to evaluate training include:

Questionnaires

Post-tests

Tracking data (guest comment cards, safety infractions, work orders, etc.)

Employee opinion surveys

Observation of employees as they perform their jobs

Evaluation is like blood flow through an organism. It must be pumped through the entire training process,
all the time. Training doesn't endwith evaluation. After evaluation, the information gained needs to be fed
back into the needs-assessment stage, which will affect the determination of training objectives, training
development, design, and implementation. In an extremely dynamic business environment, such as the
one we have now, any static, non-fluid training program is doomed to failure.

Chapter 10 - Competency 2:
Summarize the following group training issues: group dynamics, roles played by trainees, and the
room environment for group training.

Group Training Issues

When training a group, your primary responsibility is to encourage participative learning and mutual
problem-solving. You can use certain leadership skills to bring about a high level of individual employee
involvement. When working with a group, encourage creative expression and teamwork, summarize
discussions, and remain neutral and objective.

Many hospitality operations are seasonal in nature, so it is not uncommon to train a large group of new
employees at the same time. However, you must be careful to not have too large a group. A group's size
should be influenced by the:

Experience level of the trainer

Skill level of trainees

Physical space

Equipment

Support resources

For training to be successful, there should be interaction between the people performing the training
function and those who are recruiting and hiring employees. Sometimes a staggered hiring schedule is
more realistic for successful training than mass hiring with a single start date for everyone. When a group
of trainees presents a special challenge, such as multiple languages or varying literacy levels within the
group, the group's size may need to be smaller.
Basics of Group Dynamics
Even though group training can be challenging because you are dealing simultaneously with multiple
personalities and skill levels, it does offer a wonderful opportunity to reinforce the importance of the
employee's role as a team member. Even training that is not directly focused on team building as a
learning objective can still include elements that support the importance of employees working as a team.
The following are some pointers for reinforcing the importance of teamwork within the organization during
training:

After giving the employees' names and departments (particularly with new employees), describe
how departments interact and how employees will interact with other employees to make things
work.

Purposefully set up group training that includes diverse departments and different organizational
levels. A club might have stewards, food servers, and pro shop employees at the same training
session, for example. This mingling reinforces that there are many issues that are of importance
to all parts of the organization.

Role model a high level of respect and appreciation for all trainees to show that there are no
preferred departments. Demonstrate that everyone working together is the only way to achieve
the organization's mission.

Look for opportunities to put employees together that may not customarily interact, if there are
any small group assignments that occur within the group training. For example, if you are doing
CPR training, you could put someone from the accounting department with someone from food
and beverage to pair up over a resuscitation exercise.

Avoid reinforcing perceived divisions by arbitrarily separating front-of-the-house employees from back-ofthe-house employees, or managers from non-managers. The most successful hospitality organizations in
terms of employee relations have worked in a concentrated fashion to overcome such barriers.
Group members will look closely at the reaction of the trainer toward individual group members. That
reaction can facilitate or inhibit other members' group participation or risk taking. If the trainer does not
positively react to someone who asks the first question or volunteers for a role play and then becomes
nervous, it will become difficult to get other employees to participate.
In hourly employee group training, you can almost assume you're going to have diverse skill levels as well
as the possibility of language and literacy deficiencies. Design the training to address these differences.
Have visual supports, diagrams, and picture formats to distribute to all group members, not just to the few
who may need them because of their language or literacy challenges. For example, if you're going to
pass out a diagram of a room attendant cart and you have a simplified one consisting only of pictures and
one a little more complicated with support text in addition to the pictures, don't stigmatize anyone in a
group setting by giving certain individuals the "picture-only handout" while everyone else gets the more
complicated one. It would be better to give the same picture-only handout to all group members.
Reinforce the team mentality. Intentionally set up some training exercises that are done as a group and
that carry some sort of group recognition or reward. During a brainstorming session, recognize the most
number of suggestions coming from a group or encourage trainees to accomplish some sort of problemsolving task as a group. Use initial icebreakers to help create group camaraderie before getting into the
training session's content.
For teams that are actual work teams or project teams, you may want to use a reater number of cohesionbuilding exercises that can reinforce the team's particular work mission within its department.
Roles Played by Trainees
Trainees bring varying perspectives, insights, and personalities to a group training session. You will likely
have passive trainees, dominant trainees, and disruptive trainees in your training sessions. It is
important to make sure that everyone has an equal opportunity to participate. There are effective
techniques that can help you deal with each of these types of individuals and ensure that they become
appropriately involved in your training. Exactly how you respond to the various types of trainees will
depend on your personal style, the training group's size and history, and how long the training session will
last.
Passive Trainees. There will probably be some trainees who do not contribute to the discussion. One
way to solve this problem is to make sure the trainees understand the question or topic. You can ensure
that they do by:

Repeating the question or topic

Restating the question or topic in different words

Providing an example

Providing a sample answer to get the discussion going

Asking a person who looks interested or cooperative a question such as,"Katherine, how would you
respond to such a situation?" can encourage a passive trainee to contribute. Another good strategy is to
compliment those employees who do participate; this can encourage passive employees to get involved.
Passive trainees may not contribute because they don't understand the value of the question or topic. If
this is the case, relate the question or topic to their specific positions, or use an appropriate example to
clarify the question/topic's value. Passive trainees may not contribute if they feel threatened during a
guided discussion. To make sure this doesn't happen, don't judge trainees or their contributions; simply
thank people when they contribute. Also, don't allow trainees to negatively criticize one another.
Dominant Trainees. One or two trainees may try to dominate the discussion, which, if unchecked, can
lead other trainees to become irritated or bored. Dominant trainees demand attention and try to run the
show. They constantly interrupt other people and seek to impose their opinions on the group. Try these
approaches with dominant trainees:

Don't repeatedly call on them.

Don't make eye contact with them.

When they are talking, wait for a slight break, thank them, and call on someone else.

Physically move away from them.

Before subsequent training sessions, another possible tactic for dealing with dominant trainees is to
compliment them on their participation and insight during the previous training session(s), then explain
that, for the next training session, you would like for them to take notes for you about the discussion,
since you are too busy to take notes yourself. This will keep them occupied. Be sure to ask them to
summarize the discussion for the group at the end of the session, or use their notes in some other way, or
they might realize you gave them "busy work" and resent it.
Disruptive Trainees. Disruptive trainees may talk to one another and not contribute to the group.
Sometimes you will spot this by noticing two or three people turned toward one another and not toward
you. At other times you may hear trainees talking, distracting the rest of the group. In a friendly, positive
tone of voice, try to get disruptive trainees to contribute to the whole group with a comment such as,
"John, would you like to share your ideas with all of us? " Or, while looking at the disruptive trainees in a
friendly manner, make a comment such as, "Let's keep our conversation directed to the whole group so
we can all benefit from the discussion." Another technique is to move to where the disruptive group is
talking to make your presence known. This will usually stop the side conversations.
An enthusiastic and friendly manner will help you avoid or overcome many discussion problems. Trainees
sense sincerity and confidence in a trainer and will typically respond positively.
Other Trainee Roles. There are several other negative roles that some trainees might play:

Blocker/Cynic. This trainee is always trying to come up with ideas for why things will not work. He
or she is a frustrated dominator, refuses to listen to anyone else's reasoning, and repeats his or
her arguments. When ignored by the group, this person typically becomes stubborn and resists
everything the group wants to do. The blocker/cynic scoffs at the group's progress and tries to
start arguments and conflict.

Security Seeker. This trainee wants sympathy or personal recognition. He or she has always had
it worse than anyone else. His or her personal experiences are always more important than
anyone else's.

Lobbyist. This trainee is concerned only with problems that concern his or her own department. A
lobbyist will keep talking about his or her own ideas even when the group has decided to do
something different.

Know-It-All. Some know-it-all trainees become dominators; others might shut you out entirely. You
should politely acknowledge their level of experience
but encourage other group members to contribute, pointing out that everyone has
experiences that are valuable.

When trainees play negative roles, their behavior hinders the group and decreases the group's
productivity. In some cases, the trainer may wish to counsel some trainees individually after the training
session, encouraging them to adopt more positive roles. During a training session, the trainer can always
respond by saying to someone who is trying to create a dominating or negative influence, "I appreciate
your opinions, but I want to hear some of the good ideas others in the group may have as well."
Some positive group roles that some trainees play are:

The Inquirer. This trainee focuses the group's attention on the facts of the situation. He or she is
concerned with the basics of reasoning and encourages the group to interpret the facts in
different ways. An inquirer asks questions like, "How many times does this happen?" or "Does
this apply to everyone in the department?"

The Contributor. This trainee submits factual information, attempts to build a basis for sound
decision-making, and offers well-thought-out opinions. A typical comment from a contributor might
be "I think our figures should be based on the numbers from the accounting department," or "This
form that you just introduced for us to track employee comments seems like it could also be a
good format for jotting down guest requests."

The Elaborator. Elaborators build on the ideas of others and translate generalizations into
concrete examples. They project a picture of what might happen if a solution is implemented: "So,
if guests are checked in in a friendly or efficient way, then they're likely to be happier with their
experience throughout their entire stay?" or "Let's imagine what it would be like if we tried that in
my department," or "How do you think that would work at the front desk?"

The Reviewer. A reviewer summarizes the progress of the group. He or she clarifies relationships
among the ideas that are being discussed and identifies points that the group agrees upon: "Let's
recap what we've done so far," or "So far, we've identified five reasons why we need to do this.
Let me list them and see if these are accurate."

The Evaluator. This trainee raises questions about facts and figures. He or she explores the
practical applications of proposed solutions. For example, during security training, when a trainer
says, "If you see someone suspicious on the floor, call your supervisor," the evaluator might
respond with, "Would an example of suspicious behavior be someone lingering around a room
attendant cart, glancing in a guestroom?"

The Energizer. Energizers stimulate new ideas that are pertinent to the topic. They can prod
trainees to decide on a specific course of action and can keep discussions moving along. "These
are great ways for us to be able to personalize service. If we think of additional ways, can we
bring them up through our departmental meetings?" After going through a safety training program
where new employees are reminded to lift with their legs, an energizer within the group might say,
"How about if we put up some reminder signs in the employee breakroom?"

Without seeming to play favorites, the trainer should reinforce positive trainee contributions to the training
session, while always trying to tie them to the training objectives of the session.
If you have someone who is being a negative influence, it is important to still acknowledge the training
needs of that employee and to view his or her disruptiveness as a barrier that must be overcome so that
that person, as well as the others in the group, can accomplish the training objectives.
Keep the focus of the training on the objectives. Consistently and regularly repeat to trainees what the
session is trying to accomplish, and why this goal is important. Try to minimize the impression that the
training session is a forum to showcase any particular individual's knowledge or skill level. Instead,
emphasize that training sessions are mutual learning encounters where everyone develops and
progresses, including the trainer. Instead of putting yourself in a superior role, you should intentionally try
to make yourself a facilitator, a conduit for helping to achieve the goals of the session.

Chapter 10 - Competency 3:
Explain the following hourly employee training techniques, including their advantages and
disadvantages: demonstrations, shadowing, games and simulations, role plays, case studies,
computer- based instruction, and mind maps.

Hourly Employee Training Techniques

There are numerous and varied training techniques that can be used to train hourly employees. The
training objectives should be the driving determinant on the techniques chosen. The following descriptions
are provided to give an example of training approaches that can be used one-on-one or in group settings.
These techniques can be adapted and modified in multiple ways to fit a given training situation.
Demonstrations
In a demonstration, a trainer performs a task or uses a skill to show how something is done. The training
objective is for trainees to learn a particular task or skill by having it shown and explained. For example, a
trainer might demonstrate how to register a guest using the hotel's computer system. Demonstrations can
be used to develop motor skills (like those used while making a guestroom bed), for teaching problemsolving skills (how to handle a guest who has a complaint), to train an analytical skill (using last year's
food cost data to determine this year's budget), and to illustrate a principle or why a method or procedure
works (like demonstrating the steps used to refuse an intoxicated guest an alcoholic drink). It can also be
used to train interpersonal skills, such as using nonverbal communication effectively so that guests are
reassured that you are really listening to them.
Advantages. Because demonstrations are visual and most people respond well to this teaching
technique, demonstrations help employees understand and retain information. It gives them a model to
follow.
Disadvantages. Demonstrations may require equipment or a special room setup. With large groups,
some trainees may not be able to see what the trainer is demonstrating, or may lose some of the detail
because they are too far away.

Shadowing
Shadowing has many similarities to the demonstration training method. In most work settings, shadowing
consists of the trainee following another employee and observing that employee perform his or her job
tasks, tasks that the trainee will be expected to perform once training is complete.
Shadowing is the hospitality industry's most predominant way of training hourly employees. This is mostly
because, on the surface, it seems to be the most cost-efficient, in the sense that it uses employees who
are already working anyway in a training role. However, shadowing has the most risk involved as it can
lead to a lack of consistency. Tasks are not always performed to standards, and the person being
shadowed may supplement his or her incorrect performance by giving the trainee incorrect or misleading
information about how the tasks should be performed. For this reason, for shadowing to work well, you
need to carefully select the employee being shadowed.
You or the department manager should follow up to ensure that the shadowing is meeting the training
objectives. This might involve meeting with the employees after an hour or two of the shadowing
experience, or, at a minimum, at the end of the shift. During this meeting, you can ask questions of the
employee doing the training to make sure he or she is adhering to performance standards and the training
is going well. You or the trainee's manager should also observe the shadowing process periodically to
ensure it is proceeding appropriately. You should also meet privately with the trainee at some point and
ask questions about the training, such as "Tell me what you've learned about the use of guest names," or
"Do you have a good handle on our quality service standards?" These questions give new employees a
chance to demonstrate what they've learned; because the meeting is private, this also gives trainees a
chance to freely ask questions of you without being a threat to the employees they've been shadowing.
Advantages. One advantage of shadowing is that it takes place in the work setting, during actual
business hours. If the veteran employee provides an excellent example through role modeling, this type of
training can be very effective. If the more senior employee provides explanations and discusses the work
while performing it, this can provide the trainee with some valuable "real-world" pointers. Shadowing is
also an effective way to address language issues. For example, a trainee whose first language is Spanish
and is learning to speak English can be paired with an experienced Spanish- and English-speaking
employee who can help teach the trainee the English-language skills he or she will need on the job.
Effective shadowing also provides new employees with an indoctrination into the company's culture.
Disadvantages. The effectiveness of shadowing is directly related to the caliber of the employees being
shadowed and the extent to which they take their training responsibilities seriously. Sometimes veteran
employees see shadowing as a nuisance, so they do a poor job of training; for example, they provide no
explanations for what they're doing as they go through their work tasks.
In some cases, a department thinks that the most senior employees are automatically the best employees
to be shadowed. However, these employees are the likeliest to have developed short-cuts and other
approaches to their jobs that might undermine performance standards. The organization's credibility can
be damaged in the eyes of the trainee if the quality standards taught during orientation are ignored or
compromised by the experienced employee that the trainee is shadowing. For this reason, the
experienced employee who is being shadowed should be someone who is enthusiastic about the
operation and consistent about meeting performance standards. This person also can play a pivotal role
in making the new employee feel welcome to the department. Sometimes new employees are threatening
to more senior employees, so, when selecting experienced employees for shadowing duties, make sure
they are very receptive to new employees.
The employee being shadowed should not see this as an opportunity to enlist the new employee to
perform tasks for which they are not yet prepared. For example, an employee shadowing a bartender at a
busy country club might be able to do some sidework and help cut garnishes, but might not be ready for
handling the bar alone.

Shadowing also brings up scheduling issues. When supervisors schedule labor hours, they should not
consider the shadowing team the equivalent of two employees. The trainee certainly should not be
counted as a fully productive worker, and the employee being shadowed may not be as productive as
usual.
Another drawback to shadowing is that it is less systematic than other approaches. The trainee's attention
may wander and he or she may miss certain tasks, or the tasks and situations that come up during the
shift may not expose the trainee to all aspects of the job. There will also be variation in the quality of
training, even with employees who are trying to do a good job of upholding performance standards.
Games and Simulations
A game is a structured activity in which participants compete within a set of rules to achieve an objective.
Games are contrived exercises. In many instances the purpose of a game is not apparent to trainees
while they are playing it; the lesson often is learned after the game, when the trainees examine what
happened. In comparison, a simulation is a scaled-down enactment of a real job task, but in a created,
off-the-job environment. Since simulations are based on reality, the purpose of the simulation is apparent
while the trainee is experiencing it. The lesson is contained either in the outcome or the process of the
activity.
An example of a simulation would be a computer-based training session that takes new front desk agents
through various scenarios that can happen during the check-in process. One scenario that trainees might
be confronted with during the simulation might involve a "guest" presenting them with a credit card that
they can't take. The computer simulation can measure how appropriately the front desk agents respond
and what the agents do when complications are introduced. A well-done simulation can take new agents
through the entire check-in process in close-to-realistic conditions. Another example of a computer
simulation would be a scenario that illustrates responsible alcohol service. The simulation might take
trainees through the process of (1) picking up the warning signs of a guest who has consumed too much
alcohol, (2) intervening with offers of coffee and food, then (3) refusing to serve more alcoholic drinks to
the guest.
Games are used primarily for imparting knowledge. One property adapted a form of safety bingo to teach
safety awareness; the game was tied to keeping departments accident-free so the game could go on.
Games can be used to impart information like food terminology or beverage terminology. These terms can
be linked into games already familiar to most trainees, such as Jeopardy, Wheel of Fortune, or Who
Wants to Be a Millionaire?
When trainers use games during training, they should follow up with a summary of the knowledge that
was covered during the play of the games, so that the training content is reinforced and the game
experience is not the primary thing that the trainees remember.
Advantages. Games provide a non-threatening opportunity for trainees to explore, experiment, take
risks, communicate, and reflect. This is particularly useful for cooperative problem-solving or
communication exercises. Games add excitement and stimulation to the training process and encourage
the transfer of learning (particularly from simulated settings to the real one). Success in a simulated
activity or game builds confidence. Simulations can reveal how trainees react to pressure and
demonstrate how a procedure or process should be applied.
Disadvantages. Games and simulations may be time-consuming to go through and are complex to
construct. Games in particular may encourage an atmosphere in which the competitive experience
dominates the learning experience.
Role Plays

Role plays enable employees to experience real or exaggerated workplace situations. They are a
participative activity that gives trainees the opportunity to practice skills necessary for effectively
interacting with others. They help employees develop new skills and rehearse them in a safe
environment. A good role-play should be realistic, yet non-threatening.
In one example of a role play, a trainer might ask one trainee to play the role of a hospitality manager and
ask another trainee to play a guest. The role-play's purpose is to allow each participant to feel what it is
like to be in that role. Teaching a front office employee how to tactfully relocate a guest presents another
good opportunity for a role play exercise. Role playing could be used to teach upselling skills to a food
server. For the housekeeping department, an appropriate role play might teach room attendants how to
interact with a guest who wants to enter a room being cleaned but does not have his or her room key or
card. Role plays might also be used for employees from different departments to give them insight into
the other department's responsibilities and challenges. Front office employees might interact with
housekeeping employees in a role play, for example.
Trainers should be sure to provide trainees with a valid reason for the role play. Participants should be
debriefed afterward. When there are observers for the role plays, trainers should give them clear
instructions about what is expected of them. It may be helpful to give observers a handout with a checklist
of things to watch for.
Advantages. Role plays give employees the opportunity to practice new skills and develop positive,
constructive attitudes. It provides trainers with the opportunity to see how well trainees understand the
training concepts presented. Role plays can give a "real world" feel to training. Role plays that involve
employees playing the role of guests allow employees to experience what guests see and feel. Role plays
encompass four principles of learning--active participation, modeling, feedback, and practice--in one
training method.
Disadvantages. Role plays have to be taken seriously to be beneficial. If trainees don't take their roles
seriously, they can get sidetracked and not achieve the intended learning outcome. When role plays are
used in a group training session, it is sometimes hard to get everyone to participate. Role plays must be
developed around practical experience to be effective. Clear instructions are needed in terms of what the
situation is and what the roles are. There must be time to reflect upon and discuss the learning content
after the role play exercise is finished.
Role plays can take a lot of time to get across points that may seem rather simple. It also takes time to
create good role plays. Finally, some employees will resist participating if they feel shy about acting in
front of their peers.
Case Studies
A case study is a description or statement of a real or imagined (but realistic) job situation. Trainees
analyze and resolve the situation presented in the case study, individually or in a group. The case-study
problem may be complex or simple, and it may have as many solutions as there are individuals or groups
working to solve it. For a complex problem, analysis can be time-consuming.
Cases can be adapted or revised to be vignettes or mini-cases that are shorter in length and more
focused. Shorter cases that are more application-oriented rather than theoretical and complex are
typically more appropriate for hourly employees.
Advantages. Case studies provide trainees with opportunities to build their ana-lytical and problemsolving skills. The best case studies also demonstrate that there can be many solutions to a given
problem.

Disadvantages. As just mentioned, analyzing a case can be time-consuming; so can developing a case.
Group discussion may stray from the issue. Case studies may also cause trainees to become frustrated
with a large volume of information, especially if cases are complex and not easily solved. Most case
studies require thoughtful consideration of options and meaningful application of theories, not quick
solutions. Also, case studies do not allow trainees to experience actual situations. While the case study
may be authentic, it is not really happening to the trainees. Case-study discussion sessions also present
a potential forum for dominant trainees to take over.
Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-based instruction--often called instructional software--encompasses a wide range of
concepts, techniques, media, and technologies. Broadly defined, it is computer software that provides an
interactive instructional experience between a trainee and a computer. The computer provides interaction
to a degree not possible with any other instructional approach, except perhaps one-on-one dialogue
between a trainer and a trainee. Computer-based instruction also allows a high degree of individualized
training, compared to other delivery methods. Obviously, computer-based instruction works well with
employees whose jobs require them to use computers as part of their work--i.e., front desk agents,
reservationists, cashiers, accountants, and others.
Advantages. Computer-based instruction can provide each trainee with his or her individualized data for
feedback. It allows trainees to practice skills within a particular functional area. It exposes trainees to
computers and their applications. For some employees, particularly those who have used computers
throughout school, computer-based instruction may be the training method they prefer. Computer-based
instruction can also provide trainers with more easily compiled data that can be used for needs
assessment and evaluation.
Disadvantages. Computer-based instruction requires that trainees have access to computers and have
the skills necessary to use them. Some employees will feel anxious about sitting in front of a computer or
having any sort of training that requires interface with a computer.
Mind Maps
With the "mind map" training method, trainees create an illustration that shows the relationship among
main concepts and related ideas and issues (see Exhibit 10 ).

One way to do a mind map is as follows:

1.

Start in the center of the page and work outward.

2.

Use the center of the page to name the topic. Circle it if you want.

3.

Draw one line from the center for each main thought or question you have that's related to the
topic.

4.

Keep the thoughts flowing.

5.

For each main thought, record your next thoughts.

6.

Don't think and write in sentences. Use key words and colors, icons, pictures.

7.

Let one idea lead to another.

8.

If you run out of space, tape a piece of paper to the first piece of paper and keep going.

Mind mapping is the plotting of a brainstorm. It puts ideas in a visual format that shows how they are
linked.
Advantages and Disadvantages. An advantage of mind mapping is that it is very effective for visual
learners. Disadvantages are that it can take a lot of space, and sometimes the colors and pictures get so
busy that they can distract learners from the content.

Chapter 10 - Competency 4:
Accelerated Learning
Accelerated learning is a training concept that is being adopted with greater frequency for hourly
employee training. It is a concept based on Harvard Professor Howard Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences. Accelerated learning recognizes that each individual has a preferred way of learning that
works best for him or her. When an individual learns in the most natural way for him or her, the learning
becomes easier and faster.
Accelerated learning makes free use of games, activities, emotions, music, visualizations, role-plays,
learning maps, and color. Trainers using accelerated learning take special pains to make training fun and
stress-free. Every method used is interactive and collaborative.
According to the Accelerated Learning Center, the principles for creating an accelerated learning
environment are:

Be positive and accepting.

Provide a natural, comfortable, and colorful setting.

Exalt rather than trivialize the trainees.

Provide a multidimensional approach to learning.

Accommodate different learning styles, speeds, and needs (rather than force people through a
uniform process at a uniform speed).

Make learning fun rather than serious and overbearing.

Provide for group-based learning.

Present material pictorially as well as verbally.

Trainers developing accelerated learning courses have to look for "learning accelerators." These
accelerators include:

Fostering collaboration rather than competition among trainees

Pairing learners with other learners and making each person responsible for their partner's
learning as well as their own

Having learners articulate whatever they learn out loud and in detail

Making positive suggestions

Incorporating metaphors and mnemonic devices

Leading relaxation exercises

Conducting mental imagery exercises

Setting up learning labs

Using role plays, games, songs, and team projects

At Motorola, a trainer developed a three-hour customer-service program for companies that buy
Motorola's pagers. The trainer, Joanne Davis, developed an accelerated learning program around the
theme, "What Kills a Customer." She prepared the learners for the program by sending them a summons
to appear at an inquisition into the murder of a customer. The summons told each participant that they
were suspects and gave them names such as Rusty Skills, Miss DeSale, Miss Informed, and R. Q.
Mentative. She then put a chalk outline of a murder victim on the floor of the training room. Chairs were
set up in a horseshoe shape around the chalk outline. On each chair, she put a laminated card with an
alias written on one side and a list of mistakes that contribute to poor customer service on the other. After
everyone was seated, the trainer entered the room dressed in a black trench coat, dark sunglasses, and a
hat, and holding an unlit cigar. She then began interrogating each of the "suspects." The murder theme,
she says, sparked the curiosity of participants and helped them be more enthusiastic during the entire
training session.
American Airlines was able to use an accelerated learning technique to cut the training time of one of its
training modules from one hour to 15 minutes. It took the material that needed to be mastered and
incorporated it into new lyrics sung to the tune of the children's song "Bingo."

Conclusion
Every hospitality organization relies on its hourly employees and their interactions with guests. For an
organization to be successful, its hourly employees must be highly skilled and well trained. Everyone
involved in training in a hospitality property should work together to make sure that the people training
hourly employees are skilled and have the necessary resources at their disposal.
As trainers continue to find new training methods for appealing to individual learning styles, the methods
used to train hourly employees will expand. Trainers of hourly employees will continue to face the
challenge of varying levels of literacy and language skills among their trainees. These challenges will be
met through the careful selection of training activities, partnerships between learners and trainers, and the
reinforcement of the team concept.

Chapter 11 - Competency 1:
Define mentoring and its role in hospitality training.

Mentoring
A recent college graduate is hired as a food and beverage management trainee for a large convention
hotel. How does this new member of the hotel's team learn the nuances of the organization? How does
she gain an understanding of organizational protocol, informal roles of the hotel staff, who to avoid in
certain situations, and who to approach for everything from finding equipment to major decision-making?
Although an orientation program does cover many topics important to the newly hired employee's
success, learning the unwritten routines of socialization within the organization is a much longer, more
involved process. A mentoring program is one approach to help in the assimilation into the company. In
Greek mythology, the Ithacan King Odysseus left his son Telemachus in the care of his close friend
Mentor while he traveled to war. Mentor was responsible for the wise counseling of Telemachus and of
preparing him for future responsibilities. Likewise, a mentor can facilitate the new management trainee's
personal and career development through the roles of teacher, counselor, advisor, and role model.
Mentoring is "an intense work relationship between senior and junior organizational members in which
personal guidance and support are given beyond supervisory responsibilities." [endnote 1] In fact, in a
mentoring relationship the preference is for the mentor to have no supervisory responsibilities over the
protg, unlike coaching relationships in which supervisors direct employees.
Mentoring programs are useful for all employees in the organization. Veteran employees, particularly
those being developed for future leadership positions, often find mentorships extremely helpful as they
assume new roles and responsibilities. In fact, most hospitality leaders--from CEOs to owners--attribute
their success at least in part to guidance they received from significant mentors along their career path.
Most of the research on mentoring has been conducted within the last decade. Studies have shown
mentoring to be one of the most effective ways to ensure that employees have the opportunity to apply
what they have learned and adapt this learning to their specific job needs. The subsequent benefit is
actually two-fold: improved performance of both protgs and mentors is quite typical. Other benefits of
mentoring include increased organizational commitment. Lankau and Chung found in a study of front-line
hotel employees that those with mentors had an above-average level of commitment to the hotel and
planned to remain with the hotel for the next two years. [endnote 2] The American Society for Training and
Development (ASTD) found an improved organizational climate in companies with ongoing mentorships
that included a smooth transfer of corporate culture in the development of future leaders. Managers in
these scenarios grow comfortable with power and are able to effectively mobilize resources and
people. [endnote 3]

Chapter 11 - Competency 2:
Distinguish between mentoring and coaching.

Mentoring Compared to Coaching

Given the numerous and significant benefits of mentoring, what are the essential components of
mentoring relationships? In what way are mentoring and coaching alike? In what ways are they different?

How does the expanding role of "executive coaches" relate to mentoring? If an organization wants to
implement a mentoring program, what kinds of qualities should it look for in potential mentors? Can an
organization structure a mentoring program or is it best to let mentors and protgs informally connect?
Both mentoring and coaching can be highly effective in developing the leadership capacity of individuals.
The goal of both processes is to maximize performance. However, the two processes do differ
considerably.
The roles of a mentor may include those of a coach in exploring ways for the employee to use his or her
skills more creatively or in advising on professional development paths or even counseling on ways to
correct performance problems. Unlike a supervisor engaging in the role of a coach, however, the mentor
is not in a position to directly reward or discipline the protg regarding his or her employment status. In
fact, experience has shown that to maximize the success of the mentorship, it is best for the mentor to be
at least two steps up and one over from the protg on the organizational ladder.
A new type of consultant, the executive coach, hired typically by senior management for advice and
support in personal and career development, serves in some of the roles of a mentor. This executive
coach, almost a type of tutor, usually targets key leadership areas such as communication, conflict
management, self-management, and other interpersonal skills essential in the corporate playing field. An
executive coach, however, is often external to the corporation and may be working with a number of
executives simultaneously. He or she typically is paid in the range of $150,000 to $200,000 for a
commitment of 18 months or more to enhance or refine leadership skills. An executive coach is certainly a
resource in the process of leadership development, although a different resource than a mentor.

Chapter 11 - Competency 3:
Identify the characteristics needed by effective mentors and productive protgs.

Informal and Formal Mentoring

If not exactly a supervisory coach and not exactly an executive coach, who is this mentor and how does
the mentoring relationship begin?
Let's visit a new food and beverage management trainee, Ann, for a possible mentorship scenario. Ann
joined the convention hotel enthusiastic but anxious about her new position. Helen, the reservations
manager of the hotel, happened to be an alumna of Ann's college, and Ann would occasionally stop by
Helen's office to ask questions about occupancy and forecasting. Helen, who had also started in the food
and beverage division out of college, was impressed with Ann's enthusiasm and interest in the hotel's big
picture. She encouraged Ann to visit with her and even asked her to join her weekly for lunch. As they got
to know one another better, Ann found Helen to be a valuable ear for asking for feedback and advice.
During the year that Ann worked at this hotel, Helen was her informal mentor. When Ann had an
opportunity to transfer to another property within the corporation, Helen's perspectives were helpful,
based on her longer experience with the company and that she had also relocated with her most recent
promotion.
Countless individuals form informal mentoring relationships of this type, often without the knowledge or
guidance of the employing organization. The effectiveness of the informal mentoring relationship should
not be minimized, however. The prospective protgs aligning with someone perceived as supportive and
knowledgeable, coupled with the receptiveness of the potential mentor in identifying an employee with
potential, defines the initiation stage of informal mentorship. Formal mentorship programs have been
criticized for subverting the initiation phase.

In formal mentoring, the program is implemented by the hospitality organization, mentor-protg pairing
is deliberate and established milestones are tracked. Formal programs typically have established
methods for identifying both mentor and protg and the activities in which they engage are usually very
specific and ordered.
Phases of the Mentoring Relationship
As with all processes, mentorship comprises several steps or stages. The first,initiation, begins with the
potential protg recognizing and respecting the potential mentor for his or her competency and other
positive traits. The protg then begins to view the potential mentor as a person who could give sound
advice and support. The potential mentor almost simultaneously recognizes the protg as a person who
could benefit from additional support and needs someone to guide him or her in learning how the
organization, in reality, operates.
Next, in the cultivation stage, the two parties learn about one another, each other's capabilities, and the
likely advantages of interacting. The protg receives the greatest benefits from the interactions with the
mentor in this stage. The cultivation stage is followed by a structural and
psychological separation between the two parties, wherein the protg acts with more independence and
autonomy, and the functions of the mentor decrease. In the case of Ann and Helen, this stage probably
began about the time that Ann was up for a promotion and was transferred to another hotel property.
Having completed the management training program successfully and moved into the role of assistant
banquet manager, Ann was entering a different stage of her career, taking with her more experience and
knowledge of the company.
The last stage of mentorship is considered one of redefinition, in which the mentoring relationship is
terminated. Mutual respect and support are still present between the two parties, but their interactions
typically are even more informal and less frequent. In many cases, the mentor and protg continue
working in the same location, but their relationship has evolved into a different level of interacting.
Because of the many potential benefits an organization can enjoy from mentorships, many companies
have implemented more formalized programs. Although the initiation step is structured by deliberately
pairing mentors with protgs, the other three stages are quite similar to informal mentorships. Consider
the type of process that might be involved in a hypothetical formal mentoring process in a private club.
Phil was recently promoted to assistant manager in the town's largest golf club. Having worked with the
club for more than two years as a food server and snack bar supervisor, Phil was fully aware of the club's
standards and culture. The promotion to assistant manager, however, involved new responsibilities in the
informal dining area of the club. A formal mentoring program, in place at the club for more than three
years, paired new assistant managers with more experienced, higher level employees. Working in the
food and beverage operation of the club, Phil was paired with the club's banquet manager. In determining
the mentor- protg assignments, the club's practice was to keep the incoming assistant managers within
the same division (i.e. food and beverage, housekeeping, grounds/maintenance) but not give them
mentors who were their supervisors. The mentoring opportunity was presented as a voluntary option to
the banquet manager as it was to Phil. Both parties were enthusiastic. The banquet manager had actually
been a mentor to another employee and had participated in the club's mentor training.
The club's training program for mentors included:

Descriptions of the phases of the mentorship

Definition of the roles of the mentor and the roles of the protg

Expectations--what is typically expected of the mentor regarding time commitments, types of

contact, and recommended parameters of the relationship

Instruction on how to coach and provide direction without being overbearing

Explanation of ways to reinforce club goals and values

Descriptions of implicit and explicit learning processes and the importance of role modeling

Rewards for the mentor and protg

Instruction on when and how to enter the third stage of separation and fourth stage of redefinition

Organizational support and recognition of mentors' participation

The club's mentorship program suggested meeting with the protgs approximately two to four hours
monthly, but this was only a guideline and specific meeting times and durations were determined by the
participating mentors and protgs. Mentors and protgs were asked to commit to the mentorship
program for one year, although this could be shortened or lengthened depending on the protgs' needs.
Written feedback forms administered by the club's human resources director were completed by mentors
and protgs after six months and at the end of the one-year program. This information was used to
make modifications to the program; to determine training needs of mentors; and most importantly, to
ascertain if protgs were benefiting from the relationships. The feedback also allowed the club to identify
those managers who seemed most suited to continue as mentors. The club acknowledged participation in
the mentorship program through a formal written performance appraisal system. As a part of professional
development in these personnel files, both Phil and his mentor were able to include the mentorship
experience as an accomplishment.
One of the tools that can be used in facilitating the formal, more structured mentoring process is a
mentor-protg agreement, such as shown in Exhibit 1. This agreement is a type of contract that
establishes the working relationship between the mentor and protg. Such a written agreement provides
specifics regarding expectations and commitments from both mentor and protg.

Roles of the Mentor

Although the formal and informal approaches to mentoring differ, the roles played by the mentor in both
are vital to the success of the relationship. Two categories of roles are typically involved: career and
psychosocial. Career roles relate largely to the protg's career advancement, whereas the psychosocial
roles-counseling, friendship, and confirmation-address the protg's self-image and competence.
Mentoring roles, reflecting both of these categories, include:

Sponsorship--Serving as an advocate for the advancement of the protg.

Training--Sharing a high level of experience, skill, and knowledge.

Coaching--Helping to enhance job performance and correct performance problems.

Counseling--Offering advice in areas that directly or indirectly affect job performance.

Providing political advice--Advising on corporate culture. The mentor, in understanding the norms
and values of the organization, knows how power is distributed in the organization; where the
spheres of influence are and has access to them; and should be willing to act as a guide,
including introductions to appropriate people that the protg may benefit from meeting.

Acting as a sounding board--Being able to speak openly to the mentor with no risk is important for
the protg. This openness allows for feedback from the mentor and the sharing of insightful
perceptions.

Being a role model--The actions and values of the mentor should be held in such high regard that
the protg is encouraged to emulate them.

To effectively enact these roles, the mentor is expected to:

Have been with the organization long enough to be able to thoroughly understand the written and
unwritten elements of the organizational culture and comprehend the mission of the property. He
or she should know the standards and expectations for job performance and should have a
broad-based understanding of the particular industry segment involved.

Have a track record of success with the company and respect from top management, peers, and
those he or she has supervised, thereby reflecting high-level competencies and excellent
interpersonal skills.

Have the sincere desire to contribute to the protg's development.

Have the time to devote to being a mentor as well as the accessibility to the protg. For
example, a potential mentor who travels frequently may have all other qualifications, but may not
have a realistic schedule to accommodate meeting with a protg.

Have exemplary interpersonal skills and be a role model for leadership in the company. It is
important for a mentor to have a positive attitude and the ability to maximize the protg's
motivation level. As a role model, it isimportant for the mentor to teach the protg acceptable
and ethical ways to work and advance.

Possess good organizational skills and conduct business in an orderly way.

Display integrity and a service orientation involving the ability to share credit.

Exhibit 2 lists the "Four C's" of mentoring as developed by Nancy Chase.

[endnote 4]

Expectations of the Protg

To maximize the potential for a successful mentoring relationship, the protg is also expected to possess
certain characteristics. These include:

Willingness to assume responsibility for his or her own professional growth and development.

Openness to learn from others.

Receptiveness to seek new responsibilities and challenges.

The desire and potential to succeed at one or more levels above his or her current position.

Self-discipline to follow through with the mentoring process and reliability in meeting the mentor at
designated times and places.

Management aspirations. Typically, organizations look for protgs with management potential if
they are not already in management positions. This is not a hard and fast rule, and every
organization should determine the levels appropriate for mentorship participation.

Chapter 11 - Competency 4:
List the benefits and problems with mentoring.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Mentoring

Regardless of whether a mentoring relationship is formal or informal, similar benefits and drawbacks
accrue to both the mentor and the protg. Recognizing the benefits can help you encourage mentoring
relationships among a property's employees. Anticipating the drawbacks can lead to the provision of tools
that will help mentors and protgs overcome the barriers when they encounter them.
Potential Benefits of Mentoring
The potential benefits accruing to the protg by having the opportunity to interact with a mentor are
many and varied. Professional development activities are approached in a more logical, planned way
rather than just happening haphazardly. More specific benefits substantiated by various studies include:

Newcomers to the organization become more aware of the internal workings of the organization,
i.e. culture, goals, and sources of power.

Mentored employees have a higher level of intrinsic job satisfaction and a higher level of
socialization involving organizational goals, organizational politics, and organizational history.

A positive relationship among mentoring, promotions, and compensation. Mentored employees

achieved executive-level positions on average two years before employees without
mentors. [endnote 5]

There are also numerous potential benefits for those serving as mentors.

Enhanced self-esteem, satisfaction, and confirmation

Opportunity to refresh and upgrade skill levels, thereby gaining a new perspective on work

Enhanced knowledge and increased involvement in other areas of the organization

Positive entry in performance reviews

Facilitated movement upward by helping groom successors

Establishes a mark, helps create a type of legacy

Potential Problems of Mentoring

Although there are many and varied positive aspects of mentorship, potential problems face both mentors
and protgs. A protg could encounter jealousy or gossip from peers. The protg could also have
unrealistic expectations of the mentoring relationship, such as mentoring being a quick and easy way to a
promotion. Mismatches of mentors and protgs can be problematic. Problems also arise when people
involved do not keep their commitments. "Hitching one's wagon to a boulder" is another possibility,
although remote, in which the mentor is experiencing problems in the organization and the protg loses
favor by association.
Potential problems for the mentor include the time taken away from other work, because mentoring, if
done correctly, can be time-consuming. Protgs who do not do well in the organization can be a
reflection on the involved mentors. Also, mentors who become too possessive and view other supportive
relationships within the organization negatively can have negative effects on both mentor and protg.
Separating can also be a challenge for both the mentor and protg.

Chapter 11 - Competency 5:
Explain how to develop mentoring skills through various mentoring activities.

Mentorship Skills
According to one of the Navy's mentoring guides, there are five essentials for a successful mentoring
relationship. These essentials are respect, trust, partnership building, realistic expectations and self
perception, and time.
Many of these essentials are developed through the activities that a mentor and protg engage in.
Others are skills that a mentor must develop, either through a formal training program or through personal
professional development.
Mentoring Activities
There is a wide variety of activities that support mentorships and keep the relationship between mentor
and protg active. A partnership is built by communicating well with each other and overcoming the
natural barriers that any partnership can face, including miscommunication or an uncertainty of each
other's expectations. These barriers can be overcome by fixing problems which are obvious to both

mentor and protg, forecasting how decisions could affect goals, having frequent discussion about the
progress of the protg, and by having the mentor monitor changes.
There is a wide variety of leadership development activities that mentors and protgs can participate in.
Some of the activities a mentor can do with a protg are:

Reading books, articles, journals, news publications, and passing them along

Giving a special assignment or project

Encouraging him or her to join a team or participate in a panel

Arrange for cross-training and job shadowing opportunities

Sponsor participation in a professional association or society

Encourage professional certification

Career advising is one of the more important activities that mentors and protgs will engage in. A mentor
can help advise a protg on his or her career by:

Determining the protg's interests

Identifying the protg's knowledge, skills, and abilities within these interest areas

Helping the protg develop or isolate appropriate career goals that are specific, result-oriented,
relevant, realistic, limited, flexible, and have a time limit

Targeting the areas that require development

Creating a written development plan

Determining success indicators

Evaluating progress

There are limitations to the mentoring relationships and some specific activities that a mentor should
engage in. A mentor should never be used to bypass normal procedures or to counteract the protg's
supervisor. Nor should a mentor intervene with a protg's supervisor to try to change a decision that
supervisor makes. A mentor should also not guarantee promotions or give unfair advantage in providing
developmental activities to the employees they mentor.
Improving Mentoring Skills

Being a mentor requires special skills. Many mentors have developed these skills long before they enter
into a formal relationship--the skills are the reasons why they were identified as potential mentors through
either a formal or informal process. However, it is also possible to develop the skills needed to be a
successful mentor.
First, a mentor must develop active listening skills and be able to establish trusting and open
communications in a relationship. It is usually the mentor who helps the protg feel comfortable during
meetings. To help the protg feel comfortable, the mentor may need to evaluate whether the location
they are meeting in is the most effective for both parties. The best location will probably relate to such
issues as confidentiality, formality of setting, travel time, appropriate space, and lack of distractions.
A mentor's mannerisms will also contribute to creating a comfortable atmosphere. He or she should use
appropriate eye contact--always being aware of cultural differences in what eye contact is considered
appropriate. Words should be supported with facial and hand gestures. A mentor can demonstrate he or
she is listening and enthusiastic by nodding approval, smiling, or shaking hands. It is important, though,
that the mentor remain sincere. Mentors who keep an open body posture will also go a long way toward
making the atmosphere comfortable, casual, and engaging.
Some mentoring experts suggest that mentoring meetings have an agenda to keep them productive.
Others feel that a formal agenda may inhibit the open discussion between mentor and protg. Whether a
mentor chooses to have a formal written agenda or not, it is helpful to know what the purpose of the
meeting is in advance so that he or she can set aside enough time, come prepared to the meeting, avoid
surprises, and later evaluate the success of the meeting. However, both parties should stay open to
changes. For example, a mentor and protg may have set up a meeting to work on the protg's
professional development plan. Right before the meeting, there is a blowup between two of the protg's
employees and the protg needs advice on how to handle the situation. It would make sense to set
another appointment for working on the professional development plan and deal with the more immediate
situation first.
Each mentor and protg will have his or her own interpersonal style, thus making each relationship
unique. Some mentors may combine humor with business conversation, while others may prefer a more
dry approach. Some mentors may like to talk about the big picture before discussing details, while others
prefer to deal with small issues before tackling big ones. There may be a disparity between the focus on
logic versus emotions in management. The mentor should be aware of his or her personal style and the
protg's personal style. Some experts suggest that both mentor and protg take a personality
assessment to see where their styles lie and how they might best interact with each other.
One of the most important skills a mentor needs is that of listening. Active listening is a form of two-way
listening where the listener provides verbal feedback to the speaker. Some of the common forms of active
listening are to ask questions about what was just stated and to paraphrase what was just said.
Concentration is another important mentoring skill that can strengthen listening skills. Concentration
involves:

Holding back judgments

Listening for main points

Resisting distractions

Using excess thinking time appropriately

Listening for the whole meaning

A mentor is able to share the wisdom gained from his or her past experiences and insights. Mentors
should be willing to share their experiences, mistakes, and any appropriate anecdotes. This helps the
protg learn from the mentor's errors and also to realize that no one is perfect and everyone must
overcome some challenges. It is also the mentor's job to help facilitate the protg's experiences so that
he or she is able to learn from it. Simply having an experience doesn't guarantee that the protg will
learn from it. A mentor can help a protg reflect upon his or her experiences by:

Having the protg give a detailed description of the experience

Asking the protg to describe feelings about the experience

Having the protg explain what he or she learned from the process

Helping the protg to discover possible strategies for acting in similar future situations

Chapter 11 - Competency 6:
Describe ways to maximize the success of mentoring programs.

Maximizing the Success of Mentorships

As with all types of training and professional development processes, top management support is vital to
the success of mentoring. Since mentoring takes time and commitment from both parties, the
compatibility and flexibility to meet and form relationships are important. It is highly recommended that
both mentors and protgs participate in mentoring programs on a voluntary basis. Having one or both
parties who feel forced into the relationship will likely have negative repercussions. And, again, the mentor
should not be the immediate supervisor and in a direct reporting line with the protg.
Ensuring that goals and criteria are clearly defined and that goals are specified and measurable is highly
recommended. The criteria should be fair and goals attainable. There are benefits to starting with a short
program, six months for example, that allows for an option to continue. The program can be evaluated
within that time frame without imposing a burdensome relationship on either party. Goals that might be
targeted include increased productivity, an understanding of the company's culture, the perception by the
protg that he or she is more savvy about career management, building diversity, and enhancing
communication among different organizational and functional areas.
In developing a mentoring program, one approach is to form an advisory team of employees who
represent a cross-section of the property in departments, positions, and backgrounds. Benchmarking the
practices of successful mentoring programs in other companies can be extremely helpful. To identify such
cutting-edge programs, team members can refer to books and articles on mentoring. Exhibit 3 lists some
typical on-line mentoring resources.

Initiating a mentoring program involves marketing insofar as explaining to employees what mentoring is
and the advantages it affords. Self-initiated pairings do seem to work best but the company may need to

structure how employees go about doing this. Training programs for interested potential participants can
be extremely helpful in establishing learning outcomes or goals for the mentoring relationship, defining
roles and responsibilities of the mentor and protg, establishing the initiating relationship, negotiating a
relationship, maximizing learning, and bringing closure to the process. This training should reflect that the
mentoring process has been customized to reflect the organization's culture and mission. Marketing and
training are not one-time events but typically an on-going process because new employees join
organizations and should know of these learning opportunities early in their careers with the company.
In the mentor-protg relationship, the protg sets the pace. The mentor can be no more committed to
the protg's success than the protg is. Having the protg write down career development plans and
assess his or her career competencies as part of the application process is helpful in determining realistic
goals and creating an openness to address ways to improve. Documentation of the progress of the
mentoring program is extremely important in changing and refining the process. See Photo.

Examples of Hospitality Mentorships

Increasingly, hospitality managers find themselves with the opportunity to mentor high school and college
students who show an interest in the industry. The Hospitality Business Alliance (HBA), a coalition of
industry associations supporting School-to-Hospitality-Career programs on the high school level, has
developed a Mentor's Guide. This guide not only provides extremely helpful information in establishing
manager-student mentorships, but contains material directly applicable to the more traditional mentoring
relationships with other employees. Training professionals working with student employees may find
these guidelines particularly relevant in preparing participating mentors.
In the HBA mentoring program, paperwork and record-keeping are kept to a minimum, in deference to the
tight schedules of participating managers. Realizing that students often require more regular mentoring
than other, more experienced employees, the concept of "team mentoring" is recommended. Team
mentoring, in this respect, refers to a few members of the management team taking the mentor role for a
specific employee.
The HBA recommends ways to minimize problems with the less experienced students who may not
understand commitment to the organization, have a short-term perspective, and have problems juggling
other priorities. Mentors in such situations have a responsibility to discuss in a very clear, detailed way the
expectations of employees in the organization.
For School-to-Hospitality-Career students, the internship and mentorship expectations are actually
solidified in a detailed written agreement that outlines behavior and work standards. This program
suggests that when you mentor, you: [endnote 6]

Show a sincere interest in the protg. For the students, inquire what they are learning at school
and discuss how school and other experiences prepare them for success.

Let the protg know that you will assist and support efforts to learn.

Help protgs discover personal interests and competencies, being particularly aware of their
talents and attributes. These talents may have been previously ignored or minimized and now an
appreciation and application of special traits can be built.

Be patient by not expecting too much too soon.

Try to coordinate, whenever possible, that which is learned in school with what is learned in the
workplace. This reinforcement supports the importance of both school and work as learning
environments.

Share your vision for both your own career and the organization. Hearing about career decisions
made by others can be interesting and many times motivational and inspirational. Discuss why
you chose this kind of work and your likes and dislikes concerning work.

Try to involve the protgs in as many aspects of the business as possible to show the variety of
different career opportunities available and the chance for advancement based on performance,
skill, and attitude.

Show trust in the participating protgs.

Be trustworthy and remain professional when faced with difficult situations.

Treat mistakes as learning experiences for everyone involved and model effective ways of
handling mistakes.

Meet regularly to monitor progress.

Give feedback on performance. Referring to the company's own performance evaluation form and
process may be particularly helpful in providing a realistic perspective.

Develop character by helping students establish realistic goals; teach and reinforce good work
habits; and communicate the importance of a focused, positive attitude.

Explain the workplace culture, including the company's service standards, the importance of work
teams, and internal/external service standards.

Share resources on career ladders, training, job descriptions, and salary ranges.

From working with entry-level high school students to franchisees in a national quickservice restaurant
operation, mentoring is a process that can be adapted to many target audiences and organizational
needs. Church's Chicken, a division of AFC Enterprises, Inc., established a Professional Mentoring
Program in 1999. The goal of the program is to identify potential franchisees, particularly women.
Dismayed with the national statistics that, overall, only one in ten franchises in the United States is owned
by women, the organization established one-on-one mentoring meetings as well as on-line chat sessions.
On-line partners were recruited for advising potential franchisees on-line. Though the mentoring
relationships focus on a number of knowledge and advice areas, major emphasis is on leasing
negotiations, financing arrangements, and marketing issues. Mentors and protgs were selected and
paired by the company. [endnote 7]

Chapter 12 - Competency 1:
Identify the professional continuing education resources available to complement hospitality
industry training and development.

Supervisory and Management Development

A continuous state of change is what maintains a competitive advantage for most businesses. Frequently,
the change agents in a hospitality organization are the supervisors and managers. This makes their
training and development of utmost importance. When they seek out development opportunities and work
at staying current in their field, they help create a positive future for their organizations.
For many years, there were few formal training programs for supervisors; most development dollars were
spent on hourly employees and managers at the department level or above. The hourly employees often
represented the most urgent needs and the higher-level managers and executives were the ones facing
increasingly complex challenges. More emphasis began to be placed on developing supervisors and
middle managers as the quality movement revealed how important these roles were to the success of an
operation.
The development opportunities for supervisors and managers range from self-study programs and
property-level seminars to continuing education and certification. Training and development help
supervisors and managers enhance their careers and achieve change throughout the organization.

Continuing Education
Continuing education is not a new concept. Adult education emerged as its own discipline in higher
education during the 1920s and 1930s. During the growth and development of adult education, the field of
continuing education was born. One facet of continuing education is professional development.
Institutions of higher education and professional associations, often working together, offer professional
development and certifications in numerous fields.
Recent advances in technology have sparked a new awareness of continuing education. Technology has
made continuing education accessible to a wider number of people and has forced trainers to re-examine
how it should be delivered. In the past, many supervisors may have considered continuing education
inaccessible because of time and location restraints, but today's technology is bringing education to them
in a timeframe and location that is convenient for them. Educational institutions have more frequently
been delivering continuing education over the Web to people regardless of geographic location.
Adults have always needed continuing eduction to maintain a level of competence in their field or simply
to survive, be it through formal means or folklore:
Philosophers and religious leaders of all civilizations have been teachers of adults, not children. In the United States, the education of adults
has long been advocated--as evidenced by Cotton Mather's discussion groups of the colonial era; the establishment of public libraries; the
development of education programs for apprentices and immigrants; the Chautauquas, which brought cultural enlightenment to the prairies;
and a host of contemporary programs meeting a wide range of adult learning needs .[endnote 1]

Professionals cannot count on the knowledge they started a career with carrying them through to
retirement. The highly skilled front office manager who neglects professional development may soon find
she cannot so much as check a guest into the hotel because she doesn't understand the new
technologies at the front desk. The executive housekeeper who shelters himself from environmental
changes will end up purchasing ineffective cleaning materials or losing opportunities for increased
productivity. Professional development is also essential to any professional who wishes to advance in his
or her career.
Emergence of Continuing Education
Continuing education is commonly defined as organized learning for adults, provided through various
means--workshops, conferences, symposia, or courses for updating or expanding knowledge or skills.

Typically, people who seek adult education are striving to improve themselves in some way. The content
of continuing education has developed as the needs of its constituents have changed.
The history of adult education in U.S. higher education institutions began with evening colleges in the
early 1900s. The schools met the educational needs of the adult population and businesses' demands for
specialized employee training. These evening colleges and their professional association, known today as
the Association of Continuing Higher Education, are partly responsible for the adoption of the G.I. Bill,
student loan and financial aid availability for part-time students, and low-interest loans for instruction.
They were also among the first to provide programs for women. In the 1960s, adult education shifted
focus from the evening colleges to encompass the larger spectrum of continuing education. Exhibit
1 discusses an adult education metaphor.

Occupational education dominates adult education. It is generally accepted that approximately 50 to 60

percent of adult education is directly linked to the adult's occupation or vocation. In addition,
approximately 20 to 25 percent of adult education is devoted to personal development--often sought to
enhance a person's career path. Adult education largely exists to support the educational training and
development needs of employees, supervisors, and managers.
Professional Development
Professional development is often considered a subcategory of continuing education. It is the process
by which employees become proficient at the job they are doing. When they identify their skills, interests,
and values, they can also identify those areas in which they can become even better. Professional
development ensures that they continue to have the knowledge and skills necessary for success.
Professional development is also a never-ending process. There will never be a point at which
supervisors and managers will be able to say that they have learned all there is to learn and are as skilled
as it is possible to be. What does professional development allow employees to do?

Maintain their current position. Employees in a changing world must constantly update their skills
set. Even if they want to do just what they are currently doing for the rest of their career, what
they are doing will evolve and change. Hospitality professionals create work through other people
and their skill sets have to shift.

Provide mobility. If employees desire mobility, doing well in their current position provides that
impetus. Even if they are not formally promoted, professional development gives them
enrichment, a higher degree of professionalism, and can help keep interest in their job high. It
also makes them more productive workers who are better able to fulfill the mission of the
organization.

Make promotion a possibility. If they want to be promoted, it is important that they start
developing the skill sets they will need for the position they want. Employees who are high
performers in one job sometimes find themselves promoted to a job for which they have no skills.

In 1950, the Association of University Evening Colleges (known today as the Association of Continuing
Higher Education) formed a "Committee on Cooperation with Business" to exchange ideas between
business, government, and education. This group solicited businesses and foundations to gain funds to
develop new courses and programs, and communicated their availability back to industries.

Professional development is the major segment of continuing education (though it is important to note that
professional development is not limited to continuing or higher education and often takes place at a
worksite or on an individual level). Professional development is commonly defined as education and
training beyond the basic degree, or professional licensure. The role of professional development is
usually to maintain or update knowledge, skills, or attitudes in a profession. Professional development is
also used to teach new skills and knowledge, or assist in the application of such, in the job environment.
There are several basic reasons for participation in professional development continuing education:

Professional improvement

Professional service

Professional growth

Professional learning

Interaction with others in same profession

Professional commitment

Enhanced personal benefits

Increased job security

In a survey conducted by Michael Lombardo and Robert Eichinger in 1999, managers identified that the
development of their employees is one of their biggest weaknesses. So while managers often are very
supportive of professional development, they lack the skills or time to ensure that all of their subordinates
have access to the activities that would make them better employees. Rather, each employee will have to
be responsible for his or her professional development. However, there is much that you and your
organization can do to support each employee's professional development plan. One of the most
important things that you and the managers in your organization can do is to provide honest and regular
feedback to employees about their performance and about the skills that you see as being useful to
develop. Letting employees know what skills the organization is likely to need in the future can help them
focus their professional development activities.
Some organizations take a more active role in the development of their employees, especially supervisors
and managers. There are several hospitality organizations that provide in-house training libraries that
include videos, books, handbooks, and skills-building software. Many organizations also encourage
mentoring relationships.
Growth in professional development is attributed to several factors:

Increase in occupations that require degrees or certificates

Use of continuing education to train employees by businesses

Use of continuing education to certify employees in specific areas

Need to maintain knowledge in changing environments

Need to maintain knowledge of new developments in business

Increased accountability of businesses to society

Increased accountability of employees to their employer

Lifelong Learning
Throughout history, continuing education and professional development has had a constant theme of
lifelong learning. As people mature, they need education to augment each stage of life. With career paths
and organizations changing rapidly, the supervisors and managers of hospitality organizations must
maintain their education to survive and to help their organizations thrive.
Role of Higher Education Institutions. There is great variation between institutions of higher education
and in the level of certificate offerings they provide. Many schools have recognized the growing trend
toward lifelong learning and have added numerous certificate programs. Other schools choose to add
"non-degree" certificate programs, while a few choose to not engage in continuing education at all.
There are two primary types of certificate programs: those offered solely at and by one institution, and
those offered by higher education institutions in conjunction with a professional association.
There are hundreds of hospitality programs in institutions of higher education throughout the United
States. Associates, bachelors, masters, and doctorate degrees can be attained in hospitality
management. Many of these programs also offer certificate programs, and work with their institution's
continuing education departments to offer specialized training and development. In addition, several have
chosen to partner with professional associations by teaching components of certifications.
Role of Professional Associations. Professional associations are becoming more involved in continuing
education as their members seek to enhance pertinent skills and knowledge. Educational opportunities
also increase if their particular profession becomes scrutinized by legislation. Most mandatory continuing
education is dictated at the state level, with little consistency between states. Mandatory continuing
education is increasing in fields of food preparation and those people dealing directly with the public.
Though it is unlikely the certification of hospitality managers will become mandatory, there are
components of the hospitality business that are under state regulations. All food and beverage operations
are licensed and inspected regularly by the Department of Health and Environmental Control. All pool
facilities are regulated by the state, and most states now require a licensed pool operator--which is often a
supervisor or manager of the operation. The Environmental Protection Agency regulates the chemicals
that are used in the upkeep of golf courses at clubs, resorts, and public facilities. Certain localities require
security officers to be certified. In order to work on certain types of equipment, most hospitality
maintenance employees need certifications or licenses from the appropriate authority.
Another primary source of certification programs stems from business and industry. Professional
associations' certification programs have grown as the need for highly specific training has emerged.
Through the growth and development of professional associations, many specific skill areas have been
identified that are taught through educational opportunities developed specifically for individuals in that

field. Business and industry can address their employee training and development needs through
partnering with a professional association offering education specific to that field.
Associations can develop, maintain, monitor, and evaluate a certification program more cost effectively
than if such programs were duplicated in each business in the specific trade. It also allows for unbiased
professional development to occur without being altered by the political environment of an individual
business. With societal demands ever increasing for accountability, professional certification programs
provide a benchmark of standards and quality.
The role that professional associations play in professional development extends beyond certification,
though. Most professional associations provide a wide range of educational services, including seminars,
conferences, publications (including newsletters and magazines), and Web sites. Some associations,
such as the American Hotel & Lodging Association and the National Restaurant Association, have
separate organizations devoted entirely to education.
Role of the Organization. The most crucial link in the professional development chain remains the
organization itself. Most supervisors and managers, especially in hospitality organizations, rely on their
property to provide them with the development and training opportunities they need. Lombardo and
Eichinger pointed out that, traditionally, professional development plans have had 70 percent of the
learning take place from outside courses, 20 percent from other people, and 10 percent through on thejob activities. Experts suggest that for professional development to be truly effective, these ratios need to
be flipped. On-the-job activities can provide professional development that is most targeted to the needs
of the organization and the mission and goals it is trying to achieve. Exhibit 2 gives examples of the types
of activities that can be associated with each type of learning. See Photo.

The organization can supply development opportunities in many different fashions. It can encourage
mentoring relationships, it can include supervisors on project teams, it can work with supervisors and
managers to develop professional development plans, it can offer seminars or have resource libraries,
and it can ensure there is a wealth of learning activities which all supervisors and managers have access
to.

Chapter 12 - Competency 2:
Describe industry-based professional certification programs.

Certifications
The demand for professional certifications has grown; practitioners are expected to exhibit a high degree
of competency in their fields. This competency can be publicly gauged though certification credentials.
Certifications offer recognition to the industry professional for mastery of a certain body of knowledge.
They are voluntary processes where a professional association or organization measures the knowledge
and skills of its practitioners. Certifications are also an effective means of formally recognizing individuals
for their achievement and competence. Certifications are not licenses, and yet are occasionally confused
with such. Furthermore, the parameters of certification are always clearly defined and focus on
measurable outcomes. Certifications are usually attained upon successfully passing an examination, after
the completion of specified courses or equivalent training and job experience.Exhibit 3 explains the
difference between certificates, certificate programs, and certification programs.

History of Professional Certification Programs

The first known professional certification in the United States was affiliated with churches. Churches
certified schoolmasters to ensure they maintained, and would teach, orthodox religious beliefs.
Certifications grew significantly after World War II when the National Education Association encouraged a
professional standards movement. Teacher certifications are the most common, though many believe
they are truly a form of licensure.
Research on professional certification programs revealed several common characteristics in certification
programs professional associations offer:

All seek to enhance professions by developing the competence of practitioners

None provide basic entry into the profession

All capitalize on the employees' internal motivation to achieve technical competence and
recognition by professional peers

All require education and work experience in the chosen field in addition to competence in a body
of knowledge, as demonstrated through an examination [endnote 4]

The American Society of Association Executives reported that 290 of their member associations offered
some type of certification in their fields. More than 50 percent of these programs are involved in
cooperative programs with traditional colleges and universities.
Professional certification programs offered by associations provide a cost-effective training and
development alternative to those offered by businesses. These programs enhance their employees'
knowledge base through structured learning and the attainment of measurable outcomes. The programs
are usually developed by experts in the particular area, and focus on specific issues of that profession.
Often professional educators and testing experts are involved in the construction and administration of
exams.
Many hospitality organizations also offer their own internal certifications. These certification programs
help large chains or franchise corporations provide cnsistency in their training and skill standards

throughout the organization. While the certification may not carry weight outside the organization, it does
help an employee advance within his or her company.
Value for the Hospitality Industry
Certifications exist at several levels. The Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Lodging
Association has developed numerous types of certification to recognize employees in varying positions. In
cooperation with the Institute, the Peabody Hotel in Orlando has implemented an extensive certification
program and has decreased turnover 20 percent per year for two years. The Institute explains, "Making
the effort to prepare for and earn a professional designation tells employers and perspective employers
that you have attained a certain level of knowledge for your position and you have taken extra steps to
excel in your career. You stand out as someone willing to go above and beyond, personally and
professionally." [endnote 5]
In 1997, the Institute conducted a study of more than 3,000 hotel properties on training and the
importance of professional certification. Participants were asked to rate the relative value of positionspecific certification programs to the overall organization on a five-point Likert scale. The line-level
positions had a mean rating of 2.86, the supervisory level positions scored a mean of 3.46, and the
management-level positions were rated the highest, with a value of 3.79. [endnote 6] Clearly, the hotel
industry places a higher value on certifications for individuals as they rise through the organizational
hierarchy.
The hospitality industry in the United States has long struggled with an image problem. For some,
hospitality careers are associated with servitude. Many perceive the hospitality industry as a place to work
while going to school to get a "real job." Professional certifications can enhance the image of the
hospitality industry by raising the public's awareness of the standards and criteria needed for hospitality
careers. It reinforces the reality that the hospitality professional has a highly specialized skill set and
performs in a demanding profession.
In addition, certifications allow the employer to compare measurable differences between applicants
based on their credentials. Professional certifications also can protect the public from incompetent
practitioners.
Several researchers have studied the relationship between certification programs in the hospitality
industry and management effectiveness. Researchers have found certification has helped many
hospitality companies improve quality and boost employee morale and professionalism. Exhibit 4 gives a

brief description of a hospitality industry certification offered by a professional association.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a measurement process. You begin by examining the organization as it is, using the
current conditions as a foundation. You then decide on specific goals the organization needs to attain.
Then over time you track the progress made toward these goals by comparing "then" to "now." In the
context of certification, you could determine that your organization offers certifications for upper
management only, and the shift needs to be toward offering several certifications at the supervisory level.
You would track, or benchmark, the addition of certifications at varying levels of the organization over
time, and measure the development of training progress toward the desired direction.
Highly motivated individuals need to be able to grow professionally. These people are often found in
supervisory or managerial roles. Certification programs provide an excellent training and development
alternative for business and industry. Certification programs address the specific development issues of
that particular field for employees to develop professionally.
Successful completion of a certification program indicates:

Perseverance

Time management

Investment of money

Investment of time

Self-motivation

Desire for self-improvement

Competence over a body of knowledge

Initiative

All of these are admirable traits of individuals seeking professional development through certifications. It
also stands to reason that these are also traits that businesses and industry would seek in individuals who
are in, or aspire to move into, supervisory or management roles.
Design Models
The development of a certification program is complex. Galbraith and Gilley created a model depicting
nine stages of certification development and the components of each. They created this model as a
variation of the licensing model in the medical field, the legal field, and the education field. These authors
found no other models appropriate for use by professional associations; therefore, using the others as
guides, they created a new model:
Since no models exist, professional associations often blindly develop certification programs and/or
duplicate the efforts of other associations. This duplication by associations increases the cost of
implementing a professional certification program, drains human resources, extends the process,
increases the probability of errors, and provides the opportunity for division within the organization. [endnote
7]

The components of the model are based upon examining 83 professional certification programs. The
model provides a systematic approach to the development of a certification program. The authors
identified nine distinct stages of program development, and have fundamental questions associated with
each stage. The model builds on itself, in that the program developer cannot successfully move forward
without laying the foundation identified in the prior stage.
The model begins with the stage of identifying motives for the certification. The second stage addresses
competencies for the curriculum and how they will be determined. (More detail about competency-based
curriculum development follows this section.)
Stage three addresses the procedures for beginning the process of certification. Such issues as needs
assessment, focus groups, and measurable standards need to be laid into the framework of the model. In
the fourth stage, developers answer the question of "who" can attain the certification. Many professional
associations limit the certification to association members only. This ensures the individuals are active in
the profession and truly interested in the selected field.
Stage five is the most complex tier in the model. Critical decisions that will affect the process dramatically
are made at this stage. Developers outline the assessment procedures, ethics, revocability, fees,
administration, test difficulty, and other components. Stage six is the gatekeeping section of the
certification program. At this point the program developers must determine what criteria will be used to
judge another's qualifications. It is common to have professional certification programs be available only
to members of the association after a set probationary period. Stage seven is the marketing of the
certification program. Clearly the membership of the association will be the primary market. Yet, as
determined in stage four, others may be eligible to complete the certification process. Some certification
programs are designed for all members of an industry, regardless of membership in an association.
Stages eight and nine encompass the evaluation and re-creation of the certification process from the
feedback received during the evaluation. Those individuals who are motivated to attain the highest degree
of professional competency will insist their professional association maintains a high quality program,
relevant to the workplace.[endnote 8]

Competency-Based Curriculum
Competency-based curriculum development is the framework for the content of professional
certification programs. Identified competencies provide the ability to measure outcomes or effectiveness.
Research has shown that almost all professional certification programs (97 percent of those studied) cited
"identified competencies" as the foundation or core of the professional certification program.
Developers of a competency-based curriculum must identify the tasks performed by practitioners, and
develop competencies for each task. Competencies should measure the performance level an
experienced professional should attain, not an entry-level individual. The competencies need to measure
skills and knowledge and not be tied to academic degree, title, or rank.
The development of competency-based curricula creates the need of practitioners in the field to work
closely with academicians in the development of high-quality programs. To be most beneficial to the adult
student, there must be strong workplace relevance in the curriculum. The planner must work with experts
who hold superb credentials when defining the intellectual parameters of the program. This concept
strengthens the likelihood of high marketplace endorsement.
The process of developing a competency-based curriculum is well defined by numerous studies in the
hospitality industry. All studies attempt to define the curriculum topic content by assessing industry needs.
Through surveys, these researchers have asked educators, industry experts, and, in some cases,
students, for their perception of what skills are needed for competency in the chosen profession. These
people are typically asked to rate tasks or behavior on their degree of importance to the successful
fulfillment of the position or trade and how frequently the task or behavior must be performed or exhibited.
The competency questions are typically developed through numerous channels. Experts in the field, focus
groups, observation, and interviews are all used to determine the most appropriate tasks and behaviors to
include on the survey. Once the competencies are known, learning objectives, as well as measurement
criteria, are developed. Typically, educators are then contracted to develop the specific content and
assignments to be used to deliver the knowledge needed.

Chapter 12 - Competency 3:
Describe the process of supervisory development and its benefits for the supervisor and the
organization.

Supervisory Development
The role of student or trainee is a secondary one in the life of supervisors, as being supervisors, spouses,
or parents are likely their primary roles. Planning continuing education for supervisors is especially
challenging. These individuals are already busy and have overly full schedules occupied with day-to-day
responsibilities. You as a trainer need to:

Create continuing education opportunities that meet their needs and the needs of the
organization

Convey the benefits to supervisors of participating in their own development

Supervisors need training and development in numerous skills and attitudes that cannot be taught in a
traditional classroom environment. The skills needed evolve over a lifetime, as the professional advances
in his or her career path, and determines what additional skills are needed to reach personal and
professional goals.

Many hospitality supervisors were promoted into their positions because they were high performers in
line-level positions. They often are promoted to supervisor with little previous preparation in such
supervisory skills as people management, scheduling, time management, communications, motivating
employees, coaching, and other similar skills. They may also have little previous formal business or other
higher education. Therefore, supervisors are frequently in need of training attention.
Needs Assessment
Helping supervisors become better at their jobs can have a domino effect throughout the organization. As
supervisors receive training, they are likely to become more effective in the way they manage people. In
turn, the people they manage may become more productive and contribute more to the organization.
You need to be able to facilitate learning at all levels of the organization. Supervisors have multi-faceted
jobs. You need to be able to determine what supervisors know and what they don't know, but need to
know.
Supervisors come to training with a wide range of knowledge and past experiences. They also have
varying degrees of interest. Some supervisors come to training only because they have been told to do so
by their managers. You have to gauge their level of interest and their needs for learning. Ideally, you will
be able to work with managers to identify training that is specific to the needs of the supervisors and
include the supervisors in decisions about the training that is being offered. Your training can then
incorporate their previous knowledge, interests, and needs into a creative session that is useful to the
supervisors. Conduct training in a common language, without a lot of industry jargon. There will be plenty
of time for supervisors to learn jargon on the job. Learning through activities will increase retention, and
supervisors will appreciate effective training as a valuable resource.
Needs assessment for supervisors is very similar to the needs assessment you conduct at every other
level of the organization. An important element of supervisory needs assessment is the asking for
information from people one level up from the supervisor and one level down in the organization. Often
groups do not easily identify their own learning needs. For example, before you create training for
supervisors, you should not only survey only the supervisors, but also their managers and their
employees. By going one level up to their managers, you will identify some of the areas that the
managers feel the supervisors need to know or improve on to meet departmental or organizational goals.
By surveying one level down in the hierarchy of the organization, the employees being supervised can
share valuable input about their supervisors' managerial skills. These individuals work most closely with
the supervisors. By assessing or surveying one level up and one level down, you as the trainer are
conducting a more complete needs assessment and have a better understanding of what the supervisors
need to learn. This is a three-way needs assessment. You have sought information from (1) the
supervisors, (2) their managers, and (3) their employees.
There are several topics that are particular learning needs for most supervisors. Frequently, supervisors
have been promoted from line-level positions without formal education and limited managerial training.
Organizational training compensates for that lack by providing skills and knowledge training specific to the
work environment. Generally, supervisors will be more successful in their jobs once they have been well
trained.
A word of caution when conducting needs assessments for supervisors: Be very tactful when addressing
the perceived deficiencies of individuals. It is highly likely the supervisory status is a new status for these
individuals. Most will be eager to learn new knowledge and skills if the environment is "safe" and free of
put-downs. Exhibit 5 describes an idea for supervisory needs assessment.

Role in the Organization

Supervisors serve many roles within the hospitality industry and they fill a critical need in every
organization. Supervisors can be the glue that holds the operation together. Supervisors in a hospitality
organization:

Are role models to employees

Manage human capital

Interact with guests

Keep the operation running

Serve as managers in absence of management

Are financially responsible

Act as technical experts with operational systems

Exhibit 6 expands on the role supervisors play in hospitality organizations.

The hospitality industry is highly labor intensive. Employees interact with guests in all aspects of the
operation. Front-line supervisors can be found in almost every niche of the operation. Supervisors
oversee guest interaction and service--the heart of the hospitality industry.
Maximizing Outcomes
You have several things you can do to maximize the outcome of the training session. You are the
professional these supervisors will look to for learning opportunities and they'll count on you to plan an
effective session. There are several unique challenges to consider when planning training for supervisors.
A few of the challenges discussed here are:

Group size

Room arrangement

Facilitation vs. lecturing

Information accessibility

Flexibility

Systems thinking

Goal setting

Incorporation of previous experience

Creative thinking

Work in Small Groups. When conducting classroom training, favor the use of small groups. A circle
format increases interaction among supervisors, so the tighter the circle the better. If tables are in the
room, suggest that supervisors form a group outside or away from the table. A table in the middle of the
group puts up a barrier or interference. A small group facilitates interaction, people become less afraid of
failure in front of fewer people, and it puts the onus on each person to participate. Ideal group size for
learning is three to four people.
Small groups are particularly effective in brainstorming sessions, and are also effective when using such
methods as case studies and role-plays. Small group interaction allows each group member to take
ownership of the solutions. Research has shown retention of information gained in groups is much higher
than information delivered via lecture.
Room Arrangement. When training supervisors, you need to arrange the room to resemble an informal
conversational area, not a traditional classroom. Avoid the demonstration-type classroom as well, which is
often used for line-level training. Take an active role in telling people where to sit. Conversational settings
will increase interaction from participants, and help put the supervisors at ease.
Stop Talking and Facilitate. When training supervisors it is especially important that you allow for a high
degree of interaction and learner practice in your training. Several researchers suggest the 30/70 rule.
This means you present information for only 30 percent of the time and allow 70 percent of the time to be
used for integrated learning. Mix up the training session so different activities are used to facilitate
learning. Allow supervisors to practice the training. Keep the climate collaborative. Make up activities that
are fun, but remember to keep the training focused on the topic. Supervisors will learn more if the
environment is relaxed and they feel as if they're in control of their learning.
Abundant Learning. Supervisory training is a pivotal point in creating a successful learning organization.
Learning organizations learn rapidly and use the knowledge at all levels of their operation to become
more effective. Resources invested in learning at the supervisory level will aid and facilitate the growth
and development of the organization. Supervisors need to know that information will be easily accessible.
They need to know that the organization values innovation and experimentation. It will benefit the
operation if a feeling of entrepreneurship exists at the supervisory level. You can facilitate the diffusion of
learning throughout the organization. Employees need easy access to information, as do supervisors and
other front-line staff members.
Flexibility. Create an appreciation for learning and flexibility in learning. Survival in today's hospitality
industry depends on an organization's ability to respond quickly to guest service needs and changing
external economic and regulatory conditions. Your supervisory staff is on the front line, where interaction
with guests takes place. Supervisors need to be flexible and skilled in empowering their front line to
create a climate for superior guest services.
Systems Awareness. When training supervisors, you need to encourage systems thinking. Problems
usually have multiple causes, which may include actions taken earlier that could have solved other
problems. A problem in reservations can affect many other areas such as rooms, housekeeping,
maintenance, and the front desk. Supervisors must work with other departments to be effective in their
jobs.
Setting Goals. Encourage innovation and entrepreneurial activity among your organization's supervisors.
Create a brainstorming activity for supervisors in similar work areas. Ask them to develop ideas to

improve services or sales activities that they are not currently doing. Ask the question, What would you do
if it were your own business?
During the training, assist in setting innovative goals for individual supervisors and work teams. If
possible, schedule a monthly or quarterly meeting, or follow-up training, to assist in accomplishing these
goals. You can create training activities based on the goals, to aid supervisors in meeting them.
Learning from Experience. Share ideas about solving common problems throughout the organization. A
solution that was successful in one area may work in another area. Encourage supervisors to draw upon
their experiences and the experiences of their peers. This is especially effective for corporations with
chain properties, because many properties will face similar obstacles. Facilitate the learning of the group
by encouraging discussion of job experiences. Praise the supervisors who are willing to share their ideas
and the experiences that led them to become more effective supervisors. Encourage the group to learn
from each other through their experiences and mistakes.
Think Outside the Box. Encourage experimentation with ideas. Ask supervisors to brainstorm
possibilities for the organization. An example could be sales promotions. What did one supervisor learn
from an effective display that could benefit other supervisors? Encourage managers and supervisors to
rotate positions if possible. Individual and organizational growth is greater when job experiences are
diverse and challenging.
Encourage quality feedback at all levels of the organization. Provide feedback to the managers of the
supervisors you have trained. This allows managers to be kept informed of the new skills their supervisors
should have learned. It also provides an opportunity for managers to provide you feedback on the skills
supervisors demonstrate on the job. Exhibit 7 gives an example of how training has been linked to
reduced employee turnover.

Environmental Influences
Within every organization there is an organizational culture or climate. This climate can be made more
conducive for learning. Many factors can be controlled or enhanced to create a more supportive climate
for continuous learning. Managers and supervisors must actively maintain these factors in order to
encourage a climate for continuous learning.
Environmental factors conducive to continuous learning for supervisors include:

Making job assignments which allow supervisors to pursue their interests

Making job assignments which expose supervisors to new ideas

Creating work schedules that allow for free time to experiment with new ideas or methods

Providing financial support for continuing education

Establishing career programs for internal advancement

Establishing programs for skill development

Arranging for special speakers

Arranging for skills development workshops specific to supervisors

Establishing volunteer feedback systems for constructive, nonthreatening feedback

Establishing skill-assessment programs where supervisors can fine-tune their skills

Creating a paid-for-training environment where wages are partly dependent on skills

Providing awards for innovative ideas

Using phrases that encourage learning

Providing training for the life skills of the individual

Supervisors new to their position may be less sure about taking chances and exposing what they may
perceive as a weakness because of their increased awareness of status. The learning climate must be
conducive to increased learning of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The learning climate must be
maintained at all levels of the organization for continuous learning opportunities to take place.
External Influences. There are many external influences on the type of training that you must provide
supervisors. Technological advances have created an enormous amount of training opportunities for
people in supervisory positions. Because some supervisors may be of an age where they're
uncomfortable with technology, training departments need to make sure these individuals are well
educated in handling the technological equipment for which they are responsible. Technology also
changes so quickly that the need for new training is in high demand, even as technology becomes more
user-friendly.
The increase in E. coli incidents has created a tremendous demand for sanitation training courses. The
local news channels in many communities are now reporting health department violations and
Department of Health and Environmental Control (DHEC) ratings on the evening news. The increased
visibility of sanitation issues and increased demand for fastidious sanitation practices affects training
departments, as they are often the source of sanitation training.

The public is increasing its demand for healthy dining alternatives. The demand for new cuisine, low-fat
cuisine, and tasty vegetarian alternatives increases the need for chefs and line cooks to be educated with
basic nutritional knowledge. It will likely fall on the training department, working with the executive chef, to
provide this education.

Chapter 12 - Competency 4:
Describe the process of management development and its benefits for the manager and the
organization.

Management Development
Management development in the hospitality industry must pay attention to factors that drive profitability.
Managers understand the two components needed for front-line service are the front-line worker and the
guest. To stay in business, that guest must be satisfied.
The theme of management training and development is that if strong leaders recognize the potential in
their staff, they can promote and expand on it. With guidance and training, employees feel needed and
important. The employees, in turn, place a higher level of importance on the job. This helps them arrive
on time, in proper uniform, dressed appropriately, and ready to work hard for the organization. This
behavior, coupled with the skills learned through training, helps employees attain a level of
professionalism that positively affects guests. Satisfied guests promote the establishment through word of
mouth. Ultimately this cycle continues and the organization becomes a very successful and profitable
operation.
Needs Assessment
You as the trainer have a two-fold challenge when assessing the training needs of the managers in your
organization. First, the rapid rate of change in the external environment forces managers to keep constant
pace with the marketplace. The many factors affecting these changing issues in the environment will
affect training topics. Second, the high degree of challenges and operational threats facing today's
managers increases the potential need for training in each of these areas.
As you did with supervisors, you should survey not only the managers to determine their training needs,
but also one level down in the organizational structure. Direct reports of these managers can provide
useful information as you create training activities. These individuals work most directly with the
managers and know best their strengths, weaknesses, and challenges.
There are three primary methods for developing managers of organizations. First is participation in formal
training programs. Second, managers use developmental activities often found in the workplace to
enhance their managerial skills. Third, managers are typically highly motivated individuals and seek selfdevelopmental activities outside of the workplace.
The formal training programs that are most effective for managers have several characteristics in
common:

They last for a defined period of time

They are conducted away from the manager's immediate workplace

Training professionals who are used to working with management and executives conduct the
training

Examples of these training programs are management courses at universities, executive MBA programs,
and programs at established corporate universities.
Management development activities--coaching, mentoring, and handling special projects, for example-are usually found within the job scope of the position. Training can be offered to enhance these activities
and make the manager more comfortable in handling them. Professional development also occurs when
managers take on extra responsibility, organize focus groups, or establish inter- departmental strategic
teams. All of these activities can help managers learn new skills through actual performance on the job.
You can facilitate these activities by helping managers identify learning opportunities and encouraging
them to reflect upon the skills they are acquiring.
Self-development opportunities which managers can seek to enhance their skills vary widely. Examples of
these include reading, videos, using interactive computer training, shadowing, and networking.
Managerial development training programs should be designed to improve skills and behaviors.
Managers in the hospitality industry work directly with people. To increase their managerial effectiveness,
managers' people skills must be fine-tuned. These programs will attempt to increase the self-awareness
of managers, but rarely will they try to change their underlying traits or values. Since these individuals are
already in managerial positions, the objective is to make them more effective.
Research has shown that there are several effective types of training and development used for
management. These are:

On-the-job training

External short courses

Special projects

Task forces

Mentoring

Job rotation

Residential programs at universities

Executive MBA programs

These types of training and development opportunities can be very effective--especially to the lower-level
manager, or the manager who has not been in his or her position very long. Training typically has higher
returns when you focus on the current needs of the manager in relation to his or her current position
rather than trying to prepare that person for promotion.
Gaining Commitment

Management's support is crucial to creating a learning climate within the organization concerning training
and development opportunities. You can make managers aware of how important their behavior is in
creating a learning organization.Gaining commitment from managers for their own training will largely
depend on the climate of the organization. If the board of directors or corporate leaders emphasize the
value of training and certifications, these tools are more likely to be sought out. Corporate reward systems
that encourage learning will also enhance managerial interest. As the trainer, you can encourage
managerial interest in and commitment to their own training by offering highly professional training that
meets the organization's needs.
Measuring Effectiveness
The effectiveness of training and development for managers will largely be measured by the success of
the organization or the department that they manage. Depending on the organization, different variables
will be used to measure success. For example, some organizations will measure only profitability. Other
organizations will measure numerous factors such as: employee turnover, repeat guest rates, food costs,
beverage costs, waste reports, rooms cleaned per hour, and on-the-job accidents.
Another means of measuring management effectiveness is the use of assessment centers. Assessment
centers are an effective means of evaluating multiple managerial competencies. In addition to evaluating
managers, assessment centers frequently evaluate the management potential of employees and
supervisors. Assessment centers usually take two to three days for evaluations. Several styles of
evaluations are used: interviews, personality tests, speaking exercises, situational tests, aptitude tests,
and writing exercises.
These tools help identify the strengths and weaknesses of managers. Independent assessment centers
can be more cost-effective for the organization. Assessment centers provide a highly skilled, highly
specific method of evaluation that has been proven to be valid and reliable.

Chapter 12 - Competency 5:
Explain how training and development can facilitate organizational change.

Organizational Change through Training and Development

Successful hospitality managers must be able to manage many aspects of change simultaneously. One of
the major factors contributing to the successful management of change is training and development.
Training must occur at all levels of the organization to prepare employees, supervisors, and managers for
handling the environmental influences creating these changes. A learning organization thrives on change
as it merges the creative energies of all staff members.
Characteristics of Organizational Change
There are several theories and models to help explain organizational change. A complicating factor is that
often more than one model or theory can be happening at the same time. Primarily two types of change
define these theories and models: planned or emergent. Planned change can be seen when an
organization that is static and well defined moves to a new situation or level, which is also well defined.
Planned change is the movement from where an organization is now to where it wants to be. Emergent
change is considered continuous, unpredictable, open ended, and an ongoing process of movement
within the organization.
All members of the organization will have some degree of resistance to change. They may resist because
change involves risk and they want to protect the past successes of a particular process or idea. Many
other reasons exist for resistance to change, including:

Fear of failure

Lack of trust

The belief that change is unnecessary

The belief that change is not feasible

Economic threats

Loss of status in the organization

The first step to creating organizational change is to develop a vision. A vision should be clear and useful
to the organization. This vision should be a joint product of combined experience, intuition, and
circumstances. It should be simple, idealistic, and portray an overall picture of the desired future.
Implementing change takes place at two levels of the organization. First, the top executives or board of
directors create a strategic plan. This level of the organization builds a coalition and outlines primary
goals. The second level is where the change usually takes place. This is within the operational setting of
front-line supervisors and managers. These managers must provide resources, encouragement, and
support for these goals.
A property's training department can fill a critical role in building a consensus for change, assisting with
identifying key personnel as competent change agents, building teamwork or a coalition among those
applying the change, and monitoring change.
The hospitality industry is made up of people-oriented businesses. It provides a high level of service by
people, for people. Change will create the need to alter the actions of some of your people. Depending on
the type of change and the level of change, you can prepare people to adjust behaviors. You can train
people to deal with change and you can keep people informed about the progress of change. The training
and development department must demonstrate continued commitment to change as you train people to
meet the desired results.
New attitudes and/or new skills learned in training will enable behavior to change. New skills will need to
be demonstrated to aid in retention. Attitudes can be enhanced, through team-building training and
persuasive training, for the good of the organization. Be willing to share information about the threats or
weaknesses of the organization that created the need for the change.
Change also usually means employees, supervisors, and managers will have new roles. The trainer will
need to teach employees new ways to interact with each other and guests. Occasionally change will
mean redesigning jobs or workspace. When this happens, employees will need training in their new roles.
Achieving change through training and development means that you will have to involve key
stakeholders. They can assist you as you implement training on the new changes. These stakeholders
will become your change agents. Through effective training and development you will empower
employees to implement the desired changes.
Change Agents
Everyone in the organization can be a change agent. Organizations need to take full advantage of the
creativity of all employees. Line-level staff look to their supervisors to be role models. Supervisors look to

their managers to be role models. Managers look up the corporate ladder, at the competition, or at a
mentor for role models. Supervisors and managers must model the behavior they wish their front-line staff
to emulate. Are you a change agent? As the trainer, you will have the opportunity to identify effective
change agents for the organization. There are several factors to guide you to appropriate employees:

Previous response to change at home

Previous response to change at work

Successful past experiences with change

Past experiences with change in the current organization

Degree of skills possessed by this person

Degree of self control

Understanding of how the change will work

Understanding of how the planning for the change occurred

Understanding the implementation process

Provides choices when possible

Support for management within the organization

Support from outside the organization

Chapter 12 - Competency 6:
Describe the training styles and topics frequently used to train supervisors and managers.

Training Styles and Topics

There are numerous training styles and topics used in the training of supervisors and managers in the
hospitality industry. Each business organization will have its unique needs. However, there are some
common styles of training used for supervisors and managers throughout the industry. These are easily
divided into two types of learning: flexible alternatives and traditional alternatives.
Flexible-Learning Alternatives
The hospitality industry works nontraditional hours. Flexible learning has emerged to better accommodate
the lifestyle of the supervisors and managers who work irregular hours. These supervisors and managers
all have common needs for skills training. Yet, depending on where they are geographically and the actual

hours they work, there is no single place and time to meet that is good for everyone. Therefore, flexiblelearning alternatives emerged to meet the needs of adult learners.
Distance Learning. Distance education emerged years ago as adults increased in number in higher
education institutions and demanded more flexibility. Adults are less free to travel than the traditional
student. Hospitality employees cannot leave their business operation at peak times. To increase the
effectiveness of distance education, the user, or learner, merges the knowledge and skills gained from the
educational source with that of their own experience for increased learning.
Interactive CD-ROM training tools are becoming very popular for flexible learning. They are available in
many formats: tutorials, business simulations, case studies, worksheets, and others. There are many
advantages to using an interactive CD-ROM training tool. This style of learning is consistent, costeffective, accessible, and measurable. It allows learners to work at their own pace, provides a huge
amount information, and provides feedback. With this type of learning, no one is embarrassed in front of
his or her peers. CD-ROMs allow learners to repeat areas of confusion at their own leisure. They also
allow learners to use this method during free time regardless of the day of the week or the time of day.
CD-ROMs allow training and development experts to measure the knowledge gained and retained. The
drawbacks to this type of learning are that an individual must have access to a computer and be selfmotivated.
Web-Based Learning. Internet or Web-based learning is increasing steadily in popularity. Years ago
there was much speculation as to the effectiveness of this style of learning. As is true when using CDROMs, the learner must have access to a computer. The effectiveness of this type of learning is
increased as the user applies it to his or her own working experiences. There is usually little interaction
between instructor and student, though the level of communication will vary with each course. Several
universities, professional associations, and corporate training offices are now providing high-quality,
informative training through this source. The learner is responsible for keeping up and applying his or her
new knowledge.
Multimedia educational tools are available through Web-based learning. They allow the combined use of
graphics, text, photographs, video, and music to be used interactively to teach the topics. Those students
who are comfortable with computer technology can learn useful skills and knowledge in this medium,
while enjoying the freedom of their own time schedule.
Traditional-Learning Alternatives
This style of learning is used through continuing education, professional development, certifications,
seminars, self-study correspondence courses, and mentoring.
Certifications offered through professional associations can provide a traditional means of benchmarking
one's career path. Courses that are taught in traditional settings, where the learner must attend classes,
may be better for learners who prefer a traditional learning environment. By scheduling training away from
the workplace, it allows the learner to focus on the new material.
Examples of traditional learning are executive MBA programs, certification of hotel administrators,
master's programs in hospitality management, or certificates of completion of courses.
Training Topics
Topics of training should be based on the need of the individual staff member and the organization.
However, there are some common types of training needed by supervisors and managers in the
hospitality industry.

Supervisors in the hospitality industry are overseeing line-level employees. They also have a high degree
of interaction with the company's guests as services are provided. It is the responsibility of supervisors to
create a team atmosphere. They're responsible for the motivation and learning of their employees.
Supervisors are responsible for the day-to-day operations in the hospitality industry.
Some examples of the types of training supervisors will need include:

Time management

Basic leadership

Communication

Improving employee performance

Scheduling

Interpersonal skills

Written and nonverbal communication

Basic financial management

Labor relations

Human resource laws

Professionalism

Ethics

Team development is another type of supervisory training that many properties are investing in. One
method for team building that has gotten a lot of attention is the "ropes" course. A group of people comes
together in a camp-like setting with skilled professionals and goes through a series of activities on ropes.
The purpose of this type of training is to increase communication skills, increase bonding among the
participants, build trust, and facilitate working together as a unit. These training programs are usually
limited to 12 people at a time. The activities are chosen to emphasize the need to work together. Work
statements that used to begin with "I" become statements that begin with "we." This type of training
encourages team-brainstorming sessions to face problems and find solutions in the workplace.
Managers in the hospitality industry also have specific needs. Depending on the size of the operation,
there may be only one manager per department. However, if it's a very large hotel or resort, there may be
many more managers. Management training topics will vary with the operational needs. Typical training
topics for managers include:

Leadership development

Environmental scanning

Financial analysis

Strategic forecasting

Marketing

Ethics

Leadership training is the most common type of training for managers. One of the ultimate tests of
leadership is the ability to positively influence change. This includes developing a vision, communicating
that vision, empowering effective change agents, and providing feedback throughout the change process.
Leadership training often encompasses strategic planning and environmental forecasting.
Research by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Lodging Association showed that
respondents believed there was a difference in training needs by position. When asked who needed the
most training (of any kind), 64 percent said line-level employees, 28 percent said supervisors, and 8
percent said managers. However, those percentages changed with various types and topics of training.
For example, when the topic was guest services, 89 percent said line-level employees most needed this
training. When the topic was leadership, the line-level percentage dropped to 34 percent, while 62 percent
of the respondents said supervisors needed leadership training.
Exhibit 8 lists effective techniques for leadership training.

Conclusion
Hospitality supervisors and managers have strong and specific needs for training. These groups have
unique needs, as their job scopes are extremely varied. Coupled with the wide array of duties is the fact
that they supervise and manage people serving other people. These added variables mean that their
jobs, and consequently their training needs, are constantly changing.
Adult education encompasses continuing education, which includes professional development.
Supervisors and managers have demonstrated that they are motived achievers by being in their current
positions. Because they are interested in advancement opportunities, they will desire training and
development to assist in maintaining and advancing their skill set.
Professional certifications provide recognition to those who achieve the designations. It demonstrates the
learner's desire to be well informed and his or her mastery of a specific body of knowledge.
Learning organizations are continuously changing. These organizations need extensive training and
development opportunities for their supervisors and managers to ensure that the organizations reap the
full benefit of their staffs' abilities and creativity.

Chapter 13 - Competency 1:
Describe the importance of executive education programs.

Executive Education

As a professional trainer in the hospitality industry, you have the growing challenge to provide continuous
professional development on every level of the organization, including top management. Although the
CEO of the organization may be committed to continuous, lifelong learning, he or she has time constraints
and may be concerned about whether programs are going to be relevant to organizational and personal
growth objectives or whether the content is sufficiently challenging. Most participants in executive
education are already "well-educated, have broad conceptual knowledge, and specific domain knowledge
associated with their industry, company, and position. Those fortunate enough to participate in executive
education are likely to already be high performers." [endnote 1]

Exploring Executive Education

To stay on the cutting edge, organizations must seek out continuous learning for managers and
corporate leaders. The shelf life of a college degree is less than two years. "So, if you are not replacing
everything you know every three years, then your career is going to turn sour, just like that carton of
milk."[endnote 2]
Factors motivating corporations to invest in executive education include globalization, new variations of
alliances and partnerships, and technological advances. As one corporation's director of executive
education stated, "We're talking about moving from rapid cycle time to PC cycle time to Internet cycle
time. We're looking at product cycles--the time span in which we think up a product, get it on the market
and watch it become obsolete--move from five years to three to one to six months. So the importance of
our ability to anticipate changes so that they're not happening to us, but we're a part of them happening is
painfully acute." [endnote 3]
Additional reasons for the need for executive education include:

The increasing importance of knowledge (as compared to physical assets) as a competitive

advantage

The Internet, which has diminished physical distance

The growing gap in compensation based on education

Difficulties in attracting, developing, and retaining talent

The growing understanding that education is a lifelong process

[endnote 4]

RecognizingDevelopment Needs
So what type of development do top executives need? The University of Michigan conducted a study
involving 1,700 mid-level and senior executives from a broad range of industries. [endnote 5] The study
asked the subjects what they most needed for their own professional development. The top issues
relating to course content for upper-level management development education included:

Attracting, keeping, and developing good people

Thinking and planning strategically

Maintaining a high-performance climate

Improving customer satisfaction

Managing time and stress

Staying ahead of the competition

Aligning vision, strategy, and behavior

Maintaining work and life balance

Improving internal processes

Stimulating innovation in the organization

Corporations place a high value on education that will positively affect the direction of the organization.
Incorporating real case studies and real strategic problems specific to the particular kind of business is a
basic expectation by most companies searching for executive education options. This emphasis on
"action learning" results in optimal use of the classroom time in enhancing leadership capabilities.
Companies have to determine those business strategies that will be important for the organization in three
to five years and what executives need to know now to reach these goals. In the words of one executive,
"Passive learning of traditional programs is not consistent with the kind of world in which our executives
operate. The learning environment that we create for them needs to model, not look back. When the cycle
time of our industry is spinning faster and faster, looking back becomes less and less useful. It's learning
what to do next that is valuable." [endnote 6]
The ability to manage change and the unknown are consistently noted as essential topics in executive
education. In the past, experts thought a prescriptive model existed for good management. The
philosophy of one "right" model no longer exists. Instead, most executive education programs emphasize
that each individual has to find the style appropriate for him or her and the situation and extenuating
factors involved. Another evident change in executive education over the years has been the importance
of viewing business as a whole. No longer can managers and executives think in the `boxes' of
marketing, accounting, operations, and so forth. Therefore, designers of many executive education
programs have adopted an integrated curriculum in which no subject is taught in isolation from other
functional areas.[endnote 7]

Chapter 13 - Competency 2:
Identify the various types of executive education programs.

Types of Executive Education Programs

Executive education covers a wide range of programs from executive MBA programs with residency
requirements to non-credit workshops lasting for one to two days.
Broad approaches to executive education include general management development programs; shorter,
open enrollment programs; and partnering relationships formed between corporations and educational
institutions. The partnerships may involve a consortium of supplier institutions to offer a broad range of

executive development options. Regardless of the type of program, the employer's support--many times
in the form of sponsoring of participants--is critical to the student's success. Some programs actually
require active participation by the employer as an admission requirement.
Competition in the world of executive education is greater than ever before. There is increased
competition among university-based suppliers as well as a significant increase in the number
of nontraditional providers including corporate universities, consulting firms, and for-profit "content
providers." Educational programs that do not change with the times and become more customer-focused,
as compared to producer-focused, will have difficulty surviving in the twenty-first century. Increasingly,
educational institutions are recognizing that executives cannot put their careers on hold to complete a
graduate degree. Programs are becoming more mobile, either in physically coming to the executive's
location or through on-line courses, and are often broken into segments that can fit with busy working and
traveling schedules. The hospitality industry has traditionally not placed a high value on graduate
degrees. As the industry looks at executive education options in staying globally competitive, it will be
helpful to look at other industries and select certain organizations to benchmark.
There are several broad categories of university-based executive education. Three broad market
segments include:

General management programs, such as executive MBA programs

Shorter, open enrollment programs

Customized programs

Executive MBA Programs

Executive MBA (EMBA) programs are offered around the globe. Some of these programs require a
minimum number of years' work experience and status as an upper-level manager. Many of the EMBA
programs have classes on weekends and evenings to fit with the executive's work schedule. Most
programs take from 18 to 22 months to complete, usually without a thesis requirement. See Photo.
A variety of interesting features can be found in the proliferation of EMBA programs. [endnote 8] For
example, Duke University's Fuque School of Business has a 19-month Global Executive MBA program
that combines international residential learning opportunities with distance learning. Residential
requirements include sessions in Europe, Asia, and South America.
The Marshall School of Business at the University of Southern California has a 22-month EMBA with a
cross-functional emphasis. This program does not offer standalone courses in the traditional areas of
statistics, economics, and accounting. Instead, students are simultaneously presented content similar to
the way problems exist in the real world. Classes meet one full day per week, alternating between Fridays
and Saturdays. A seven-day international study is scheduled during the second year of the program.
The Weatherhead School of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland has become the first school
in the United States to offer an executive doctorate in management. The three-year program costs
approximately $70,000. Executives travel to Cleveland once every three weeks for intensive weekend
classes. Thirty hours of outside research per week is also required. The third year of the program consists
of preparing an applied research project similar to a dissertation.
Open Enrollment Programs

Another option for executive education is through non-degree open enrollment programs. These
programs are for shorter periods of time compared to the executive MBA option and can focus on more
specific subjects, such as globalization, marketing strategies, and e-commerce issues. The quantity and
quality of non-degree executive education programs have seen tremendous growth in recent years.
Business schools, along with private and public companies, nonprofitorganizations, corporate universities,
trade associations, foundations, consulting firms and freelance educators, are competing for upper-level
professional development programs.
The School of Hotel Administration at Cornell University offers two professional development programs
that are university-based. Cornell offers the Anheuser-Busch professional Development Program (PDP)
and the General Managers Program (GMP). [endnote 9]
During a summer period of approximately six weeks, the Anheuser-Busch Professional Development
Program offers 57 one-week courses to hospitality professionals from around the world at all
management levels. Included in this program are certifications in 19 career specialties. This program has
surpassed 20,000 in attendance.
The General Managers Program is specifically for general managers operating full service hotels around
the world. The focus of this program is on strategic and creative thinking applied to management at the
property level.
The open enrollment programs in the Harvard Business School (HBS) also illustrate top-line professional
development options. Harvard offers programs typically ranging from three to five days. Their programs
emphasize the importance of retooling thinking, management, and analytical skills in a dynamic
environment. The program "Odyssey: School for the Second Half of Life" is specifically for MBA alumni of
HBS or all professionals in the 45 to 65 age range who share a desire to explore the themes of change,
renewal, and fulfillment in both career and life choices. Other executive education topics include programs
on negotiation and competitive decision making, critical issues for board leadership in nonprofit
organizations, women in business leadership, and strategies for new business leaders.
Customized Programs
The scope of customized programs ranges from those tailored to a specific hotel property or restaurant
unit to those created for an entire company or chain. Still others address executive education across
different companies who share similar professional development needs by partnering with an educational
institution to develop a program for the consortium. Exhibit 1 shows the Web site of a management school
that delivers customized executive programs.
One such consortium, involving non-hospitality businesses, was a group of twelve corporations in a single
metropolitan area that partnered with a major university. Together they developed a three-week
educational experience spread over a four-month period of time for upper-level managers. The curriculum
targeted three broad areas:

Week One: Corporate strategy, with a focus on creating and managing shareholder value

Week Two: Leading a corporate transformation in a global business environment

Week Three: Building leadership skills

Even though different industries were involved, this type of program is oteworthy in illustrating the
applicability to the hospitality industry of the consortium approach. The criteria used in selecting the
university are also relevant and could be used in a hospitality-oriented consortium.

In selecting the university, the participating companies evaluated the university having the capability to
provide:

Faculty with real-world experiences who had an interest in committing time to the program and
understood the companies' competitive challenges

The "best of the best" faculty, including those from other universities

An agreement that worked regarding financial and non-financial terms

[endnote 10]

The CEO Academy

Consortiums or other partnerships between professional associations and corporate entities also offer
executive education non-degree programs. Such is the case with CEO Academy, a creative approach to
leadership development worthy of benchmarking.
The Academy was established to address the needs of newly appointed CEOs. The program calls on the
experience of veteran CEOs who openly discuss the trials and tribulations of life in the "corner office." The
one-day course involves a sizable tuition of $10,000 but most agree that the investment is a wise one in
learning how to deal with "land mines" that can derail a CEO's career.
The CEO Academy was created by the M&A Group, Inc., a CEO club formed in 1999 as a forum to
discuss and facilitate mergers and acquisitions among members. The group now totals more than 60
members. The Academy emerged from the recognition that the CEO position is one of high risk, with
about a 20 percent turnover rate annually across various industries. A shorter "honeymoon" period with
diminished time to get up to speed, coupled with the recognition that many CEOs had limited experience
with running a board, or in dealing with Wall Street, the business press, and shareholders are a few of the
other reasons the Academy was needed.
The course, open only to individuals with less than three years as a CEO, has been likened to an
expensive, posh boot camp. It is taught by elite professors from some of the nation's top business schools
and veteran executives. Session topics include real life subjects such as shareholder awareness and
board member relations. Warnings are provided in many forms such as this advice on board relations:
"There is nothing more important than getting to know the people who can fire you."

Corporate Universities
Many American businesses, including some in the hospitality field, have launched corporate
universities. An organization's commitment to this approach typically arises froma strong awareness of
the strategic importance of the company's culture and the contextual framework (the industry, suppliers,
market trends, market niches, competitors, etc.) in which it operates. Corporate universities are basically
in-house training and education facilities. In some cases, education is provided not only for employees but
for customers and suppliers as well. In the last decade, corporate universities have grown in numbers
from approximately 400 to more than 1,000, encompassing various industries. [endnote 11]
In a survey by Business Week, 22 percent of the participating companies stated that they preferred inhouse training to university-based education. As executive education focuses on specific bottom-line
goals, the combination of business schools, outside consultants, and inside programs is a popular mix.
[endnote 12]

According to Jeanne Meister, president of Corporate University Xchange, Inc., a consulting firm in New
York that specializes in corporate university management, "A corporate university is the strategic
management of a company's learning function, generally led by a chief learning officer." [endnote
13] Corporate universities have traditionally concentrated their curricula on the junior and mid-level
management levels. A recent trend in in-house executive education, however, has led to more of an
emphasis on leadership development. Advantages of the in-house approach to executive education is
centralization, control, and customization.
Some corporate universities have campuses around the world. Others have no physical campuses, with
all programs offered on-line. In developing executive education programs, one approach that has been
integrated with the corporate university model is the corporate university consortium. The corporate
university consortium model involves a number of companies partnering with a university to share
professional development resources. Similar to a strategic alliance with a supplier, the supplier in this
case provides education.
Those companies offering master's or doctoral degrees through their corporate universities must establish
partnerships with accredited colleges or universities. A small but growing number of organizations actually
offer advanced degrees. For example, the Arthur D. Little School of Management offers a one-year
master of science degree in management in conjunction with Boston College's Carroll School of
Management.
Another approach is taken by General Electric's acclaimed Executive Development Course (EDC). In this
program, employees begin by completing internal resums that cover their accomplishments, strengths
and weaknesses, career growth plans, and goals. The company offers a slate of education programs,
with the EDC considered the capstone. Prerequisite courses to the EDC, also offered by GE, are the
Manager Development Course and the Business Management course. The EDC is a month-long program
focusing on a single topic such as quality or global marketplace competition. Participants work on
competitive teams with action learning assignments. At the end of the month, the teams make a
presentation of their various proposals to the CEO of the organization and other officers. [endnote 14]
Another example of an innovative in-house program is Avon's Passport Program. This program targets
individuals selected by Avon as potential general managers. The team is brought together for six weeks
spread over 18 months. To facilitate learning about Avon's global strategy and best practices of other
units, each session is held in a different country. Approximately 75 percent of the material is presented by
senior Avon managers. Teams work with senior executives on projects specific to certain countries. [endnote
15]

One company, in deciding how to show top management support for its corporate university, has its top
management team involved in teaching courses. The company's CEO attended part of almost every
session and held a participant lunch at the conclusion of the course. The company further reinforced its
support of the program by sending the top 200 executives as the first attendees. [endnote 16]
One major company requires executives and managers to take leadership courses at the organization's
Leadership Center at five specific turning points in their careers:

Following promotion or when hired into management

When they become managers of managers

When preparing for executive responsibilities

When they begin their first days as executives

When they assume the challenges of global leadership

An example of a training and development approach from another hospitality segment is the Royal
Sonesta Hotel New Orleans. Originally named the Executive Training Center and renamed the Learning
Center, this facility is available for all levels of employees, including upper management. The Learning
Center is openseven days per week, 24 hours per day with access available to all employees free of
charge. The Center includes a wide variety of resources, including training videos, educational manuals,
computer-based programs, and programs tailored to improving professional speaking and writing skills.
While some of the Center's resources are included in the hotel's training programs, most are there for
self-directed employees who want to gain a competitive edge. The Learning Center has been so
successful for this particular Sonesta property that it is a prototype for other locations within the company.
Partnerships involving hospitality companies can, in addition, increase the depth and number of training
resources and talent. Radisson Hotels & Resorts increased its training and development capabilities
through partnering with the Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Lodging Association as well as
with Signature, a provider of hospitality training. The result has been an increased presence of e-learning
through a curriculum of training programs available through Web conferencing.
A Hospitality Corporate University
One of the nation's first corporate universities was McDonald's Hamburger University. Founded in 1961,
the initial management training center was located in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, in a basement of a
McDonald's restaurant. Now located at McDonald's home office campus in Oak Brook, Illinois, the
university is in a 130,000-square-foot, state-of-the-art facility with a faculty of 30 resident professors. More
than 65,000 managers in McDonald's restaurants have graduated from Hamburger University. The
average class size has grown from ten to more than 200 per class. Training programs are designed
exclusively to instruct personnel employed by McDonald's Corporation or employed by McDonald's as
independent franchisees. All training programs begin with the "Basics of McDonald's Operations." Using
translators and electronic equipment, instructors teach courses in 22 languages at one time. McDonald's
also manages ten international training centers in England, Japan, Germany, and Australia. [endnote 17]
Corporate Universities as Profit Centers
A number of companies have adapted the corporate university concept to include training outsiders with
their own people and thereby becoming a profit center. The Disney Institute, located at Disney World in
Orlando, Florida, is such a training approach. Executives from around the world and from every
imaginable industry attend Disney's three day professional development program. Through behind-thescenes tours and classroom time, the executives learn how to infuse some of Disney's magic into their
own companies. The three-day program focuses on topics such as people management, operations, and
quality. The Institute's per-attendee revenue averages approximately $3,000.
Disney considers the Disney Institute approach a win-win situation. As the largest single-site employer in
the United States, with more than 55,000 employees, they openly share some of the practices that have
made them successful. A rowing number of companies in other industries with corporate universities are
considering a similar approach. Saturn Corporation, Arthur D. Little, and Motorola have opened their
campus doors to any interested participant. Other organizations are more selective and offer programs
only to customers, suppliers, or prearranged partners. [endnote 18]
See Photo.

In the 90s, the number of corporate universities worldwide grew 400 percent. Corporations found that
their training departments needed to create and run corporate universities that would enhance the skills of
all their employees. While large corporations led the push to create corporate universities, smaller
companies have also created their own smaller-scale versions. If your property is considering creating a
corporate university, the following practices can help its effectiveness:

Teach corporate culture. Socialization doesn't always happen automatically and employees
need to be taught the big picture. How does the property make money, what are its market
segments, and how does it reach them?

Encourage cross-functional skills. Help each of the property's executives to be versatile and
skilled in every area of the hospitality organization.

Consider computer-based training. Use whatever combination of technologies will best help
learning transfer and training accessibility.

Know your cycle times. Technologies are changing the workplace so quickly that employee
skills become obsolete much more quickly. Where possible, cut the cycle time needed to design
and develop training solutions.

Operate training as a business. Develop a business plan and measure whether the corporate
university is achieving its strategic goals.

Educate outsiders. Once the money has been invested in designing and developing training
materials, it might make sense to sell that training to people such as the property's suppliers,
guests, or community members.

Partner with universities and professional associations. Don't re-invent the wheel if it isn't
necessary. Work with universities that may grant executive learners college credits or
associations who can help learners achieve certifications.

Chapter 13 - Competency 3:
Describe how electronic delivery is affecting executive education.

On-Line Options

The increasing availability of on-line courses, and in some schools totally on-line programs, has
made a tremendous impact on the convenience and accessibility of higher education. For the
hospitality industry, the advantages of education on-line are of paramount importance for the
typical manager or executive who already has a demanding work and travel schedule.

One of the disadvantages of having a totally on-line program is that the student misses the faceto-face interaction with fellow students. Since most managers and executives typically state that
they learn a significant amount from fellow students, this dynamic obviously changes when there
is only on-line contact.

In evaluating the outcomes of distance learning, it appears that this option is more effective and
better received at the lower and middle levels of management, particularly when the focus is on
hard, technical skill training. The more technical courses such as accounting and statistics may
lend themselves better to the on-line format as compared to the more interactive topics of teambuilding and strategic think. At the senior-management levels, the face-to-face, in-residence
programs seem more effective.

With the concern for understanding some of the limitations of distance learning noted, the growth
of on-line options is most significant. E-learning specifically targeting the executive education
market is expected to grow annually by 79 percent by 2004. The on-line higher education market
in the United States is projected to grow by $7 billion by 2003. Web-based corporate learning is
expected to grow at an 83 percent rate and exceed $11 billion by 2003. [endnote 19]

The University of Chicago, Stanford University, Columbia University, The London School of
Economics, and Carnegie Mellon University have partnered with Unext. com to develop an online
education "powerhouse." This new entity will be called Cardean University. Cardean is investing
$1 million per course and is enlisting star professors in the design and delivery of courses that will
be delivered only on the Web.

New York University's School of Continuing Professional Studies created NYUonline. This forprofit organization focuses on the needs of corporate clients through accredited on-line
courses. [endnote 20]

Chapter 13 - Competency 4:
Describe the role professional associations play in executive education.

Executive Education through Professional Associations

A major catalyst in hospitality executive education has been the many professional associations that exist
for industry segments. Whether through an association conference that offers educational programs or
certifications that may be preceded with educational seminars and preparatory sessions, there are many
opportunities for the hospitality executive to continue professional development throughout his or her
career.
Just a few of the many associations that support professional development through certification programs
are:

Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Lodging Association--Certified Hotel Administrator
(CHA)

Hospitality Sales & Marketing International--Certified Hotel Sales Executive (CHSE)

Club Managers Association of America--Certified Club Manager (CCM)

A Prototype of Lifelong Professional Development in Hospitality

The quinessential professional development program in the hospitality industry was developed by Club
Managers Association of America (CMAA). With more than 5,000 members, CMAA is the largest
organization of club managers in the world. The key mission of CMAA is to meet its members' educational
needs. In fulfilling this mission, a multi-level program was designed in 1988 for lifelong professional
growth from entry-level managers to senior managers at the pinnacle of their careers. This curriculum,
called Business Management Institute (BMI), encompasses 13 courses held on university campuses
around the United States. BMI faculty consist of university faculty, industry experts, and experienced club
managers. More than 4,400 managers have completed the approximately 150 one-week sessions.
The curriculum of the various levels of BMI, along with industry experience, help prepare club managers
for achieving the professional designation of Certified Club Manager (CCM). Begun in 1965, this
certification is recognized as the hospitality industry's most respected certification program, with the CCM
designation known as the "hallmark of professional management." The CMAA has defined nine
competency domains for the Certified Club Manager, which include 144 specific competencies. In addition
to meeting prerequisite educational and experience requirements, managers must successfully complete
a challenging comprehensive exam that targets the identified competencies. Approximately 1,000
members hold the CCM designation.
Professional development, however, continues well past achieving the CCM designation. The Master
Club Manager program provides a way for experienced club managers to make a significant written
contribution to the club management industry. Candidates for the MCM designation are required to write a
monograph on a topic that will make a significant contribution to the club industry. Similar to a dissertation
in a doctoral program, MCM monographs are made available to club managers to further assist in their
own professional development.

Chapter 14 - Competency 1:
List the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing.

Outsourcing Training and Development

Outsourcing is a relatively new concept to corporations. Outsourcing involves the "transferring to external
resources services previously provided internally. " [endnote 1] It is almost inevitable that at times external
suppliers will be needed for some type of training. A Gallup survey revealed that 84 percent of the
companies surveyed bought training products and services from outside sources. [endnote 2]
External suppliers may take on a number of varied roles, from conducting a needs assessment and
analyzing performance gaps to designing training processes (including on line options), delivering
programs, or providing an evaluative, return-on-investment model. As a training professional in hospitality,
it is important that you establish clear criteria for determining the type of outsourcing to be done, selection
of suppliers or vendors, and parameters within which they will operate. And because the employing
organization has ultimate responsibility and liability for training offered by external sources, it is extremely
important that training standards and expectations are clearly defined and explained to the partners
selected.
As one author put it, "outsourcing is a marriage, not a separation." [endnote 3] Even though training
functions are outsourced, the company's responsibility for managing the learning and development
activities within the organization still remains. Organizations are constantly changing, which makes the
close relationship between internal and external providers extremely important. The development and
evaluation of training as a critical employee performance strategy should "never be totally displaced from
the nerve center of the operation." [endnote 4]

One of the foremost questions to consider in determining whether to outsource certain training and
development activities is whether the programs support and contribute to the organization's mission and
goals. Too often, organizations get caught up to near frenzy, conducting training on certain topics because
it is "the thing to do."
Other issues to consider in deciding whether to outsource training activities include:

How many employees are to be trained and will the need for retraining be consistent?

What advantages are involved in retaining an outside training provider?

Does expertise exist within the organization? If so, what can a supplier provide that in-house
providers cannot? [endnote 5]

Advantages of Outsourcing
Outsourcing may be necessary because there are no internal sources with the needed level or type of
knowledge and skills to meet the organizational training objectives. In some cases, outsourcing is more
cost-effective because the supplier is not on the payroll and does not incur the costs of a benefit package
and other expenses. Using an external supplier or consultant also is advantageous in situations where
objectivity and a certain level of assertiveness are needed. The organization's trainers, in their role as
internal consultants, may be hesitant to adopt the level of assertiveness needed because they have to
"live with the client."
In comparing the organization's trainers (internal consultants) to external suppliers (consultants), the
points in Exhibit 1 are important to consider. [endnote 6]

Disadvantages of Outsourcing
One of the main disadvantages of outsourcing training is dealing with unknown suppliers. Even though a
consultant may have delivered an excellent program to another property in your area, there is always the
element of doubt in knowing whether he or she can duplicate the success. The "fit" with the organization's
philosophy and culture is of paramount importance, yet this fit is sometimes difficult to evaluate in
advance.
Countless stories have been told of trainers who contracted with internationally acclaimed presenters,
only to have their program nearly fail because this "outsider" committed a terrible faux pas, such as using
profanity or inappropriate humor.

Chapter 14 - Competency 1:
List the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing.

Outsourcing Training and Development

Outsourcing is a relatively new concept to corporations. Outsourcing involves the "transferring to external
resources services previously provided internally. " [endnote 1] It is almost inevitable that at times external
suppliers will be needed for some type of training. A Gallup survey revealed that 84 percent of the
companies surveyed bought training products and services from outside sources. [endnote 2]

External suppliers may take on a number of varied roles, from conducting a needs assessment and
analyzing performance gaps to designing training processes (including on line options), delivering
programs, or providing an evaluative, return-on-investment model. As a training professional in hospitality,
it is important that you establish clear criteria for determining the type of outsourcing to be done, selection
of suppliers or vendors, and parameters within which they will operate. And because the employing
organization has ultimate responsibility and liability for training offered by external sources, it is extremely
important that training standards and expectations are clearly defined and explained to the partners
selected.
As one author put it, "outsourcing is a marriage, not a separation." [endnote 3] Even though training
functions are outsourced, the company's responsibility for managing the learning and development
activities within the organization still remains. Organizations are constantly changing, which makes the
close relationship between internal and external providers extremely important. The development and
evaluation of training as a critical employee performance strategy should "never be totally displaced from
the nerve center of the operation." [endnote 4]
One of the foremost questions to consider in determining whether to outsource certain training and
development activities is whether the programs support and contribute to the organization's mission and
goals. Too often, organizations get caught up to near frenzy, conducting training on certain topics because
it is "the thing to do."
Other issues to consider in deciding whether to outsource training activities include:

How many employees are to be trained and will the need for retraining be consistent?

What advantages are involved in retaining an outside training provider?

Does expertise exist within the organization? If so, what can a supplier provide that in-house
providers cannot? [endnote 5]

Advantages of Outsourcing
Outsourcing may be necessary because there are no internal sources with the needed level or type of
knowledge and skills to meet the organizational training objectives. In some cases, outsourcing is more
cost-effective because the supplier is not on the payroll and does not incur the costs of a benefit package
and other expenses. Using an external supplier or consultant also is advantageous in situations where
objectivity and a certain level of assertiveness are needed. The organization's trainers, in their role as
internal consultants, may be hesitant to adopt the level of assertiveness needed because they have to
"live with the client."
In comparing the organization's trainers (internal consultants) to external suppliers (consultants), the
points in Exhibit 1 are important to consider. [endnote 6]

Disadvantages of Outsourcing
One of the main disadvantages of outsourcing training is dealing with unknown suppliers. Even though a
consultant may have delivered an excellent program to another property in your area, there is always the
element of doubt in knowing whether he or she can duplicate the success. The "fit" with the organization's
philosophy and culture is of paramount importance, yet this fit is sometimes difficult to evaluate in
advance.
Countless stories have been told of trainers who contracted with internationally acclaimed presenters,
only to have their program nearly fail because this "outsider" committed a terrible faux pas, such as using
profanity or inappropriate humor.

Chapter 14 - Competency 2:
Describe the different categories of outsourcing.

Categories of Outsourcing
Depending upon your specific needs, you can choose from several categories within the broad arena of
outsourcing. With comprehensive outsourcing you turn over your entire training and development
function to one or more external suppliers. The external suppliers handle all aspects of training from
design and development of programs to implementation and delivery to evaluation.

Other companies use external sources for very limited, specific areas that are carefully selected. This
limited and controlled model is called out-tasking. Selective outsourcing, by comparison, is the middleground option and the most common type of outsourcing. With this option, companies transfer multiple
aspects of training and development to one or more external suppliers. With this option, key areas can
still be internally based.

Chapter 14 - Competency 3:
Describe the steps in an effective outsourcing process.

A Model for Outsourcing

The following six-step model is helpful in delineating the outsourcing decision process. Although not
foolproof, a model can be a useful guide to making sure that the proper questions and concerns are
addressed--and answered--throughout the outsourcing process.
Commit
A team approach works best in approaching this first stage of the outsourcing process. The team must
address key issues such as defining the broad goals, describing the options, and candidly discussing the
changes desired and the changes not wanted. The team must also form a project plan, timeline, and a
business case for decisions. To support your decision, make sure the business case includes the impetus
to change the present system of delivery or organizational structure. Providing a "big picture" perspective
is crucial at this point to overcome possible resistance. This is when open discussion and a common
understanding of the objectives involved are key. Any type of hidden agenda should be openly addressed,
as well as fears, concerns, or unrealistic expectations.
Select Activities
This is the detail stage. Examine the options available, identify the training tasks and functions needed,
and determine which would best be served by outsourcing.
Choose Vendor(s)
At this point, you are ready to develop a list of potential suppliers. It is also important that you specify the
criteria to be used in determining the selection. The criteria should directly reflect the organization's needs
and the vendor's expertise; they can also be used in shaping the actual contract with the vendor.
Contract
In drafting the contract with the supplier, make sure the contract contains sufficient specificity. Guidelines
are necessary for such things as copyrights, office space, deliverables, and various other items. The
contract should also specify what will happen in the case of problems or dissatisfaction with either party.
Transition

After the contract has been negotiated and signed, it is time to develop--with the supplier--a plan for
moving activities to the supplier(s). The plan should include and define measurement milestones to
determine progress. It is important for the plan to also note that unplanned opportunities may surface, so
the plan should incorporate flexibility and adaptability.
Manage and Improve
Since outsourcing is a partnership, it requires a formal structure and a partnership manager. Depending
on the size and scope of the outsourcing arrangement, the partnership manager could be an individual or
a management staff, with either full or part-time responsibilities. The main factor is that someone oversee
the operation with a methodology for monitoring and measurement. Measurements should correspond
with the defined goals. Planning improvements for the outsourcing partnership will hinge on an analysis of
measurements related to goals.

Chapter 14 - Competency 4:
Identify ways to select vendors.

Selecting Vendors
The care you exercise in vendor selection could well determine the outcome of your program. So how
does an organization select external training suppliers? The following four-stage process is a starting
point. Within each of these stages, you must flesh out the outline to fit your specific requirements:

1.

Establish selection criteria.

2.

Identify potential service providers.

3.

Analyze capabilities using a Request For Proposal format.

4.

Make a tentative decision.

For a fair and accurate review of the potential vendors, the criteria should be applied uniformly and
consistently. In setting up a type of criteria grid, it may be very helpful to you to weigh the importance of
each factor. For example, cost may be of more importance than stability. If that is the case, a weighted
factor should be applied for cost (perhaps it is three times as important). See Photo.
The Request for Proposal (RFP) helps level the playing field by requiring each potential vendor to
provide information related to consistent categories (which are linked to the selected criteria). An RFP
developed by the Kaiser Permanente organization is worthy of benchmarking. It provides prospective
partners with information on Kaiser and defines expectations of training partnerships. For example, a
statement appearing in the RFP makes their point clear: "We want a partner who believes in learning,
who knows about the possibilities AND the limitations of traditional training approaches, and who
guarantees service AND outcomes." [endnote 7] The RFP also includes specific questions that help in the
consistency of evaluating vendor candidates. The structure of the Kaiser RFP followed this format: [endnote
8]

A three-paragraph description of the company

A page on the organization's vision and expectations in forming a strategic alliance with a training
partner

A description of the company's needs

Vendor qualifications

Request for specific examples of how the prospective vendor has met similar expectations in the
past

A series of open-ended questions that address compatibility issues with the organization

Following are additional suggestions of importance in selecting an outside supplier:

Definitely ask for references. Ask which groups of employees were involved in the training and
the outcomes of the training. Clearly pinpoint the areas of expertise of the external source;
consultants' areas of expertise can vary tremendously. The person delivering a program for the
management committee on strategic planning may not be the appropriate provider of a program
on team building or coaching for supervisors or vice versa. Find out what training programs have
worked well and those that have not worked so successfully, how progress has been made in
vendor relationships, and how issues have been resolved.

Ask vendors what professional associations they are affiliated with and have them tell you the
certifications or formal credentials they have obtained. These factors do not guarantee that one
vendor or consultant is better than another, but it does show a commitment to their own
professional growth and development.

Obtain specific information from potential vendors on their safety records, insurance, and bonding
coverage (including a copy of their current policy with coverage amounts indicated).

If you are using training facilities other than your own, be sure to visit them and ensure that
equipment, services, and personnel are properly evaluated. Also, inquire about the selection and
training of vendor staff members, including how reference and criminal background checks are
conducted. Certifications and required licensing for certain types of training should also be
verified. If simulation exercises with equipment are part of the training, ensure that the machinery
and supplies have been maintained and are in proper working order. Obtain copies of vendor
insurance coverage forms, to ensure coverage is current and in the appropriate monetary
amounts.

Determine in detail the extent of the consultant's knowledge of the particular segment of the
hospitality industry and of your own operation. Some external suppliers fit better with certain
organizational cultures. Don't assume that someone who was very effective in training front-line
employees at a high-end, luxury resort would necessarily be as effective in providing training for
back-of-the-house employees at a limited-service operation. There are those consultants who do
their homework, study the organizations, know their audiences, and adapt effectively to a wide
array of industry training markets. There are also those who are not as flexible and their programs
not as adaptable. Avoid vendors or suppliers who do not take the time to learn about the
organization and appear too eager to use an off-the-shelf approach.

In analyzing culture fit, get answers from the vendor for the following questions to measure the
depth of the vendor's knowledge of your organization's culture. These answers will be a big help
in determining the vendor's compatibility with your organization.

1.

Concept of guest service--What is meant by "guests" and what are the guest service standards?
Ask for examples of how consistently these standards are met. To what extent are guest opinions
sought? To what extent will the company go to meet and exceed guest expectations?
What is the level of awareness of guest differences? To what extent will the company go to make
a guest satisfied?

2.

Problem-solving approach--How are problems identified and solved?

Is a collaborative approach used in problem-solving? Is there evidence of problems being denied
or inappropriately minimized?

3.

Communication styles--What is the primary communication style, i.e., is the style polite or abrupt,
open and supportive, or rude? How much importance is placed on improving listening and
communication skills?

4.

Concept and execution of meetings--What are the components of an effective meeting? Are
meetings characterized by open, multi-directional communication or do decisions follow a "topdown" approach? Are meetings structured with objectives, an agenda, and perhaps a time frame,
or are they loose and informal.

5.

Corporate commitments--To what are the strongest commitments made?

How important are things such as deadlines, error-free work, and accuracy? How are customer
commitments handled? Employee commitments? Commitments to other constituencies such as
the community?

6.

People strategies--Are employees truly considered resources and treated with respect and
dignity? What selection processes are followed? What management styles are most common?
Are performance standards set consistently high, and is the expectation of meeting these
standards clearly evident? Is a positive coaching style used? Is a performance management
system in place that emphasizes employee goals, available resources, and continuous
improvement? What types of behaviors and actions are rewarded?

Those charged with interviewing vendor candidates should also investigate the following:

Ask for training objectives from other programs to see how applicable these would be for your
industry segment. Find out how the provider evaluates his or her own programs.

Be sure that you know who will deliver the programs. Some vendor/consultant firms have sales
personnel who are the "front" people in searching for and meeting clients. These are not the
same individuals as those providing the training programs.

If possible, personally observe a training session at another company conducted by the same
person your company will be using. If this is not possible, ask for demonstration tapes (these will

obviously be selected by the providers as the "best of the best" sessions delivered. Bear in mind
also that the tapes can be "doctored," particularly if taped in a studio-like setting.) If you cannot
personally observe the trainer in action, you will want a tape from an actual real-life training
session.

Chapter 14 - Competency 5:
List important elements to include in an outsourcing contract.

The Outsourcing Contract

As with most business interactions, a well-written contract is important to all parties involved. The more
specific and detailed this document is, the better chance there is of avoiding miscommunication and
ambiguities. The contract is a necessity. Although there may have been verbal conversations regarding
expectations, deliverables, and expected outcomes, having all expectations, responsibilities, and an
agreement in writing is vital.
The importance of a well-written contract is amplified even further when taken in the context of the
intrinsic contradictions that exist between the organization and the supplier. Your organization wants to
minimize costs. The vendor, on the other hand, is in business to maximize revenue and profitability. Your
organization wants maximum results, particularly as they apply to enhanced or maximized employee
and/or organizational performance. The supplier, in comparison, will tend to be more guarded and aware
of minimizing risks and commitments.
An important point to again stress is that in the end, the organization is liable for vendors and the training
facilities they select for their employees. Negligent training is a term that is increasingly being used in
lawsuits, alleging that the employer organization improperly or carelessly designed, delivered, or
supervised programs. Whether the training was conducted by in-house staff or contracted vendors makes
no difference when assigning liability.
Suggestions for Contracting Vendors
Even though your organization's legal department likely will be involved in overseeing the drafting of the
contract, the contractual stage should not be totally "handed off" to legal counsel. The training
professionals of the organization and the vendor, who will be working together, should be directly involved
in negotiation and in open discussion of the contract and any changes. See Photo.
Recommended negotiable items include:[endnote 10]

Data rights

Penalties

Payment schedules

Fee structure

Schedule of deliveries

The contract terms and conditions specified should include:

[endnote 11]

A description of services

Terms of agreement

Compensation

Inspection and acceptance

Reasons for termination or cancellation

Post-termination transition

Dispute resolution

Right of access (to employees, property, areas of the company)

Confidential information

Limitation of liability

Pricing

Length of contract

Intellectual property rights

Payment specifics should be clearly defined. If the contract involves the delivery of a program, how is
payment calculated--for actual in-class delivery time or for preparation and delivery hours or both? Is
travel involved? If so, what are the stipulations? Is there a maximum reimbursement amount allowed? Are
there limitations on types of transportation? Are upgrades allowed that will cost additional money? Will
accommodations be necessary? Meals? Is there a per diem amount allowed? Who is responsible for
making arrangements and reservations? What additional organizational guidelines apply to travel and
living expenses?
The written contract is also the way to clarify additional responsibilities of the vendor. For example, the
contract should stipulate that the vendor is responsible for avoiding any copyright infringement violations
of materials used and supplied to the organization and its employees. The U.S. Copyright Act and
copyright issues can be confusing. In very general terms, the U.S. Copyright Act protects "expression of
sound, pictorial, literary, and graphical works," among others. It does not include ideas, names, facts,
forms and short phrases. Basically, all on-line works should be considered as copyright protected unless
specifically stated otherwise. According to the U.S. Copyright Act, one can use copyrighted material
without the copyright holder's permission if the fair use criteria are met, which includes "purposes of
criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research." The source of the copyrighted

material should always be cited.[endnote 12] A recommended contractual clause is that the supplier
"warrants that none of the material used will violate the copyright of others." [endnote 13]
The organization can also stipulate in the contract that the supplier will provide to the organization for
review and no later than a specified amount of time in advance (e.g. two to three weeks) copies of
handouts, course notes, etc. and that the organization has the right to review and maintain quality. The
reproduction of these notes, handouts, etc. by the organization should also be detailed. Will the supplier
allow reproductions by the organization? If this is a new training course or a program being developed
specifically for the organization, who will own the program or course? A typical stipulation, since the
supplier likely will be paid by the company to develop and deliver the particular program, is that the
organization has ownership of the program involved. The supplier would, therefore, be prohibited from
offering the exact same program to another company.
A statement regarding the supplier not divulging proprietary information is highly recommended. A partner
in the training and development process likely will gain considerable information to properly address
training needs. The company should clearly identify the employees and the types of information the
supplier will have access to in developing or supplementing a training plan. The confidentiality of
company information and that of employees or guests/customers of the company should be maintained,
and it is necessary to clearly state this in contractual terms. Unfortunately, too often suppliers and
consultants have fueled programs by talking about confidential challenges of other business clients.
Specific contractual language should also be included regarding the understanding and awareness of a
diversified work force and avoidance of civil rights violations. Although the organization may retain some
degree of liability for problems of this nature, by incorporating such a statement in the contract, the
organization's commitment to non-discriminatory, cultural enriching, and diversified workplace practices is
documented and emphasized. The liability for negligent training, which could encompass discriminatory
practices, places an increased emphasis on the organization's responsibility to carefully screen vendors.
Particular care should be taken in non-traditional training that encompasses programs such as outdoor
adventure participatory experiences involving individuals or groups. The potential serious legal
implications include:

Constitutional issues arising from religious freedom and privacy

Intentional infliction of emotional distress

Wrongful discharge

Stress-related claims requiring workers' compensation

Forcing participants in training programs to adopt values and beliefs that countermand protected religious
freedoms may lead to liabilities based on violations of constitutional guarantees. Requiring participants to
divulge private beliefs, values, and experiences may also infringe on constitutional privacy rights. Physical
activity requirements involved in such training may violate the Americans with Disabilities Act, based on
physical or mental/emotional disabilities of participants.
The organization must work with vendor partners in designing non-traditional programs. For example,
there should be non-punitive options for those who do not want to participate. Alternatives that can
accomplish the same learning and performing outcomes should be developed and available. Vendor
programs should ensure proper safety and emergency precautions. How vendors handle content and
conflict and nonparticipation should be stipulated in the written contract and followed up as to actual
implementation.

Cancellation clauses should be included in the contract. Language to that effect in one industry contract
stipulated that the company will "market, advertise and recruit participants for the workshop. However, if it
is determined that there is insufficient enrollment, [the company] reserves the right to cancel this course
without penalty up to four weeks prior to the first day of the course. [The company] will work with [the
supplier] when making this decision." [endnote 14] Issues regarding the need to cancel the planned training
based on business demands (such as an influx of reservations, a large incoming group, etc.) or acts
beyond the control of the organization (inclement weather, a business interruption from a fire or flood, for
example) should also be included. The contract could specify that, in these cases, the organization would
not be held responsible for paying for a training program that was not delivered but that the program
would be rescheduled at the mutual convenience of the company and supplier. Although these instances
may be rare, not having an agreement in advance can result in unnecessary (and uncomfortable)
complications.
As to the length of the contract, a rolling renewal option works well for what is expected to be partnering
relationships of three to four years. At the end of each year, the contract is renegotiated for the next three
years. This framework should also include a six-month review along with an escape clause. If the
relationship is not working and the outlook is not promising for improvements, both parties should agree
that they would dissolve the relationship. Long and binding contracts with training outsourcing have
resulted in horror stories of costly, complicated and, ultimately, extremely frustrating situations.
Make sure consultants or suppliers hired satisfy the IRS's 20-point test as independent contractors or are
on the payroll of a consulting firm or vendor operation. If not, the hiring organization could possibly be
liable for tax evasion and other penalties. It is recommended that the contract include wording to the
effect: "Nothing in this document is to be construed as an employer-employee relationship. The instructor
(supplier/vendor/consultant) will be serving as an independent contractor and, as such, will alone be
responsible for withholding taxes, FICA, etc." [endnote 15]
Organizations are extremely dynamic; therefore, needs and circumstances will and do change. A
procedure outlining how future changes will be handled should be included in the contract. For example, if
the decision-making is to be kept internal to certain roles in the organization and the responsibilities for
execution given to the vendor, this relationship needs to be included in the contract. How partners will
work together regarding communication, roles, and responsibilities deserves thorough discussion before
the contract negotiation stage. The agreements from these discussions should be formalized in the
contract. Built-in periodic reviews of the entire contract and the relationship can be beneficial to all parties.
[endnote 16]

Chapter 14 - Competency 6:
Explain how to evaluate training that has been outsourced.

Evaluating Outsourcing Effectiveness

As with any training program, the on-going evaluation component is vital to the success of the outsourcing
effort. Working together in the partnership to determine the evaluation criteria, timing, and methods of
evaluation will preclude many problems during the course of the relationship.
Typical questions to be included in designing feedback mechanisms are: [endnote 17]

What do we need to know?

How do we get the information?

How do we provide information to all people who need to have it?

A problem sometimes experienced in partnerships is that each party assumes the other will be following
through with monitoring and evaluation responsibilities. The predictable outcome is that what is supposed
to be done is not done.
Measures should be developed for each of the training project's goals. A feedback system is also
necessary to determine if results are meeting the pre-determined goals. It is also important that
monitoring be conducted to ensure that training is being done in compliance with established standards.
Sometimes, these are safety standards in which shortcuts and omissions can have potentially serious, or
even deadly, repercussions. Training that does not comply with performance standards can also deter
employees in their success with the organization and in career progression.
The information gained from the feedback system must be consistently and regularly monitored so that
immediate improvements can be made in the training process. For example, if an eight-week supervisory
development program is being delivered, the evaluation and feedback should not be delayed until the
eighth week. Weekly feedback is essential to correspond with weekly training goals and participants'
opinions. In that way, changes can occur early in the process for maximum learning results. A variety of
measurement options is available and the use of different approaches to comprehensively evaluate the
process is recommended. Examples of the major feedback tools include: [endnote 18]

Observation of workplace behaviors

Evaluations, by session and at the end of the program

Participants' reactions

Surveys, written or oral

Performance appraisals

Focus groups

Financial targets or comparisons

In evaluating individual employee outcomes from training and development programs and processes, you
should determine in advance who will be involved in completing the appraisals and the criteria, timing,
and feedback mechanisms for employees. Typically, a manager from the organization would be involved,
but the vendor instructor or trainer may be a contributor with important feedback information.
It should be reemphasized that Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regulations do
govern training situations. Precautions against any illegal discriminatory actions should be taken,
including selection of who will participate in training, measures in training that are incorporated into job
performance appraisals, and decisions on job promotion, demotion, retention, termination, and making job
assignments based on performance in a training program. The employer has liabilities for illegal
discrimination including actions by partners in outsourcing relationships.