TROPICAL DESIGN

Arch./EnP. Rey S. Gabitan

Introduction
Climate Responsive Architecture is a must in Building Design.
Architects must realize that the building skin is not just specifying materials and creating a
faade for aesthetics.
The building envelope serves as a climatic mesh that filters the outside environment to create a
proper and hopefully a comfortable indoor environment.
A climate responsive building envelope is only one functional criterion for correct design.
In the Philippines, hot humid conditions require protection from heat and maximum ventilation
for interiors, therefore, local designs should firmly consider these issues.
Proper fenestrations and building materials should be selected.
Opening fenestrations such as sun-shading devices should be considered by designers.
Good building orientation must also be looked at by architects to minimize direct solar radiation
but maximize potential for natural ventilation.

Basic Concept
"Weather" is the set of atmospheric conditions prevailing at a given place and time.
"Climate" can be defined as the integration in time of weather conditions, characteristics of a
certain geographical location.
At the global level climates are formed by the differential solar heat input and the uniform heat
emission over the earth's surface.
The movement of air masses and of moisture-bearing clouds is driven by temperature
differentials and strongly influenced by the Coriolis force.

Classification of Climates
Equatorial
Example: Those countries lying just above or below the equator, Southeast Asian Countries,
Central America and the Amazon Basin in South America
Cool Temperate
Example: N.W. Europe, Canada, and parts of North America
Warm Temperate
Example: Mediterranean Countries
Cool Temperate
Example: N.W. Europe, Canada, and parts of North America
Arctic

Example: Iceland, Greenland, Northern Russia, and China

For the purposes of building design a simple system based on the nature of the thermal problem
in the particular location is often used.
Further Classification of Tropical, Sub-Tropical & Equatorial Climates:

Warm Humid (Tropical Island) overheating is not as great as in hot-dry areas, but it is
aggravated by very high humidities, restricting the evaporation potential. The diurnal
temperature variation is small.

Hot Dry (Arid/Maritime Desert) main problem is overheating, but the air is dry, so the
evaporative cooling mechanism of the body is not restricted. There is usually a large
diurnal (day - night) temperature variation.

Composite (Tropical Uplands)

Warm Humid

Hot Dry

Composite

DBT

High temp during the day, Very high temp during the day; large Mixture of
low diurnal change
diurnal range; can be quite low in warm/humid
winter
and

RH

Relatively high

Low and very low humidity; fairly hot/dry.

constant throughout the year.

Precipitation

Heavy rains especially

during monsoon season

Often low or very low

Sky

Cloudy and glaring

Little or no cloud. Cold and nonglaring sky.

Ground

Lesser vegetation

Sparse and often bare. Very high

glare from ground. Rich soil which
only requires water

1/3 to 2/3 ratio

of monsoon
period

The general climate (macroclimate) is influenced by the topography, the vegetation and the
nature of the environment on a regional scale (mesoclimate) or at a local level within the site
itself (microclimate).

Tropical Climate
Temperature

average mean temperature (dbt) 20 30 deg C

small diurnal temperature change/range 2-5 deg

Humidity Levels -

50% - 100% Relative Humidity

Wind Conditions

Slow Wind Flow; Average of 2 m/s

Prevailing Wind in the Philippines :
Amihan (NE) November to April
Habagat (SW) - May to October

Sky Conditions

Overcast Sky most of the time; a lot of reflected heat/ solar gain

Precipitation

high during the year average of 1000mm/yr

Micro-Climate
Many factors contribute to micro-climate, for instance, the location of hills, rivers, streams and
lakes, the position of buildings and trees, whether the site is on coast or inland, in a town or in
the rural areas, whether the location is above sea level, etc.
Some micro-climate phenomena are:
- land/sea breeze
- Courtyards
- Evaporative cooling
- Orientation
- Slope of land height in relation to air movement, rainfall and temperature

Urban Climate
Almost every city in the world today is hotter - usually between 1 to 4 deg C hotter - than its
surrounding area. This difference between urban and rural temperatures is called the "urban-heatisland" effect", and it has been intensifying throughout this century.

Elements of Climate Needed in Design

DBT (Dry-Bulb Temperature) measurement of the temperature of the air and as far as
possible excludes any radiant temperature; measured in the shade.
instrument silvered thermometer (in 0F or 0C)
- monthly mean of daily maxima (deg C)
- monthly mean of daily minima (deg C)
- standard deviation of distribution

Wind direction, frequency and force of the wind throughout the year.
instrument vane anemometer for high speeds
kata thermometer for low speeds

RH (Relative Humidity) amount of water in the air.

instrument hygrometer (in %) or sling psychrometer
measured in 0F or 0C if WBT (wet-bulb temperature)
- early morning relative humidity (in %)
- early afternoon relative humidity (in %)

Precipitation mainly rainfall but could also be dew.

instrument rain gauge measured in inches or centimeters
- monthly total (in mm)

Sky either cloud cover, measured in 1/8 or 1/10 or % of the sky covered, or it could be
measured in hours of sunshine
Cloud cover - based on visual observation and expressed as a fraction of the sky
hemisphere (tenths, or 'octas' = eights) covered by clouds.
Sunshine duration - the period of clear sunshine (when a sharp shadow is cast),
measured by a sunshine recorder which burns a trace on a
paper
strip, expressed as hours per day or month.

Solar Radiation measured by a pyranometer, on an unobstructed horizontal surface

and recorded either as the continuously varying irradiance (W/m2), or through an
electronic integrator as irradiance over the hour or day.

Four environmental variables directly affecting thermal comfort are temperature, humidity, solar
radiation and air movement, these are the four constituents of climate most important for the

purposes of building design. Rainfall data may sometimes be needed, such as for designing
drainage systems and assessing the level of precipitation.

Tropical Design
This is concerned with countries where discomfort due to heat and humidity are the dominant
problems.
Tropical Design is applicable to Tropical and Sub-tropical climates and Equatorial Climates
covering the Southeast Asian Countries.

Importance of Climatic Design

Climate has a major effect on building performance and energy consumption.
The process of identifying, understanding and controlling climatic influences at the building site
is perhaps the most critical part of building design.
The key objectives of climatic design include:
To reduce energy cost of a building
To use "natural energy" instead of mechanical system and power
To provide comfortable and healthy environment for people

Factors Affecting Climatic Design

The local micro-climate and site factors will affect the actual environmental conditions of the
building.
The important site-related factors should be considered when making the climate analysis:
Topography

elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions.

Vegetation

height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns.

Built forms

nearby buildings, surface conditions.

Major thermal design factors to be studied include:

solar heat gain, conduction heat flow and ventilation heat flow.
The design variables in architectural expression that are important will include:

Shape - surface-to-volume ratio; orientation; building height.

Building fabric - materials and construction; thermal insulation; surface qualities;
shading and sun control.
Fenestration - the size, position and orientation of windows; window glass materials;
external and internal shading devices.
Ventilation - air-tightness; outdoor fresh air; cross ventilation and natural ventilation.

Passive Cooling
A cooling system using a buildings design and construction to maintain a comfortable
temperature within the building.
Passive design is essentially low-energy design achieved by the buildings particular
morphological organization rather than electro-mechanical means.

Passive Cooling Techniques

1. BUILDING CONFIGURATION, SITE LAYOUT and SITE PLANNING
Example : A building can be protected from direct sunlight by placing it on a location
within the site that utilizes existing features such as trees, terrain etc.
2. BUILDING ORIENTATION
Example : In tropical countries such as the Philippines, it is best to place service areas in
the west and east facing sides of the building because these sides are exposed to direct
sunlight.
3. FACADE DESIGN
Use of Double-layered faade
Use Low-emissivity glass (Low-E glass)
Use of Insulation
4. CROSS VENTILATION
The circulation of fresh air through open windows, doors or other openings on
opposite sides of a room
STACK EFFECT / CHIMNEY EFFECT
The tendency of air or gas in a shaft or other vertical space to rise when heated,
creating a draft that draws in cooler air or gas from below
5. SUNSHADING DEVICES
VERTICAL TYPES
Vertical Sun Shades are generally used on the East-Facing and West- Facing Sides
of a building
EGGCRATE TYPES
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Shades

SUNSHADE ANALYSIS
1. Solar paths requiring shade
2. Sunshade analysis (vertical and horizontal)
The diagrams show the optimum location of vertical sun shading, shielding the building from
low sun angles in the morning and evening, and horizontal sun shading blocking the high midday
sun. Tropical regions need both vertical and horizontal shading throughout the year.
3. Insolation
4. Sun requirements during winter

WIND ANALYSIS
Wind direction
Desirable and undesirable winds in each the climatic zones depend largely on local conditions.
Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is beneficial for most of the year.
Cross ventilation
Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics than in temperate zones. The theoretical

strategy for blocking or inducing wind flow into a building is based on local prevailing wind
conditions. Generally, for the tropical zones as much ventilation as possible is desired.

Influences on Built Form

1. Zoning for transitional spaces
The black areas represent the traditional spaces used for lobbies, stairs, utility spaces, circulation,
balconies and any other areas where movement take place. These areas do not require total
climatic control and natural ventilation is sufficient. For the tropical and arid zones, the
transitional spaces are located on the north and south sides of the building where the sun's
penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be used a transitional space.
2. Zoning for solar gain
The black areas are spaces that can be used for solar heat gain. They follow the varying path of
the sun in each of the climatic zones: in the tropical and arid zones the east and west sides
3. Use of atrium
The diagram show the optimum position for atrium spaces in each building form in each of the
climatic zones. in the tropical zone the atrium should be located so as to provide ventilation
within the built form. In the arid zone the atrium should be located at the centre of the building
for cooling and shading purposes.
4. Potential of roof/ground floor as useable exterior space
The distance of the angled line from the vertical represents the potential of each zone's roof and
ground planes to be used as exterior spaces. In tropical and arid climates there is a high potential
to make use of all external spaces.

Influences on Built Form

1. Form
Optimum building form for each climatic zone. Research has shown that the preferred length of
the sides of the building, where the sides are of length x:y, are: tropical zone - 1:3
Analysis of these ratios shows that an elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is
needed at the lower latitudes.
2. Orientation
Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with latitude in response to solar angles.
Zone
Building's main orientations
Directional emphasis
Tropical
On an axis 5o north of east
north-south
3. Vertical cores and structure
The arrangement of primary mass can be used as a factor in climatic design as its position can
help to shade or retain heat within the building form. For the tropical zone, the cores are located
on the east and west sides of the building form, so as to help shade the building from the low
angles of the sun during the major part of the day.

CLIMATIC ZONES FOR BUILDING

Comfort Zone
The range of conditions under which most people feel comfortable. It is a function of a number
of variables
Thermal Comfort
Human comfort as determined by the ability of the body to dissipate the heat and moisture it
produces by metabolic action.

Relationship between the centre of the comfort zone and the annual mean temperature (Carl
Mahoney):
Tcc = Tam/4 + 17.2
where Tcc is the center of the comfort zone in E.T. oC
and Tam is the annual mean temperature
*Always correct to the nearest 0.5 upwards
To get the Tam (annual mean temperature):
Tam = (Highest DBT of the Year + Lowest DBT of the Year) / 2
Psychrometric Chart
A chart relating the wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings from a psychrometer to relative humidity,
absolute humidity and dew point

COMFORT ZONE
The comfort zone criteria given above are for sedentary activities:
discomfort due to slight sweating in sedentary activities may be more uncomfortable and
disturbing as it interrupts concentration.
The comfort zone is compared with the mean maxima (day) and minima (night) effective
temperature for each month to find out if the climate is comfortable or uncomfortable.
Recommendations to achieve comfort can be made for a great number of aspects from space
between buildings, building form, down to detail aspects of design. consider window size
together with other factors such as glazed area, orientation, shading and building form consider
thermal characteristic of roofs and walls, i.e., absorption of the surface and the insulation of the
construction.

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer in buildings may take place in four (4) different ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Evaporation and condensation
CONDUCTION
The flow of heat through a material by transfer from warmer to cooler molecules in contact with
each other.
Conductivity is the rate of heat transfer that occurs through a unit thickness of material for a unit
area subjected to a unit difference in temperature.
Conductivity =

per meter (thickness)

(area) * Temp difference (oC)

Conductivity (K value) =

W/moC

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12m2 and temperature difference is 3oC, then:
Conductivity = 0.2m/(12m2 * 3oC) = 0.0056W/moC
Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat and is measured by the resistivity.
Resistivity =

1 / Conductivity

moC / W

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12m2 and temperature difference is 3oC, then:
Resistivity = (12m2 * 3oC) / 0.2m = 180 moC/W
For a given thickness of material, resistance to heat transfer is:
Resistance = Resistivity * t(mtrs)

m2 oC / W

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.20m, and resistivity is 180 moC/W, then:
Resistance = 180 moC/W * 0.20m = 36 m2 oC/W
CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the flow of molecules from one
place to another.
Natural Convection is the movement of the molecules as a result of the heat energy they possess
(i.e. hot air rising).
Forced Convection results from the movement of molecules by pumps, fans, or other movement
caused by external forces.
The rate of flow of heat due to natural condition is usually measured by the conductance of a
surface or an air movement to a building construction.
Units are Watts / m2 oC
Examples:
1. Warm air rising from register (forced convection).
2. Warm air rising from all surfaces of radiator (after air in contact with radiator has
been heated by conduction).
3. Warm air rising from (free convection).
RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves.
Radiation travels through air and the rate of transfer of energy is independent of the temperature
of the air.
The rate of radiation transfer is measured in Watts per m2.
The rate of flow of radiant heat from the sun can be found from the radiation overlay when it is
placed over the sun path diagram.
There are two terms commonly encountered while discussing radiant heat transfer:
Emittance (or emissivity), refers to the ability of a materials surface to give off radiant
energy. All materials have emissivities ranging from zero to one. The lower the emittance of a
material, the lower the heat radiated from its surface. Aluminum foil has a very low emittance
which explains its use in reflective insulation.
Reflectance (or reflectivity) refers to the fraction of incoming radiant energy that is
reflected from the surface. Reflectivity and emissivity are related and a low emittance is
indicative of a highly reflective surface. For example, aluminum with an emittance of 0.03 has a
reflectance of 0.97.
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER

MEASUREMENT

UNITS

CONDUCTION

Conductivity
Resistivity
Conductivity

W / m oC
m oC / W
W / m2 oC

CONVECTION
RADIATION
EVAPORATION AND
CONDENSATION

HEAT GAIN AND COMFORT

Heat gain in the tropics is due mainly to solar radiation at the surface and only a smaller extent
the high air temperatures.
Heat gain in hot climates are highest when there are low wind speeds and less heat is transferred
to the air and more to the building surface.
Since major heat gain is from solar radiation, absorptivity of the surface to solar radiation is of
primary importance.
Absorptivity and the insulation must be chosen to minimize the proportion of heat from the sun
which penetrates the structure when the air temperatures inside and outside are similar.
Relative humidities in tropical regions are very high, hence air movement is the most effective
way of increasing comfort by encouraging the evaporation of sweat from the skin.
Design buildings thru which wind can pass with a minimum of obstruction.
Comfort in the warm humid tropics is achieved by encouraging cross ventilation while providing
protection from solar radiation.

PRINCIPLES OF SIMPLE HEAT TRANSFER

Basics of Heat Transfer.
Insulation is measured as the air to air rate of transmission of heat per unit area the U value.
The U value represents the rate of heat transfer from inside air per unit area per unit difference
in air temperature per unit time.
This is measured in Watts / sqm oC
U =
1 / sum of resistances
Sum of resistances include the following:
Outside surface resistance
Inside surface resistance
Resistance of individual layers of the surface (Resistivity x thickness of each layer)
Resistance of air spaces and cavities
The purpose of insulation is two-fold:
(1) to retard the flow of heat from one place to. another, and
(1) to maintain temperatures such that condensation does not occur on inside. surfaces.
... Insulation acts to reduce the rate of heat transfer by these methods
Example:
Calculate the U value of a brick wall with the following information:
- External surface resistance
= 0.05 m2 oC / W
- Brickwall external sand rendering = 1.2 cm (resistivity 1.88 m oC / W)
- Brickwork
= 20.0 cm (resistivity 0.83 m oC / W)
- Plaster (gypsum)
= 1.0 cm (resistivity 2.17 m oC / W)
- internal surface resistance
= 0.123 m2 oC / W

External surface resistance

Sand rendering resistance
Brickwork resistance
Plaster resistance
Internal surface resistance
Sum of resistances
U value

0.012 m * 1.88m oC / W
0.200 m * 0.83m oC / W
0.010 m * 2.17m oC / W

1 / sum of resistances

Resistance
0.050 m2 oC / W
0.025 m2 oC / W
0.166 m2 oC / W
0.021 m2 oC / W
0.123 m2 oC / W
0.385 m2 oC / W
2.6 W / m2 oC

The rate of heat flow through a wall or roof (where the outdoor air is circulating freely through
the building) is given by the formula:
Q = U * A * (t0 t1)
Where Q = rate of heat flow (in Watts)
U = U value
A = superficial area (sqm)
t0-t1 = difference between inside and outside air temperature
SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the outside air in contact with a shaded wall or roof which would give the
same rate of heat transfer and the same temperature gradient as the combined effect of solar
radiation and air temperature.
tsa = to + (X * I * ro)
Where tsa
to
X
I
ro

=
=
=
=
=

sol-air temperature ( oC )
outside air temperature ( oC )
absorptivity of surface to solar radiation
intensity of radiation ( W / m2 )
outside surface resistance ( m2 oC / W )

It is used to find the heating effect of the radiant heat load.

Example:
Wall surface

Max. radiation
Absorptivity
Air temperature

=
=

Then:
Sol-Air Temp =
=
=

20 oC + ( 600 W / m2 * 0.30 * 0.05 m2 oC / W )

20 oC + 9 oC
29 oC

same as before where outside surface resistance is

0.05 m2 oC / W
=
600 W / m2
0.30
20 oC

SOLAR HEAT FACTOR

The percentage of incident solar radiation which is transmitted through a wall, assuming equal
air in temperatures on both sides.
The solar heat factor is proportional to the inside rise in temperature and is related to the radiant
heat from the ceiling or walls.
Radiation from the walls can be controlled by controlling the reflectivity and the U value of
the construction.
To avoid excessive radiation, the solar heat factor should not exceed 3% for roofs and 4% or
walls in the warm humid tropics.

q / I = 5 U*X %
Where q = heat transfer due to radiation = Q / A

(heat flow per unit area)

q = U*A*(tsa-to) / A
q = U*( tsa to )

from sol-air temp formula tsa = to + (X*I*ro)

q = U*( X*I*ro)
q / I = U*( X*ro )
Then

if ro = 0.05 ----- 5%

q / I = 5 U*X %

Example:
From previous example of brickwall, U value is 2.6 W / m2 oC.
Absorptivity for external concrete rendering = 0.6
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.6% = 7.8% > 4% max for walls
To reduce the solar heat factor to acceptable level;
reduce the absorptivity of rendering by using white wash or lime
wash with an absorptivity of 0.30
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.3% = 3.9% < 4% max for walls OK
or reduce the transmittance U to 1.6 by adding 1cm of expanded
polystyrene with resistivity of 30 (resistance is 0.01*30=0.30)
U = 1 / (0.385+0.30) = 1.46
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.46*0.6% = 4.38% > 4% max for walls
1.5cm of polystyrene (resistance 0.015*30=0.45), U=1/(0.385+0.45)
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.20*0.6% = 3.60% < 4% max for walls OK
TIME LAG
The time taken per fluctuation in temperature to pass through a material of unit thickness
(hrs/m3oC).
Time lag depends on two properties:

thermal capacity (amount of heat required per unit volume per degree rise in
temperature)

Rate of flow of heat

Time lag = thermal capacity / rate of flow of heat
The time constant of a composite temperature is the sum of the time constants of the individual
layers.

STANDARDS FOR WARM HUMID CLIMATES

Walls and Roofs should have:
1. A reflective surface
2. Light weight material
3. Insulation
Solar Heat Factor

(low absorptivity)
(low heat capacity)
(low U value)
Roofs
Walls

3%
4%

Time Lag

3 hours max.

To achieve this,
Roof should have a cavity between the roof and ceiling. A reflective surface together with
a cavity will achieve standard.
Heavy external walls should be restricted to day rooms, and should be as well shaded as
possible.

WIND AND AIR MOVEMENT

Air movement over the skin in warm humid conditions encourages evaporation of sweat from the
skin, causing a cooling sensation and lowering the effective temperature.
WIND GRADIENT
Variation in wind speed as wind speeds increase with the height above the ground, and the
smoothness of the ground surface.
As wind passes over hills, there is an increase in wind speed on the windward side and a more
sheltered area on the leeward side.
Although towns are rough and slow down the wind tail, tall buildings will often deflect strong
winds down to a lower level.
Corresponding openings on the leeward side must be carefully located to effect effective crossventilation of all areas.
Wind shadows must be anticipated in order to be assured that other areas are not deprived of
prevailing breezes.
Buildings should be spaced so that openings do not occur within the wind shadow of the building
in front.
Average wind speed in the room will relate to the size of the opening, expressed as a percentage
of the wall area, taking either the outlet or inlet, whichever is the smaller.
Wind speed increases rapidly as the percentage opening area increases from 0 to 20%.
Above 30% increase in area, the windspeed does not increase so fast.
The variation in wind direction will alter the direction of the wind shadow, and allowance must
be made for these variations.
As a rough guide, the wind shadow will be 5 times the height of the building including the
pitched roof.
The length of wind shadow for various shapes of buildings is given in the table, i.e., wind
shadow length chart.

SUN SHADING
Azimuth - Sun angle along the horizon, measured to the east or west from true south
Altitude - Solar angle above the horizon, measured from the horizon