Delegation: The Key to Effective Management

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Sefton Davies
My experience working in and with organisations convinces me that the
greatest skill required in senior managers is that of delegation, since it is
the process of defining tasks and roles which lays the basis for effective
teamwork. Even in small organisations, like families, there is a need for
members to know who is responsible for what, and in large organisations
the greater size makes it essential that complex process are broken down
into manageable tasks which are entrusted to individual members. Yet, this
process of delegation is often neglected, so that there is role confusion and
overlap which lead to inefficient use of manpower and to conflict between
members. The purpose of this article is to suggest ways in which such
problems can be avoided.
Why Delegate?
Despite some managers' wish to control all aspects of management,
organisations cannot be the responsibility of one person. Responsibility
means making decisions for which one accepts the consequences, and it is
not possible for one person to make all the decisions for everything that is
happening during the complex activity of an organisation, and so means
have to be found for devolving its multifarious tasks to all its members.
We can illustrate the process involved by taking the example of a large
school, which we all have some experience of, in which the headteacher is
responsible for ensuring that the students obtain a good education. She
isaccountable to the governors of the school for this, and, in the event of
anything untoward happening, the governors will seek explanations from
her. However, she cannot personally perform all the functions necessary to
ensure success, since she cannot be in all the classrooms, etc., at the same
time, so she has to limit the responsibilities she can accept, e.g., she may
decide that her prime functions are for overall strategic planning, for
external liaison and for staff development. All other functions she will give
to her deputies. They in turn will determine what is reasonable for them to
do and give all other responsibilities to heads of departments, and so on
down the line until individual teachers are responsible for delivering the
curriculum to the students. In this way, all the tasks needed to run the school
are covered, yet no member of staff has an unmanageable load of work.
Also, the headteacher has clear lines of accountability to herself from the
most junior members of staff through the various levels of seniority , and in
this way she can monitor how effectively the school is functioning.
The particular example used above, which is of a line-management
structure, is, of course, only one, though probably the most common, way of
structuring the division of responsibility; another very common way uses a
matrix structure. In this, a differentiation is made between process functions
which are cross-organisational, and project functions which control
production and which are concerned with specific activities: in a school
such a structure might result in process managers for personnel, curriculum,
pastoral care, physical resources, etc., and project managers for the
organisation of specific subjects, like science, maths., etc. Whichever
structure is used, however, the principle of delegation remains the same, i.e.,

responsibility is distributed from the most senior executive to the

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Meaning of Delegation of Authority

Delegation of authority is one vital organizational process. It is inevitable along with the expansion and growth of a
business enterprise. Delegation means assigning of certain responsibilities along with the necessary authority by a
superior to his subordinate managers. Delegation does not mean surrender of authority by the higher level manager.
It only means transfer of certain responsibilities to subordinates and giving them the necessary authority, which is
necessary to discharge the responsibility properly. Delegation is quite common in all aspects of life including
business. Even in the college, the principal delegates some of his authority to the vice-principal.

In delegation, an attempt is being made to have meaningful participation and cooperation from the subordinates for
achieving certain well-defined results. Due to delegation, the routine responsibilities of the superior are reduced. As a
result, he concentrates on more urgent and important matters. Secondly, due to delegation, subordinate becomes
responsible for certain functions transferred to him. Delegation is a tool, which a superior manager uses for sharing
his work with the subordinates and thereby raising his efficiency.
Delegation is not a process of abdication. The person who delegates does not divorce himself from the responsibility
and authority with which he is entrusted. He remains accountable for the overall performance and also for the
performance of his subordinates. Delegation is needed when the volume of work to be done is in excess of an
individual's physical and mental capacity.
Delegation involves the following three basic elements:
a.

Assignment of duties to subordinates,

b.

Granting of authority to enable the subordinates to perform the duties assigned, and

c.

Creation of obligation on the part of subordinate to perform duties in an orderly manner.

Definitions of Delegation of Authority

i.

According to F.C. Moore, "Delegation means assigning work to the others and giving them authority to do
so."

ii.

According to O. S. Miner, "Delegation takes place when one person gives another the right to perform work
on his behalf and in his name and the second person accepts a corresponding duty or obligation to do that is
required of him."

iii.

According to Louis Allen, "Delegation is the dynamics of management, it is the process a manager follows
in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs that part which only he, because of his unique
organizational placement, can perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains."

Objectives of Delegation of Authority

1.

To reduce the excessive burden on the superiors i.e., executives and managers functioning at different
levels.

2.

To provide opportunities of growth and self development to junior executives.

3.

To create a team of experienced and matured managers for the Organisation. It acts as a technique of
management and human resource development.

4.

To improve individual as well as overall efficiency of the Organisation.

Process of Delegation of Authority

Delegation process involves four distinct stages. The process of delegation moves through these stages. The
following figure shows the stages in the process of delegation of authority.

Four Stages In Process of Delegation of Authority

(A) Assignment of duties to subordinates
Before delegating, the delegator has to decide precisely the duties which are to be delegated to the subordinate or a
group of subordinates. The authority is delegated accordingly and the subordinate is told what is expected from him.
The usual practice is to list the functions to be performed by the subordinate. If necessary, targets to be achieved by
the subordinate are also spelt out. Subordinates may be assigned tasks either in terms of activities or results. The
manager (delegator) must communicate clearly his expectations. Competent and responsible employees may be
given general guidelines about what needs to be accomplished. Their less competent and responsible counter-parts
need more specific guidelines. In brief, in the first stage of delegation process, duties are assigned to the subordinate.

(B) Transfer of authority to perform the duty

In the second stage of delegation process, the authority is granted by the delegator to his subordinate (delegate).
Authority must be delegated strictly to perform the assigned duty. The performance of duties suffers serious setback
when required authority is not delegated along with the duty. In brief, the transfer of authority should be adequate
considering the duties assigned to the subordinate.
(C) Acceptance of the assignment
In this third stage of delegation process, the subordinate/delegate has to accept or reject the task assigned to him in
the first stage along with the authority given in the second stage. If the delegates refuse, the delegator has to make
fresh plan of delegation or may consider some other subordinate who is capable and is willing to accept the
assignment. On the other hand, the process of delegation will move to the fourth and the last stage, if the first
delegates accept the assignment of work accompanying the authority.
(D) Creation of Obligation / Accountability / Responsibility
The fourth stage in the, delegation of authority is the creation of obligation on the part of the subordinate to perform
duties assigned to him in a satisfactory manner by using the authority given. When subordinate accepts a task and
the authority is given, an obligation is created. He has to perform the assigned task by using the authority granted to
him. A subordinate is also responsible/accountable for completing the assigned work. He is held answerable to a
superior for the satisfactory performance of that work assigned. The delegator has to help his subordinate as and
when necessary as he is responsible to his superior/organisation.

Advantages / Importance of Delegation of Authority

1.

Relieves manager for more challenging jobs : Delegation makes it possible for the managers to distribute
their workload to others. Thus, managers are relieved of routine work and they can concentrate on higher
functions of management like planning, organising, controlling, etc.

2.

Leads to motivation of subordinates : Subordinates are encouraged to give their best at work when they
have authority with responsibility. They take more initiative and interest in the work and are also careful and
cautious in their work. Delegation leads to motivation of employees and manpower development.

3.

Facilitates efficiency and quick actions : Delegation saves time enabling tile subordinates to deal with the
problems promptly. They can take the decisions quickly within their authority. It is not necessary to go to the
superiors for routine matters. This raises the overall efficiency in an Organisation and offers better results in terms
of production, turnover and profit.

4.

Improves employee morale : Delegation raises the morale of subordinates as they are given duties and
supporting authority. They feel that they are responsible employees. The attitude and outlook of subordinates
towards work assigned becomes more constructive.

5.

Develops team spirit : Due to delegation, effective communication develops between the superiors and
subordinates. The subordinates are answerable to superiors and the superiors are responsible for the
performance of subordinates. This brings better relations and team spirit among the superiors and subordinates

6.

Maintains cordial relationships : The superiors trust subordinates and give them necessary authority. The
subordinates accept their accountability and this develops cordial superior-subordinate relationships.

7.

Facilitates management development : Delegation acts as a training ground for management development.
It gives opportunity to subordinates to learn, to grow and to develop new qualities and skills. It builds up a reservoir
of executives, which can be used as and when required. Delegation creates managers and not mere messengers.

The advantages of delegation will not be available easily and automatically. They will be available only when the
process of delegation moves smoothly. Problems may develop, if the delegation is not introduced with proper
planning and in proper spirit. For example, the authority given to subordinate is inadequate or the subordinate is not
competent to discharge the responsibilities assigned or the superior fails to monitor the whole process of delegation
effectively. In all such cases, the delegation will be ineffective and the expected advantages will not be available to
the Organisation and also to concerned parties.

Obstacles / Barriers to Effective Delegation of Authority

(A) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Manager / Superior / Delegator
1.

Unwillingness of the manager to delegate authority : Some superiors/managers tend to think that they can
do the job better when they themselves handle the job. The attitude that 'I can do it better myself' on the part of
superior acts as an obstacle to delegation. Some managers (superiors) who are autocratic and power worshippers
feel that delegation will lead to reduction of their influence in the Organisation. A manager may feel that if he has a
competent subordinate and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him (manager)
and may be promoted.

2.

Fear of competition : A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates
authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him. Fear of subordinate's excellence may come in the
way of delegation.

3.

Lack of confidence in subordinates : A manager may hesitate to delegate authority, if he feels that his
subordinate is not competent to deal with the problem and take decisions. Even fear of losing control over the
subordinates acts as an obstacle to delegation. In addition, fear of being exposed due to personal shortcomings
may act as an obstacle in the process of delegation.

4.

Lack of ability to direct : Sometimes, a manager may experience difficulty in directing the efforts of his
subordinates because of his inability to identify and communicate the essential features of his long-range plans
and programmes.

5.

Absence of controls that warn of coming troubles : An Organisation might not have developed the controlling
techniques to know in advance the serious problems lying ahead. It may happen due to concentration of power in
the hands of few people. As a result, manager may resist delegation.

6.

Conservative and cautious temperament of the manager : If a manager has a conservative and overcautious approach, there will be psychological barrier in the way of delegation. A manager avoids delegation as he
feels that something may go wrong even when the instructions given are clear and the subordinates are reliable.

7.

Desire to dominate subordinates : Managers (Superiors) normally, have a desire to dominate the
subordinates functioning under their control. They feel that their domination will reduce if the powers are delegated
to subordinates. They also feel that due to delegation, the subordinates will know their managerial deficiencies. In
order to maintain their superior status and in order to dominate the subordinates, they avoid delegation itself.

(B) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Subordinates ( Why

Subordinates Resist Delegation? )
1.

Too much dependence on the manager for decisions : Some subordinates avoid responsibility even when
the superior/manager is prepared to delegate authority. They want the manager to tackle problems and take

decisions. A subordinate who is not confident about his performance/ability will certainly try to shirk responsibility
even though his superior is prepared to delegate functions and authority.
2.

Fear of criticism : Subordinates express unwillingness to accept delegated authority because of the fear of
criticism in the case of mistakes. They fear that they may be criticized by others if they commit mistakes. Such
subordinates have the following feeling in their mind, "Why should I stick my neck out for my boss?"

3.

Lack of information : A subordinate may hesitate to accept a new assignment, when he knows that
necessary information to perform the job is not likely to be made available to him. He is reluctant to accept
delegated functions and authority as he feels that he will not be able to perform well due to inadequate information
available.

4.

Absence of positive incentives : Positive incentives like recognition of work and rewards go a long way in
building up the morale of subordinates. In the absence of such incentives in the form of recognition, appreciation
or monetary benefit, a subordinate may not be prepared to accept delegation of authority.

5.

Absence of self-confidence : A subordinate may lack self-confidence about his ability to take quick and
correct decisions. He may not like to accept new challenging functions as he lacks self-confidence. Thus, lack of
self-confidence on the part of subordinates is one obstacle which comes in the way of delegation of authority.

6.

Difficulty in decision-making : A subordinate may not have the skill and the expertise to take quick and
correct decisions. He prefers to go to his superior (boss) and ask for his guidance or opinion. Such psychology
acts as a cause for non-acceptance of delegation. A subordinate avoids delegation due to such mental tension or
inferiority complex.

7.

Poor superior-subordinate relations : Absence of cordial relations in between the superior and the
subordinates hampers the process ofdelegation of authority. The attitude of the superior towards subordinate may
not be friendly but hostile. There may be undue interference in the work assigned to the subordinate. Even the
good work of subordinate may not be appreciated by the superior. Such situation creates unfavorable attitude of
subordinate towards delegation. He avoids delegation as and when offered.

8.

Undue interference by superior : A superior should not interfere in the duties delegated to the subordinate.
He may offer guidance as and when asked for. Some superiors interfere in the work of his subordinate and try to
control him often and again. In the absence of legitimate freedom, the subordinate becomes uneasy and prefers to
remain away from the process of delegation.

9.

Fear of being exposed : Some subordinates may have inferiority complex. They feel that they have limited
capacity to accept the challenges which are bound to come out to delegation. They feel that their inability to deal
with new problems will be exposed due to delegation. This fear acts as an obstacle to delegation.

Principles of Effective Delegation of Authority

1.

Knowledge of Objectives : Before delegating authority, the subordinates should be made to understand their
duties and responsibilities. In addition, knowledge of objectives and policies of the enterprise should be provided to
them. This will enable them to discharge their roles purposefully in the process of delegation.

2.

Parity of Authority and Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that when authority is delegated,
it should be commensurate with the responsibility of the subordinate. In fact, the authority and responsibility should
be made clear to the subordinate so that he will know what he is expected to do within the powers assigned to
them. There should be proper balance/parity or co-existence between the authority and responsibility. A
subordinate will not function efficiently, if authority given to him is inadequate. On the other hand, if the excess

authority is given, he may misuse the same. For avoiding this, the subordinates who are assigned duties should be
given necessary/ adequate authority enables them to carry out their duties.
3.

Unity of Command : This principle of delegation suggests that everyone should have only one boss. A
subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior and should be made accountable to one superior
only. This means 'no subordinate should be held accountable to more than one superior'. When a subordinate is
asked to report to more than one boss, it leads to confusion and conflict. Unity of command also removes
overlapping and duplication of work. In the absence of unity of command, there will be confusion and difficulty in
fixing accountability.

4.

The Scalar Principle : The scalar principle of delegation maintains that there should be clear and direct lines
of authority in the Organisation, running from the top to the bottom. The subordinate should know who delegates
authority to him and to whom he should contact for matters beyond his authority. They (subordinates) should also
know what is expected from them. This principle justifies establishment of the hierarchical structure within the
Organisation.

5.

Clarity of Delegation : The principle of clarity of delegation suggests that while delegating authority to
subordinates, they should be made to understand the limits of authority so that they know the area of their
operation and the extent of freedom of action available to them. Such clarity guides subordinates while performing
their jobs.

6.

Absoluteness of Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that it is only the authority which is
delegated and not the responsibility. The responsibility is absolute and remains with the superior. He cannot run
away from the same even after delegation. Even when the manager delegates authority to his subordinate, he
remains fully accountable to his superiors because responsibility cannot be divided between a superior and his
subordinate. No superior can delegate responsibilities for the acts of his subordinates. He is responsible for the
acts and omissions of his subordinates.

7.

Use of Exception Principle : This principle of delegation indicates that when authority is delegated, it is
expected that the subordinate will exercise his own judgment and take decisions within the purview of his authority.
He is to be given adequate freedom to operate within his authority even at the cost of mistakes. He should refer
the problems to the top level management only when he is unable to take decisions. Unnecessary interference in
the work of delegates should be avoided. This normal rule can be given up under exceptional circumstances.
Here, the superior can interfere in the work of his subordinate and even withdraw the delegated duties and
authority. The superior takes this decision under exceptional circumstances.

8.

Completeness of Delegation : This principle of delegation suggests that there should be completeness in the
process of delegation. The process of delegation should be taken to its logical end. Otherwise, there will be
confusion of authority and accountability.

9.

Effective Communication Support System : This principle suggests that there should be continuous flow of
information between the superior and the subordinates with a view to furnishing relevant information to
subordinate for decision-making. This helps him to take proper decisions and also to interpret properly the
authority delegated to him. Delegation system may not work smoothly in the absence of effective communication
between the superior and subordinates.

10.

Reward for Effective Delegation : This principle suggests that effective delegation and successful
assumption of authority should be rewarded. This will facilitate fuller delegation and effective assumption of
authority within the Organisation. Reward for effective delegation will provide favorable environmental climate for
its fair introduction.

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1 Comment:
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garima attan said...

June 21, 2013 at 8:54 PM

thanks for providing such kind of information about this interrelated topics.

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Meaning of Delegation of Authority

Delegation of authority is one vital organizational process. It is inevitable along with

the expansion and growth of a business enterprise. Delegation means assigning of
certain responsibilities along with the necessary authority by a superior to his
subordinate managers. Delegation does not mean surrender of authority by the
higher level manager. It only means transfer of certain responsibilities to
subordinates and giving them the necessary authority, which is necessary to
discharge the responsibility properly. Delegation is quite common in all aspects of
life including business. Even in the college, the principal delegates some of his
authority to the vice-principal.
Delegation of Authority
In delegation, an attempt is being made to have meaningful participation and
cooperation from the subordinates for achieving certain well-defined results. Due to
delegation, the routine responsibilities of the superior are reduced. As a result, he
concentrates on more urgent and important matters. Secondly, due to delegation,
subordinate becomes responsible for certain functions transferred to him.
Delegation is a tool, which a superior manager uses for sharing his work with the
subordinates and thereby raising his efficiency.

Delegation is not a process of abdication. The person who delegates does not
divorce himself from the responsibility and authority with which he is entrusted. He
remains accountable for the overall performance and also for the performance of his
subordinates. Delegation is needed when the volume of work to be done is in excess
of an individual's physical and mental capacity.

Delegation involves the following three basic elements:

Assignment of duties to subordinates,
Granting of authority to enable the subordinates to perform the duties assigned,
and
Creation of obligation on the part of subordinate to perform duties in an orderly
manner.

squareDefinitions of Delegation of Authority

According to F.C. Moore, "Delegation means assigning work to the others and giving
them authority to do so."

According to O. S. Miner, "Delegation takes place when one person gives another
the right to perform work on his behalf and in his name and the second person
accepts a corresponding duty or obligation to do that is required of him."
According to Louis Allen, "Delegation is the dynamics of management, it is the
process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs
that part which only he, because of his unique organizational placement, can
perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains."

squareObjectives of Delegation of Authority

To reduce the excessive burden on the superiors i.e., executives and managers
functioning at different levels.
To provide opportunities of growth and self development to junior executives.
To create a team of experienced and matured managers for the Organisation. It acts
as a technique of management and human resource development.
To improve individual as well as overall efficiency of the Organisation.

squareProcess of Delegation of Authority

Delegation process involves four distinct stages. The process of delegation moves
through these stages. The following figure shows the stages in the process of
delegation of authority.
Stages In The Delegation Of Authority

squareFour Stages In Process of Delegation of Authority

(A) Assignment of duties to subordinates

Before delegating, the delegator has to decide precisely the duties which are to be
delegated to the subordinate or a group of subordinates. The authority is delegated
accordingly and the subordinate is told what is expected from him. The usual
practice is to list the functions to be performed by the subordinate. If necessary,

targets to be achieved by the subordinate are also spelt out. Subordinates may be
assigned tasks either in terms of activities or results. The manager (delegator) must
communicate clearly his expectations. Competent and responsible employees may
be given general guidelines about what needs to be accomplished. Their less
competent and responsible counter-parts need more specific guidelines. In brief, in
the first stage of delegation process, duties are assigned to the subordinate.

(B) Transfer of authority to perform the duty

In the second stage of delegation process, the authority is granted by the delegator
to his subordinate (delegate). Authority must be delegated strictly to perform the
assigned duty. The performance of duties suffers serious setback when required
authority is not delegated along with the duty. In brief, the transfer of authority
should be adequate considering the duties assigned to the subordinate.

(C) Acceptance of the assignment

In this third stage of delegation process, the subordinate/delegate has to accept or
reject the task assigned to him in the first stage along with the authority given in
the second stage. If the delegates refuse, the delegator has to make fresh plan of
delegation or may consider some other subordinate who is capable and is willing to
accept the assignment. On the other hand, the process of delegation will move to
the fourth and the last stage, if the first delegates accept the assignment of work
accompanying the authority.

(D) Creation of Obligation / Accountability / Responsibility

The fourth stage in the, delegation of authority is the creation of obligation on the
part of the subordinate to perform duties assigned to him in a satisfactory manner
by using the authority given. When subordinate accepts a task and the authority is
given, an obligation is created. He has to perform the assigned task by using the
authority granted to him. A subordinate is also responsible/accountable for
completing the assigned work. He is held answerable to a superior for the
satisfactory performance of that work assigned. The delegator has to help his
subordinate as and when necessary as he is responsible to his
superior/organisation.

squareAdvantages / Importance of Delegation of Authority

Relieves manager for more challenging jobs : Delegation makes it possible for the
managers to distribute their workload to others. Thus, managers are relieved of
routine work and they can concentrate on higher functions of management like
planning, organising, controlling, etc.
Leads to motivation of subordinates : Subordinates are encouraged to give their
best at work when they have authority with responsibility. They take more initiative
and interest in the work and are also careful and cautious in their work. Delegation
leads to motivation of employees and manpower development.
Facilitates efficiency and quick actions : Delegation saves time enabling tile
subordinates to deal with the problems promptly. They can take the decisions
quickly within their authority. It is not necessary to go to the superiors for routine
matters. This raises the overall efficiency in an Organisation and offers better
results in terms of production, turnover and profit.
Improves employee morale : Delegation raises the morale of subordinates as they
are given duties and supporting authority. They feel that they are responsible
employees. The attitude and outlook of subordinates towards work assigned
becomes more constructive.
Develops team spirit : Due to delegation, effective communication develops
between the superiors and subordinates. The subordinates are answerable to
superiors and the superiors are responsible for the performance of subordinates.
This brings better relations and team spirit among the superiors and subordinates
Maintains cordial relationships : The superiors trust subordinates and give them
necessary authority. The subordinates accept their accountability and this develops
cordial superior-subordinate relationships.
Facilitates management development : Delegation acts as a training ground for
management development. It gives opportunity to subordinates to learn, to grow
and to develop new qualities and skills. It builds up a reservoir of executives, which
can be used as and when required. Delegation creates managers and not mere
messengers.
The advantages of delegation will not be available easily and automatically. They
will be available only when the process of delegation moves smoothly. Problems
may develop, if the delegation is not introduced with proper planning and in proper
spirit. For example, the authority given to subordinate is inadequate or the
subordinate is not competent to discharge the responsibilities assigned or the
superior fails to monitor the whole process of delegation effectively. In all such
cases, the delegation will be ineffective and the expected advantages will not be
available to the Organisation and also to concerned parties.

squareObstacles / Barriers to Effective Delegation of Authority

square(A) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Manager / Superior / Delegator

Unwillingness of the manager to delegate authority : Some superiors/managers tend

to think that they can do the job better when they themselves handle the job. The
attitude that 'I can do it better myself' on the part of superior acts as an obstacle to
delegation. Some managers (superiors) who are autocratic and power worshippers
feel that delegation will lead to reduction of their influence in the Organisation. A
manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates
authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him (manager) and may be
promoted.
Fear of competition : A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate
and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him.
Fear of subordinate's excellence may come in the way of delegation.
Lack of confidence in subordinates : A manager may hesitate to delegate authority,
if he feels that his subordinate is not competent to deal with the problem and take
decisions. Even fear of losing control over the subordinates acts as an obstacle to
delegation. In addition, fear of being exposed due to personal shortcomings may act
as an obstacle in the process of delegation.
Lack of ability to direct : Sometimes, a manager may experience difficulty in
directing the efforts of his subordinates because of his inability to identify and
communicate the essential features of his long-range plans and programmes.
Absence of controls that warn of coming troubles : An Organisation might not have
developed the controlling techniques to know in advance the serious problems lying
ahead. It may happen due to concentration of power in the hands of few people. As
a result, manager may resist delegation.
Conservative and cautious temperament of the manager : If a manager has a
conservative and over-cautious approach, there will be psychological barrier in the
way of delegation. A manager avoids delegation as he feels that something may go
wrong even when the instructions given are clear and the subordinates are reliable.
Desire to dominate subordinates : Managers (Superiors) normally, have a desire to
dominate the subordinates functioning under their control. They feel that their
domination will reduce if the powers are delegated to subordinates. They also feel
that due to delegation, the subordinates will know their managerial deficiencies. In
order to maintain their superior status and in order to dominate the subordinates,
they avoid delegation itself.

square(B) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Subordinates ( Why Subordinates Resist

Delegation? )

Too much dependence on the manager for decisions : Some subordinates avoid
responsibility even when the superior/manager is prepared to delegate authority.
They want the manager to tackle problems and take decisions. A subordinate who is
not confident about his performance/ability will certainly try to shirk responsibility
even though his superior is prepared to delegate functions and authority.
Fear of criticism : Subordinates express unwillingness to accept delegated authority
because of the fear of criticism in the case of mistakes. They fear that they may be
criticized by others if they commit mistakes. Such subordinates have the following
feeling in their mind, "Why should I stick my neck out for my boss?"
Lack of information : A subordinate may hesitate to accept a new assignment, when
he knows that necessary information to perform the job is not likely to be made
available to him. He is reluctant to accept delegated functions and authority as he
feels that he will not be able to perform well due to inadequate information
available.
Absence of positive incentives : Positive incentives like recognition of work and
rewards go a long way in building up the morale of subordinates. In the absence of
such incentives in the form of recognition, appreciation or monetary benefit, a
subordinate may not be prepared to accept delegation of authority.
Absence of self-confidence : A subordinate may lack self-confidence about his ability
to take quick and correct decisions. He may not like to accept new challenging
functions as he lacks self-confidence. Thus, lack of self-confidence on the part of
subordinates is one obstacle which comes in the way of delegation of authority.
Difficulty in decision-making : A subordinate may not have the skill and the
expertise to take quick and correct decisions. He prefers to go to his superior (boss)
and ask for his guidance or opinion. Such psychology acts as a cause for nonacceptance of delegation. A subordinate avoids delegation due to such mental
tension or inferiority complex.
Poor superior-subordinate relations : Absence of cordial relations in between the
superior and the subordinates hampers the process of delegation of authority. The
attitude of the superior towards subordinate may not be friendly but hostile. There
may be undue interference in the work assigned to the subordinate. Even the good
work of subordinate may not be appreciated by the superior. Such situation creates
unfavorable attitude of subordinate towards delegation. He avoids delegation as
and when offered.

Undue interference by superior : A superior should not interfere in the duties

delegated to the subordinate. He may offer guidance as and when asked for. Some
superiors interfere in the work of his subordinate and try to control him often and
again. In the absence of legitimate freedom, the subordinate becomes uneasy and
prefers to remain away from the process of delegation.
Fear of being exposed : Some subordinates may have inferiority complex. They feel
that they have limited capacity to accept the challenges which are bound to come
out to delegation. They feel that their inability to deal with new problems will be
exposed due to delegation. This fear acts as an obstacle to delegation.

squarePrinciples of Effective Delegation of Authority

Knowledge of Objectives : Before delegating authority, the subordinates should be

made to understand their duties and responsibilities. In addition, knowledge of
objectives and policies of the enterprise should be provided to them. This will
enable them to discharge their roles purposefully in the process of delegation.
Parity of Authority and Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that
when authority is delegated, it should be commensurate with the responsibility of
the subordinate. In fact, the authority and responsibility should be made clear to the
subordinate so that he will know what he is expected to do within the powers
assigned to them. There should be proper balance/parity or co-existence between
the authority and responsibility. A subordinate will not function efficiently, if
authority given to him is inadequate. On the other hand, if the excess authority is
given, he may misuse the same. For avoiding this, the subordinates who are
assigned duties should be given necessary/ adequate authority enables them to
carry out their duties.
Unity of Command : This principle of delegation suggests that everyone should have
only one boss. A subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior
and should be made accountable to one superior only. This means 'no subordinate
should be held accountable to more than one superior'. When a subordinate is
asked to report to more than one boss, it leads to confusion and conflict. Unity of
command also removes overlapping and duplication of work. In the absence of unity
of command, there will be confusion and difficulty in fixing accountability.
The Scalar Principle : The scalar principle of delegation maintains that there should
be clear and direct lines of authority in the Organisation, running from the top to the
bottom. The subordinate should know who delegates authority to him and to whom
he should contact for matters beyond his authority. They (subordinates) should also

know what is expected from them. This principle justifies establishment of the
hierarchical structure within the Organisation.
Clarity of Delegation : The principle of clarity of delegation suggests that while
delegating authority to subordinates, they should be made to understand the limits
of authority so that they know the area of their operation and the extent of freedom
of action available to them. Such clarity guides subordinates while performing their
jobs.
Absoluteness of Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that it is only
the authority which is delegated and not the responsibility. The responsibility is
absolute and remains with the superior. He cannot run away from the same even
after delegation. Even when the manager delegates authority to his subordinate, he
remains fully accountable to his superiors because responsibility cannot be divided
between a superior and his subordinate. No superior can delegate responsibilities
for the acts of his subordinates. He is responsible for the acts and omissions of his
subordinates.
Use of Exception Principle : This principle of delegation indicates that when
authority is delegated, it is expected that the subordinate will exercise his own
judgment and take decisions within the purview of his authority. He is to be given
adequate freedom to operate within his authority even at the cost of mistakes. He
should refer the problems to the top level management only when he is unable to
take decisions. Unnecessary interference in the work of delegates should be
avoided. This normal rule can be given up under exceptional circumstances. Here,
the superior can interfere in the work of his subordinate and even withdraw the
delegated duties and authority. The superior takes this decision under exceptional
circumstances.
Completeness of Delegation : This principle of delegation suggests that there should
be completeness in the process of delegation. The process of delegation should be
taken to its logical end. Otherwise, there will be confusion of authority and
accountability.
Effective Communication Support System : This principle suggests that there should
be continuous flow of information between the superior and the subordinates with a
view to furnishing relevant information to subordinate for decision-making. This
helps him to take proper decisions and also to interpret properly the authority
delegated to him. Delegation system may not work smoothly in the absence of
effective communication between the superior and subordinates.
Reward for Effective Delegation : This principle suggests that effective delegation
and successful assumption of authority should be rewarded. This will facilitate fuller
delegation and effective assumption of authority within the Organisation. Reward for
effective delegation will provide favorable environmental climate for its fair
introduction.

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1 Comment:
garima attan said...
June 21, 2013 at 8:54 PM
thanks for providing such kind of information about this interrelated topics.

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Functions of Delegation in the School Setting: Is it a Safe Practice?

^md

Cheryl Resha, EdD, MSN, RN

Abstract
Delegation of nursing tasks to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAPs) in school settings continues to be a
necessary, yet challenging practice. Although the practice of delegation to UAPs in schools, as in other
healthcare settings, is necessary due to limited resources and increasing healthcare needs, it remains
essential to provide students with healthcare that is safe and high in quality. Therefore, school nurses must
understand delegation decisions and processes and develop the skills necessary to train and supervise UAPs.
This article will discuss the need for delegation; the factors necessary for safe delegation;
the benefitsand challenges associated with delegation; and the implications of delegation for practice
in school settings, including policy development, the rights of delegation, education for delegation, and the
building of relationships that support delegation.
Citation: Resha, C., (May 31, 2010) "Delegation in the School Setting: Is it a Safe Practice?" OJIN: The
Online Journal of Issues in Nursing Vol. 15, No. 2, Manuscript 5.
DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol15No02Man05
Key words: delegation, safety, school nurses, supervision, unlicensed assistive personnel
Delegation is defined as the ability of the nurse to transfer the responsibility of a nursing task to an
unlicensed person while the nurse continues to be accountable for the outcomes (American Nurses
Association [ANA], 2007). Delegation of nursing tasks in school settings is a necessity given the multitude of
school nursing responsibilities, the increase of health needs among students in the 21 st century, and the
limited number of school nurses available to meet these needs. A variety of factors influence this growing
need, yet barriers to the safe and effective practice of delegation continue to challenge school nurses and
concern others.
One such concern is the lack of an adequate number of school nurses to provide quality care in schools. The
nationally recommended nurse to student ratio is 1 nurse to 750 well students (National Association of
School Nurses [NASN], 2010). However, it is well documented that school nurses often cover more than one
school building and have nurse to student ratios as high as 1:4,000 (NASN).
According to the ANA and the National Council of State Boards of Nursing [NCSBN] (2006):
Delegation is a process that, used appropriately, can result in safe and effective nursing care. Delegation can
free the registered nurse to attend to more complex patient care needs, develop the skills of nursing
assistive personnel and promote cost containment for the healthcare organization (Conclusion, 1).

...the process of delegating nursing care often includes complex legal and clinical issues...

However, the process

of delegating nursing care often includes complex legal and clinical issues related to the necessary education
and supervision of unlicensed personnel. This is especially true in school settings where the school nurse
may be the only healthcare professional in the building (Selekman, 2006), and where there is no cookiecutter recipe or "one-size fits all" solution to delegation issues that arise in these settings. Nonetheless,
there are principles, standards of care, regulations, and laws to guide the school nurse in delegating some of
the care needed.

This article will discuss the need for delegation; the factors necessary for safe delegation; the benefits and
challenges associated with delegation; and the implications of delegation for practice in school settings,
including policy development, the rights of delegation, education for delegation, and the building of
relationships that support delegation. The Table below provides definitions related to delegation that will be
used throughout this article.

Table. Definitions Related to School Nurse Delegation

Accountability The state of being responsible or answerable (ANA, 2005).
Delegation The transfer of responsibility for the performance of a task from one
individual to another while retaining accountability for the outcome (ANA, 2005).
Nursing Process The professional, systematic approach to ensuring complete care. The
process consists of various steps including assessing, diagnosing, planning, implementing,
and evaluating the care provided (ANA, 2005).
Unlicensed Assistive Personnel Individuals who are trained to function in an assistive
role to the registered professional nurse in the provision of student care activities as
delegated by and under the supervision of the registered professional nurse (National
Association of School Nurse Consultants [NASSNC], 2000).
School Nurse A registered professional nurse who is licensed by a state as a registered
nurse and who meets the states minimum qualifications as a professional school nurse
(National Association of School Nurses [NASN, 2002;Schwab & Gelfman, 2001).
Supervision The active process of directing, guiding, and influencing the outcome of an
individuals performance of a task (ANA, 2005).

Need for Delegation in the School Setting

The need for delegation of nursing tasks in the school setting is greater today than ever before due to the
following factors identified by NASN (2006a), NASSNC (2000), and Spriggle (2009).

unfunded mandates, such as health screenings and immunization reporting, that pull the school
nurse away from direct care;
shortage of qualified nursing staff in schools, i.e., lack of nurses that meet the state requirement to
work as a school nurse;
budgetary constraints that limit the schools ability to hire and retain qualified staff;
staffing patterns that assign one nurse to multiple school buildings thereby leaving buildings without
nurses at various times; and
federal and state requirements, such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of
1975, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of
1990, requiring that school health services for complex student health needs, such as providing
care to ventilator-dependent children, be provided so that students can access their education.
As mentioned above, two major federal laws have greatly influenced the need for health services in the
school setting. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was established as a civil rights provision that
prohibits the discrimination, on the basis of handicap, by agencies and organizations (including most

schools) if they receive federal funds. It requires these agencies to provide individuals with access to
programs, buildings, and services; and it prohibits exclusion of a student based solely on a handicap. To be
eligible for service under Section 504, a student needs to have a physical or mental health impairment that
substantially limits a major life function, such as eating, seeing, hearing, and/or walking. Additionally, the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was initially adopted in 1975 to provide federal funds to states
that provide for a free, appropriate education in the least restrictive environment to students who qualify as
disabled under this law (Schwab & Gelfman, 2001, p. 63). In return for these funds states are required to
provide special education and related services, including complex school health services, so that all students
have access to the education offered by the school (Schwab & Gelfman).

Due to...federal requirements many children who are now attending schools rely on assistive medical equipment,

such as ventilators, pacemakers, and insulin pumps.

Due to these federal requirements many children who

are now attending schools rely on assistive medical equipment, such as ventilators, pacemakers, and insulin
pumps. In addition, many children also require skilled nursing care, such as gastrostomy tube feedings,
nebulized treatments, intermittent catheterizations, and administration of various medications (ANA, 2007).
NASN (2006b) has concluded that the registered professional school nurse is the healthcare provider who
has the knowledge, education, experience, and authority to manage and provide the full range of these
health services in these educational settings. School nurses are in a position to use their expert assessment
skills to address a myriad of health conditions and behaviors and who, when safe and determined by the
school nurse as appropriate, have the ability to delegate some nursing functions to unlicensed assistive
personnel (UAPs). This growing need to provide skilled nursing care increases the need to properly utilize
trained UAPs, while continuing to provide safe and high quality healthcare in the school environment.

Factors Necessary for Safe and Effective Delegation

...delegation is not appropriate for all students, all nursing tasks, and/or all school settings.

In order to provide

safe healthcare in the school setting, school nurses need to understand the legal parameters, e.g. their state
Nurse Practice Acts, rules, and regulations; along with clinical parameters, such as the standards of practice
and professional health-related position statements developed by professional organizations, including,
among others, the American Nurses Association, the National Association of School Nurses, and the
American Academy of Pediatrics, for delegating nursing tasks and responsibilities to UAPs. In addition, the
individual nurses critical thinking skills are of utmost importance in providing safe care. The NASSNC (2000)
has stated that the RN (registered nurse) must determine which student care activities may be delegated,
under what circumstances it is appropriate to delegate aspects of student care, and by whom the...care can
safely be provided. Based on the guiding principles set forth by ANA (2005), NASSNC, and NCSBN (1995),
it is clear that delegation is not appropriate for all students, all nursing tasks, and/or all school settings.
For delegation to be safe and effective, it is essential for school nurses to have appropriate education related
to delegation, including an understanding of state nurse practice acts and regulations and formal opinions on
what nursing responsibilities and tasks can and cannot be delegated to UAPs (AAP, 2009; ANA, 2007;
Gordon & Barry, 2009; Spriggle, 2009). It is also important to recognize that the regulation of nursing
practice varies greatly from state to state. Some states have clear statements and regulations; others have
vague or no statements at all; and still other states do not allow any delegation of nursing responsibilities to
UAPs. For example, the Connecticut General Statute (C.G.S.), Section 20-87a defines the practice of nursing
by an RN as:
The process of diagnosing human responses to actual or potential health problems, providing supportive and
restorative care, health counseling and teaching, case finding and referral, collaborating in the

implementation of the total healthcare regimen, and executing the medical regimen under the direction of a
licensed physician, dentist or advanced practice registered nurse (C.G.S., Chapter 378, Section 20-87a).
No reference to delegation is included in this statutory language; however, the Connecticut Board of
Examiners for Nurses has issued two declaratory rulings that delineate delegation. These declaratory
rulings, Licensed Practice Nurses (1989) andDelegation by Licensed Nurses to Unlicensed Assistive

If

school nurses examine only their Nurse Practice Acts and not their states declaratory rulings, they may miss

important rulings they need to be aware of before delegating...

Personnel (1995) set clear guidance on what

can and cannot be delegated to UAPs in Connecticut. If school nurses examine only their Nurse Practice Acts
and not their states declaratory rulings, they may miss important rulings they need to be aware of before
delegating school nursing tasks to others.
Even with formal education regarding delegation, school nurses may lack experience in delegation and hence
may not be comfortable delegating responsibilities or tasks to UAPs. According to ANA and NCSBN (2006)
the development of delegation skills occurs over time and with experience. New registered nurses, whether
in a school or an inpatient setting, are still developing their basic skills and may lack the knowledge or
expertise needed for skillful delegation of nursing activities. Even more mature or seasoned school nurses
may lack the confidence needed to delegate competently to UAPs.

Benefits of Delegation in the School Setting

The literature provides support for the contribution UAPs make in schools when there is adequate training
and supervision for the UAP (Hanson, Randolfi, & Olson-Johnson, 2002; Selekman, 2006). Many school
nurses, too, believe that UAPs can meet important student healthcare needs provided their role is clearly
defined and within the scope of the individual UAPs competence and proficiency. School nurses have the
responsibility for a wide range of nursing activities, including direct care, case management, coordination of
care, health screenings, health teaching, promoting a healthy and safe environment, as well as recording
and documenting immunizations, physical examination data, and health insurance status (AAP, 2008; NASN,
2006b; NASSNC, 2000). Within these various roles and responsibilities, there are many opportunities for a
school nurse to safely and effectively utilize UAPs. Depending on state laws and individual UAP competency,
nursing tasks in school settings, including medication administration; health screenings for vision and
hearing; gastrostomy tube feedings; intermittent catheterizations; and clerical tasks, such as documenting
immunizations and health assessments, may safely be delegated to UAPs.

...school nurses... viewed delegation as an opportunity for the school nurse to engage in other nursing

responsibilities, such as health education or caring for students with more complex healthcare needs.

The

complexity of care needed by some children can pose challenges to school nurses. Some of these medically
fragile children need to have a one-to-one staff person with them at all times to monitor their health status.
In these situations, a UAP might be the appropriate person to monitor such students. With the proper
protocol and an individualized plan of care delineated by the school nurse, the UAP could be responsible for
observing the student throughout the day; providing routine care; identifying potentially life-threatening
situations; and seeking the school nurse to conduct any necessary assessments or adjustments to the plan
of care based on the students condition. In these situations, too, UAPs can become an essential component
of the nursing care plan.

According to Spriggle (2009), school nurses that received education in delegation view the use of delegation
in a positive manner because it affords them time in the classroom for health teaching and direct student
contact. Tetuan and Akagi (2004) noted that school nurses who had not had any education in delegation did
not view it as an opportunity for them to provide health education to students but rather as a potential
threat that might lead to the elimination of school nurse positions. Both studies indicated that school nurses
who were educated and experienced in delegation viewed delegation as an opportunity for the school nurse
to engage in other nursing responsibilities, such as health education or caring for students with more
complex healthcare needs. Health education in the school setting often includes individual teaching to
students and their families; group education to students on a broad array of topics, such as tobacco and
alcohol prevention; and health education for teachers and administrators regarding the educational
implications of the common student health needs and accompanying interventions.

Challenges in Delegation
As noted above, delegation may be a solution in situations when there are less than the optimal number of
school nurses available and/or growing numbers of students with healthcare needs as long as adequate
training is provided for UAPs. One of the delegation challenges is to provide this needed training. This
training should include an understanding of student health needs, the task to be performed, the expected
outcomes, and any potential side effects. All training for UAPs must include practice in performing each task
and a demonstration of competence prior to giving the UAP responsibility for the task. The school nurse is
the person responsible for ongoing training of the UAPs, for monitoring the students responses to the care
provided by the UAP, and for evaluating the UAPs performance. This supervision and monitoring of UAPs is
generally taken to include periodic on-site visits for which the nurse is physically present or immediately
available to assess the students response to the care and provide feedback to the UAP providing the care.
The school nurse might provide supervision by making a monthly visit to observe a particular UAP obtain a
blood glucose level on a young student, record the results, and decide whether any additional action is
necessary based on the blood glucose results.

RNs err when they allow UAPs to perform tasks for which they have not been prepared...

Delegation can be a

solution only when the UAPs have been well prepared to carry out a specific task and thoroughly understand
their responsibilities in doing so. Situations in which an RN is asked to delegate to a UAP without evidence
that the UAP is proficient in performing the task and understands the responsibilities inherent in performing
this task poses a risk to the student and to the RNs professional standing. For example, if a student
routinely requires daily treatments for asthma and the UAP is not competent in monitoring the students
response to the treatment, early indicators of respiratory distress might be missed by the UAP, resulting in
acute respiratory distress for the student and the RN being held liable for the outcome of this inappropriate
delegation.
The high ratio of school nurse to students in some school districts, as well as hiring nurses part time in a
school system or asking a nurse to cover multiple school buildings, may limit the use of delegation as an
option for some school nurses as the nurse would not be able to provide the close supervision required when
delegating nursing tasks and responsibilities to UAPs.
Another challenge to delegation is that school administrators often do not understand the legal and
regulatory parameters which guide delegation in the nursing arena, and especially in school settings. Nor do
they understand the complexity of delegating care in school settings which, as NASN (2006a) has noted, is
more complex in the non-traditional healthcare settings, such as in a school, than in the more traditional
healthcare settings.
Some schools lack policies regarding who can care for students with health needs when the nurse is not
available. This leads to inappropriate delegation by administrators to principals, teachers, office or cafeteria
staff, social workers, psychologist, and/or coaches whose primary function and scope of practice does not

include providing nursing care (Schwab & Gelfman, 2001; Tetuan & Akagi, 2004). The school nurse needs to
remind administrators and other personnel that only an RN can delegate health-related tasks to others. The
school nurse needs to have input into all delegation of nursing responsibilities (NASN, 2005; Spriggle,
2009).
Inappropriate delegation occurs because non-nurse personnel do not realize that nursing tasks commonly
performed in the home setting by a student or caregiver take on a more complex dimension in the school
setting. Parents and school administrators may be confused as to why what appears to be a simple task is
held to a much different and higher standard at school (NASN, 2006a). Additionally, parents and school
administrators often do not understand that there is a requirement for medical orders for any health-related
procedures in the school setting; that nurses are held to higher protocol standards than a parent would be
(e.g., the use of gloves in the school setting versus simply washing hands before a procedure in the home),
and that a students response to a given intervention at school may differ from the students response in the
home setting. Tetuan and Akagi (2004) have stated that administrators visualize the nurses role as
performing tasks and not making judgments, thereby assuming anyone can be trained to perform the duties
of the school nurse (p. 356). Administrators, teachers, and parents need help in understanding that the role
of the school nurse is not simply to perform a task but also to assess both the situation and the student
and to develop the right plan of care for each particular student.

The need to address the publics lack of understanding regarding delegation in school settings is essential for

providing safe nursing care in schools.

Delegation of nursing tasks by non-nurses, such as school

administrators, can create litigious situations for both schools and school nurses. InMitts v. Hillsboro Union
High School District, 1987, the courts asked the Oregon Board of Nursing for a formal opinion on the
delegation of intermittent catheterization of a student with spina bifida by a school principal to a school
health assistant, despite the presence of a school nurse on staff. The Board found that (a) the school
principal was practicing nursing without a license when he assumed responsibility for assessing, planning,
and delegating healthcare for this student, and(b) that the health assistant was unlawfully practicing nursing
by following the principals assignment. The school nurse in this situation was disciplined for failing both to
follow a standard of care and to conduct a nursing assessment on the appropriateness of delegation
(Schwab & Gelfman, 2001). The need to address the publics lack of understanding regarding delegation in
school settings is essential for providing safe nursing care in schools.
A third challenge to delegation in the school setting is that the primary mission and purpose of schools is not
the provision of healthcare but rather of education (Davis-Alldritt, 2009). Although healthcare is essential for
student achievement, it is not the schools primary mission. With school budget cuts, a lack of understanding
of the school nurses roles and responsibilities, and an unintentional lack of focus on healthcare; school
nurses may be faced with choosing between following nursing standards/regulations/directives and the
demands of school administrators to delegate nursing tasks. This may occur when administrators do not
clearly understand the regulations and standards under which nurses must practice and/or when financial
realities blind these administrators to the need for nurses to follow these regulations and standards.
Whatever the reasons for these inappropriate demands on the part of school administrators, these demands
result in considerable agony and stress for school nurses. Refusing to meet the demands of school
administrators may place the nurses job in jeopardy. Yet at such times nurses must remember that
employer policies or directives do not relieve the school nurse of responsibility for determining the
delegation of nursing tasks (Davis-Aldritt, 2009, p. 182). RNs err when they allow UAPs to perform tasks
for which they have not been prepared and/or for which they are not competent to perform; to administer
medications when not permitted by state law; or to determine when as needed treatments should be
administered. As needed treatment determinations necessitate a nursing assessment; they cannot be
delegated to someone other than an RN.

Implications of Delegation for School Nursing Practice

The implications of appropriate delegation of nursing tasks for school nurses center around four major
themes: development of school policies, competence in the five rights of delegation, education, and building
relationships. Each of these themes will be discussed below.
Development of Policies
School nurses need to work with their administrators, whether in a school or any healthcare setting, to
establish policies and procedures regarding delegation in an effort to offer safe, quality care to all. School
nurses play a critical role in the development of such policies due to their knowledge and expertise regarding
health-related needs and the delivery of healthcare. Policy development provides an opportunity for the
school nurse to educate administrators, board members, and parents about the legal, regulatory, and
educational requirements of delegation. The steps of policy development and implementation include:
defining the issue or problem, gathering the necessary information to inform the problem/issue at hand,
proposing recommendations, debating and discussing the recommendations with a broad group of
stakeholders, finalizing and adopting the recommendations, providing oversight to ensure implementation,
and assuring ongoing evaluation of the policy (Spriggle, 2009).
The Five Rights of Delegation
Understanding the Five Rights of Delegation outlined by NCSBN (1995) is essential for the school nurse to
gain confidence and expertise in making sound decisions regarding delegation of nursing tasks to UAPs.
These five rights consist of the right task, right circumstance, right person, right direction/communication,
and right supervision/evaluation.
Similar to the five rights of medication administration, the Five Rights of Delegationprovide the framework
for safe delegation of nursing tasks. Formal checklists based on these five rights can serve to communicate
and document the school nurses decision-making process in determining safe delegation. Each school nurse
must consider safety, the needs of the student, the stability of the student, the complexity of the task, the
competence of the UAP, the expected outcomes, and the needs of other students in determining the
appropriateness of delegating a specific task to a UAP. Ultimately, school nurses are held accountable for
delegating tasks appropriately, implementing them safely, and achieving positive outcomes.
Blood glucose monitoring provides a good example of how school nurses must utilize theFive Rights of
Delegation to determine whether it would be appropriate to delegate this task. In school settings, blood
glucose monitoring is often delegated to UAPs. However, it would not be appropriate to universally delegate
blood glucose monitoring to unlicensed school staff because there are particular situations in which it would
be unsafe to do so. Before delegating this monitoring the nurse should assess the students health history,
fluctuations in blood glucose levels, responses to previous interventions, and the frequency of blood glucose
emergencies in the past. Ultimately, the appropriateness of delegation can only be determined by a
registered professional school nurse who engages in a thoughtful, decision-making process to determine
whether delegation would be appropriate in the given situation (NASN, 2006a).
Education
Educational preparation for school nurses should include, but not be limited to, learning about their
individual state Nurse Practice Act; the scope and standards for the professional school nurse; and the
principles set forth by the National Association of School Nurses, the National Association of State School
Nurse Consultants, and the American Nurses Association, as well as other professional organizations. School
nurses need to become knowledgeable regarding their individual state nurse practice acts and any pertinent
state rulings and regulations. These formal acts, rulings, and regulations determine the legality of delegation

decisions provided in the school. In addition school nurses also need to understand the scope and standards
of practice for school nurses as set forth by relevant professional associations. These standards articulate
the competencies and measures for safe nursing practice in a given specialty area, such as school nursing.
Together, these regulations and standards form the legal underpinnings for the transfer of responsibility for
nursing tasks from the RN to a given UAP.
This education can be provided formally through academic nursing courses and school nurse orientation
programs. It can also be provided informally as individual nurses explore the school nursing literature and
confer with other nurses and nursing leaders at their state nursing board to learn about the legalities of
school nursing in their state.
School nurses also need to obtain the skills necessary to train, supervise, and determine the competency of
others performing nursing tasks. Ultimately, the school nurse is accountable for all actions performed by the
UAPs. School nurses delegate responsibly when they determine that the UAP has the appropriate training
and competency to perform a task safely before delegating a task to this UAP. For liability purposes, the
school nurse must possess the skills to make these determinations and to educate and supervise others.
However, as Schwab and Gelfman (2001) have noted:
If the nurse fulfills [his/]her responsibilities as a supervisor (e.g., makes an appropriate assignment or
delegation, trains and supervises the UAP, and evaluates student outcomes and UAP performance on a
periodic basis), the supervising nurse should not be liable for the unpredictable errors of the UAP (p.149).
While ultimately the interpretation of the school nurses accountability for delegation will be determined
based on legal precedent, school nurses may be liable for adverse outcomes when it is not evident that the
person to whom they delegated a task had the training and competency to perform the given task. It is not
anticipated that they would be liable for unexpected errors made by a well-trained and competent UAP.
Building Relationships
Finally, the school nurse needs to build trusting relationships for safe and effective delegation. This requires
taking the time to establish trust between all parties, including the school nurse, the school administrators,
the UAPs, and students and their families before delegation occurs. Building trusting relationships fosters an
environment in which all involved in the delegation can gain an appreciation of the complexity of delegation
and the various responsibilities of each of the team members involved in the process of delegation. These
trusting relationships ultimately enhance the safety and appropriateness of care provided to the students. To
build this trust school nurses need to gain the respect of all parties for their expertise in meeting student
healthcare needs and in turn to have confidence in the abilities of the entire school health team (Broussard,
2007).

Conclusion
Safe delegation is critical for the provision of safe, effective, and efficient health services in school settings.
To ensure safe delegation practices, it is essential that RNs, other healthcare professionals, administrators,
parents, and the public understand the various roles that the school nurses and UAPs play. Delegation can
be a valuable tool in meeting the growing health needs of students, as long as the nurse and UAP adhere to
established legal parameters, sound delegation policies are in place, the five rights of delegation are
considered, education for both the nurse and the UAP is provided, and trust exists among all members of
the healthcare team.

Author
Cheryl Resha, EdD, MSN, RN
E-mail: reshac1@southernct.edu
Dr. Cheryl Resha is currently Director for the Child Nutrition and School Health Programs at the Connecticut
State Department of Education. She is also an adjunct faculty member at the University of Hartford, Division
of Nursing. Dr. Resha began her career as a pediatric nurse at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia where
she worked in the ICU, ER, and ambulatory care settings, developing a special interest in children with
special healthcare needs. Continuing to pursue her passion for promoting healthy outcomes for children, Dr.
Resha moved into the field of school nursing. In this capacity, Dr. Resha developed several publications to
guide school nursing practice in Connecticut. Dr. Resha has received the Outstanding State School Nurse
Consultant Award and also the American Academy of Pediatrics Martin Sklaire Award for excellence and
leadership in school health. Dr. Resha continues to advocate for children, school nurses, and school health
programs. In addition to her work at the Connecticut State Department of Education, Dr. Resha serves on
the American Nurses Association Congress of Nursing Practice and Economics and on the editorial board of
the Journal of School Nurses. Dr. Resha received a Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree from Salve Regina
University in Newport, RI, a Master of Science in Nursing degree from the University of Hartford (CT), and a
doctoral degree (EdD) in Educational Leadership from the University of Hartford.

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2010 OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing

Article published May 31, 2010

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