Proposal Research

Name:
Sex:
Place and Date of Birth:
E-mail:
First Supervisor:
Second Supervisor:
B.Sc.(1997) Mathematics :
M.Sc. (2006), Mathematics:

Amina Kassim Hussian

Female
April 1975, Baghdad-Iraq.
amina1975_kas@yahoo.com
Dr. Zainor RidzuanYahya
Dr. Nursalasawati Rusli
Science, Faculty of Science,
Al-Mustansiriyah University-Baghdad-Iraq.
Faculty of Science,
Al-Mustansiriyah University-Baghdad-Iraq.

1. Introduction
Many applications of differential equations (DEs), particularly ODEs of different orders can be found in the
mathematical modeling of real life problems. Sixth-order ODEs & PDEs occur in the physics and engineering
Mechee (2014), Kuang (1993), Saucez et al. (1998), White &Subramanian (2010), M. K. Jain (1977), Wu & Liu
(2001), Z. Wang (2008), Z. Wang (2008) and Smith (2011)).

1.1 Scope of Study

Thisstudyentailed the derivation of the direct integrators of the RK type, denoted as "RKM" or direct RK
method of different stages, solving special sixth-order ordinary and partial differential equations and conditions of
the RKM methods, and studying the zero stability and absolute stability of the methods. The proposed scheme was
developed from classical RK methods. Numerical comparisons with existing RK methods for ordinary and delay
differential equations (DDEs) are given in certain examples in terms of absolute errors and the required time for
conducting the calculation. Embedded methods will be constructed for directly solving sixth-order ODEs, whereby
variable-step size codes will be developed, and for directly solving sixth-order DDEs. These methods have the
advantage of directly solving sixth-order problems using less function evaluations; less time is needed for solving
the problems, thereby increasing the efciency of the RKM methods.

1.2 Motivation
The need for accurate and cost-effective numerical solutions prompted the development of numerical
methods, specically the direct numerical methods for special sixth-order ODEs. Central to the research is the
derivation of direct integrators of RK type for special sixth-order ODEs, and adapting these direct numerical
methods for solving special sixth-order DDEs and sixth-order partial differential equations(PDEs).

1.3 Background
Numerous mathematical models in science and engineering are expressed in terms of unknown quantities
and their derivatives. These equations are called differential equations (DE).Finding the solutions to these equations
1

had been challenged the ingenuity of mathematicians since the time of Newton, thereby resulting in several
powerful analytical techniques now available to modern scientists. DEs include an unknown function and one or
more of the functions derivatives, and can be classied into many types depending on the number of independent
variables of unknown functions and the time (current time or time delay).Numerical analysis is the area of
mathematics that is very important in solving many physical and engineering problems. It creates, analyzes, and
implements algorithms to provide the best numerical approximations to problems of continuous mathematics
generally originating from real-world applications of algebra, geometry, and calculus. These problems occur
throughout the natural sciences, social sciences, medicine, engineering, and business, and are classied as linear or
nonlinear,andstiffornonstiffproblems.Whensimulatingthebehaviorof those systems, mathematical models
often include one or more ODEs. Most of the time, numerical techniques must be used to obtain approximate
solutions to the ODEs because available analytical techniques are in sufciently powerful to solve anyone of
ODEs except for the simplest ones.
The early work on numerical ODEs has been built since the 19th century, specically in the 1883 studies of
Bashforth and Adams and in the 1895 research of Runge. These presented the initial ideas that guided the
development of modern software on numerical methods. (see Butcher & Wanner (1996) and Gear & Skeel (1987)).
Ideas have since been suggested, with a few becoming the chosen techniques when solving ODEs. Numerical
methods for solving ODEs are of two types: one-step and linear multistep. The most popular from the rst typeis
the RK method (Butcher & Wanner (1996)), whereas for the second are the Runge-Kutta-Nystrm Methods
(Dormand et al. (1987)) and RKD & RKT method for solving third-order ODEs ( see Mechee et al .(2013)andYou
&Chen(2013).

Some Denitions
Thefollowingarethedenitionsofthedifferentialequationsusedthroughoutthisproposal:

Denition 1.1: Ordinary Differential Equation

An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is a differential equation in which the function has one and
only one independent variable, the following is the form of nth-order ODE,
F(t,y(t),y(t),y(t),,y(n)(t)) 0

(1)

Denition 1.2: Partial Differential Equation

A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation in which the function of interest
depends on two or more of variables. The following form is the general partial differential equation in two
variables of nth-order

m z(t, y)
g t, y, k m k 0

t y

, m 0,1,,n; k 0,1,,m

or in the form:

z(t, y) z(t, y) 2 z(t, y) 2z(t, y) 2z(t, y)

n z(t, y)
n z(t, y)
g t, y, z(t, y),
,
,
,
,
,...,
,...,
0
2
2
n
n

1.4 History of Runge-Kutta Methods

2

Runge-Kutta Methods
In numerical analysis, the RK methods comprise an important family of implicit and explicit
methods to approximate the solutions of ODEs. These techniques were developed circa 1900 bythe
German mathematicians C. Runge and M.W. Kutta. Butcher & Wanner (1996) introduced the history of
RK methods in their paper. Further contributions were made by Huen in 1900, who completely
characterized the set of fourth-order RK methods and proposed the rst fth-order method for the initial
value problem. Coefcients of the general RK methods are indicatedin the Butcher tableau in Table 1.
The initial value problem of rst-order ODE is dened as follow:
y f(x,y), a x b

(2)

with initial condition:

y(a)
where:
f:

y(x) [y1(x),y2(x),,yn(x)],
f(x,y) [f1(x,y),f2(x,y),,fn(x,y)],
and
[1,2,,n].
Thegeneral sstageRKmethodfortheIVP(2)isdenedby
s

bi k i

yn+1yn + h

i 1

where:
k1 f(xn,yn)
s

a ijk i

ki f(xn + cih,yn+h

i 1

for i 2, 3, ..., s and by assuming the row-sum condition holds,

s

a ij

ci

i 1

It is convenient to display the coefcients of the general RK method as in Butcher tableau as in

Table 1 or the simplied as in Table 2. Clearly, an s-stage RK method is completely specied by its
Butchers tableau. We dene the s-dimensional vectors c and b and the s s matrix A by:
c [c1, c2, ..., cs]T,
b [b1, b2, ..., bs]T,
3

A [aij].
If aij 0 for ji and i 1, 2, ..., s; then each of ki is given explicitly in term of previously computed
kj, for j 1, 2, ...,i 1 and the method is then an explicit RK method. If this is not the case then the method
is implicit, and in general, it is necessary to solve at each step of the computation an implicit system for
ki, summarizing, we have:
(a) Explicit method
aij 0, for ji, i 1, 2, ..., s A is lower strictly lower triangular matrix.
(b) Semi-Explicit method
aij 0, for j>i, i 1, 2, ..., s A is triangular matrix.
(c) Implicit method
aij 0, for some ii, j 1, 2, ..., s A is not lower triangular matrix.
(d) Diagonally-Implicit method
aii, fori 1, 2, . . ., s.
Table1:TheButcherTableaufortheRKMethod.

c1

a11

a12 L

a1s

c2

a 21 a 22 L

a 2s

M
cs

O
a s1

a s2 L

a ss

b1

b2

bs

Table2:TheButcherTableaufortheRKMethod.

A
bT

1.4.1 The Diagonally Implicit Runge-Kutta Methods

Implicit numerical methodshavealwaysbeenpopularwhensolvingstiffODEs.However,mostofthese

methods areexpensivetouse,hencethesearchforcostefcientimplementablemethods.Diagonally implicit

RungeKutta (DIRK) methods are a form of semiimplicit RungeKutta methods that have almost the same
advantagesastheimplicitRungeKutta,especiallyasregardstostability criterion.Thesemethodsaresometimes
referred to as singly diagonally implicit RungeKutta because DIRK methods do not necessarily have equal
diagonals.

1.4.2 Runge-Kutta-Nystrm Method

4

AspecialmethodforsecondorderdifferentialequationswasproposedE.J.Nystrmin1925,whoalso
contributedtothedevelopmentofmethodsforrstorderODEs.Sixthordermethodswereintroducedonlyafter
the1957workofHuta(Bettis(1973)).Generally,specialsecondorderODEsoftheform
y(x)=f(x,y(x)),xx0

(3)

withinitialconditions:
y(x0)andy(x0)
where:

f:

y(x) [y1(x),y2(x),,yn(x)],
f(x,y) [f1(x,y),f2(x,y),,fn(x,y)],
[1,2,,n]
[1,2,,s]
ThegeneralsstageRKmethodfortheIVP(3)isdenedby:
s

yn+1yn + h

bi k i

yn
+ h2

i 1

bi k i

yn 1 yn
i 1

+h
with:
k1 f(xn,yn),

ki f(xn + cih,yn+cih

a ijk i

yn
+h2

i 1

), i 2,3,,s.

bj

The RKN parameters aij, bj,

are assumed to be real and s is the number of stages of the method. Theirs

dimensional vectors c, b and b and ss matrix A are dene as following:

c = [c1, c2, ...,cs]T,
b [b1, b2, ...,bs]T,
b [b1, b2, ...,bs]T,
A [aij].
We shall always assume the row-sum condition holds:

a ij
j1

ci

, for i 1,2,,s.

The sstage RKNmethodabove canbe expressed in Butcher tableauasdepicted inthe Table 3or the
simpliedasinTable4.

Table3:TheButcherTableaufortheRKNMethod.

c1

a11

a12 L

a1s

c2

a 21 a 22 L

a 2s

M
cs

O
a s1

a s2 L

a ss

b1
b1

b2
b2

bs
bs

Table4:TheButcherTableaufortheRKNMethod.

A
bT
bT

1.5 The Initial Value of Third-Order Problem

AdirectmethodforspecialthirdorderOrdinarydifferentialequationsofthefollowingformwasproposed
byMecheein2013

y(x) f(x,y(x)), x x0

(4)

with initial conditions:

y(x0) a0, y(x0) 1 and y(x0) 2
where:
f:

with:
y(x) [y1(x),y2(x),,yn(x)],
f(x,y) [f1(x,y),f2(x,y),,fn(x,y)],
6

10 02
0N
0 [ , ,,
]
11 12
1N
1 [ , ,,
]
12 22
2N
2 [ , ,,
]
whentheODE(4)inndimensionspace,thenwecansimpliedto:

z(x) g(z(x))

(5)

using the following assumption:

z(x)

y1 (x)

y 2 (x)
y3 (x)

y N (x)

, g(z)

f1 (z1, z 2 ,..., z N , z N1)

f 2 (z1 , z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )
f3 (z1 , z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )

f N (z1, z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )

(6)

with the initial conditions:

z(x0)

, z(x0)

, z(x0)

where:
0

10 02
0N
[ , ,,
,x0]

11 12
1N
[ , ,,
,1]

12 22
2N
[ , ,,
,0]

1.6 Special Sixth-Order Ordinary Differential Equations

There are special sixth-order ODEs with no explicit dependence on the rst, second, third and
fourth derivatives y(x), y(x), y(x), y(x), y(x), and y(x). Such ODEs are frequently found in many
physical and engineering problems. In this proposal, the problem of interest is the initial value problem of
sixth-order ODEs of the following form:
y(6)(x) f(x,y(x)), x x0

(7)

with initial conditions:

y(x0) 0, y(x0) 1, y(x0) 2, y(x0) 3, y(x0) 4 and y(x0) 5
where:
7

(8)

f:

with:
y(x) [y1(x),y2(x),,yN(x)],
f(x,y) [f1(x,y),f2(x,y),,fN(x,y)],
10 02
0N
0 [ , ,,
]
11 12
1N
1 [ , ,,
]
12 22
2N
2 [ , ,,
]
13 32
3N
3 [ , ,,
]
14 42
4N
4 [ , ,,
]
15 52
5N
5 [ , ,,
]
If we work in high dimension, then (7) can now simplied to:
z(6)(x) g(z(x))

(9)

using the following assumption:

z(x)

y1 (x)

y 2 (x)
y3 (x)

y N (x)

, g(z)

f1 (z1, z 2 ,..., z N , z N1)

f 2 (z1 , z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )
f3 (z1 , z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )

f N (z1, z 2 ,..., z N , z N 1 )

(6)

with initial conditions:

z(x0)

, z(x0)

, z(x0)

, z(x0)

where:
0

10 02
0N
[ , ,,
,x0]

11 12
1N
[ , ,,
,1]

12 22
2N
[ , ,,
,0]
8

, z(4)(x0)

, and z(5)(x0)

(10)

13 32
3N
[ , ,,
,0]

14 42
4N
[ , ,,
,0]

15 52
5N
[ , ,,
,0]

The solution to equation (7) or (9) can be obtained by reducing it to an equivalent rst-order
system sixth-times the dimension and be solved using a standard Runge-Kutta method or amultistep
method.
Most researchers, scientists and engineers used to solve higher order ODEs by converting the n-th
order ODE to a system of rst-order ODEs n-times the dimensions (see Faires & Burden(2003)). Some
researchers can solve this equation by using multistep methods. However, it would be more efcient if
higher order ODEs can be directly solved using special numerical methods. For second-order ODEs,
Sommeijer (1993) and Van der Houwen &Sommeijer (1989)have derived direct numerical methods with
constant step-size while Cong (2001) has derived direct numerical methods with variable step-size for
solving second-order ODEs while for third-order, Mechee et al. (2013) and You & Chen (2013) have
derived direct integrators of Runge-Kutta type for solving special third-order ODEs with constant stepsize, moreover Mechee et al.(2014a) and Mechee et al. (2014c) and Mechee et al. (2014b) have derived
different orders direct integrators of Runge-Kutta type for solving special third-order ODEs with constant
step-size while in Senu et al. (2014), variable step-size direct integrators are derived for Runge-Kutta type
of orders 6(5), 5(4) and 4(3). Accordingly, Mechee et al. (2014a) used RKD methods of different orders
companying with method of lines to solve third-order PDEs (see Mechee et al.(2014a)). Langsung et al.
(2006) derived direct integration implicit variable steps method for solving higher order systems of
ODEs directly.
Throughout this proposal, we assumed that the unique solution to this problem always exists. This
means that the hypothesis of the Lipschitz theorem is satised by each component of the system.

2. Problem Statement
When this study commenced, no study had been conducted on the RK direct integrators for special
sixth-order ODEs and DDEs. The following problems are addressed in the proposal to address the gap in
the literature on numerical solutions of special sixth-order ODEs: derivation of order conditions for the
numerical methods; derivation of different direct numerical method integrators of RK type for special
sixth-order ODEs; adaption of the direct numerical methods for solving special sixth-order DDEs; and
derivation of different variable step-size direct numerical methods integrators of RK type for special
sixth-order ODEs.

3. Literature review
Most of the problems which are encountering in science and engineering involve in solving
differentia equation. Differential equations are mathematically studied from several different perspectives,
mostly concerned with their solutions the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest
9

differential equations admit solutions given by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of
a given differential equation may be determined without nding their exact form. If a self-contained
formula for the solution is not available, the solution maybe numerically approximated using computers.
In general, it is not possible to obtain the analytical solution of a system of differential equations, obtained
from obstacle, unilateral, moving and free boundary value problems and problems of the defection of
plates and in a number of other scientic applications, while many numerical methods have been
developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy. The problem of solving differential
equations is classied into ordinary and partial differential equations.
The most important mathematical models for physical phenomena and engineering applications are
the DEs. Motion of objects, uid and heat ow, bending and cracking of materials, vibrations, chemical
reactions, and nuclear reactions are all modeled by systems of DEs. Unfortunately, analytical tools are
frequently inadequate for the solution of such systems. Cases with exact solutions found by analytical
techniques are very limited, and the only general class of systems for which exact solutions can always be
found consists of linear systems with constant coefcients. However, nding the solution to more than a
nite number of decimal places is not necessary in applications. Thus, certain numerical methods have
been developed for the solution of ODEs since the age of Newton, Taylor, and Euler. One important
factor to be considered in developing a numerical integrator for the solution of ODEs is the prudent
management of computer time, which depends essentially on the number of functions to bee valuated per
iteration.
The literature on numerical solutions of ODEs is reviewed. It is divided into three parts: review of
literature on numerical methods of rst- and second-order ODEs; review of literature on third-order
ODEs; and review of literature on sixth-order ODEs
3.1 First- and Second-Order ODEs
Considerable research has been conducted on the numerical integrator of the RK type for rst-order
ODEs. The rst systematic work on numerical methods for rst-order ODEs was that of F. Bashforth
and J.C. Adams in 1883 where the idea of multistep methods was introduced. A number of researchers
have studied one-step numerical methods. The rst one-step method was introduced by Runge in 1895.
Heun also constructed one-step methods in 1900, and Kutta formulated the general scheme of RK
methods in 1901. The theoretical basis of these methods can be traced back to the paper of Merson in
1957 and the work of Butcher (1963) in a longs eries of papers starting in 1963. Additional related papers
in developing the RK method were published by researchers such as Fehlberg, Verner, Dormand and
Prince, Hairer, Nrsett and Wanner, and Lambert. RK methods became very popular among scientists
because these are robust and easily implemented.
The numerical integrator of the RK type for special second-order ODE (3), is known in the
literature as the Runge-Kutta-Nystrm (RKN) formula designed by E. J. Nystrm in 1925.Studies done
on the RKN method, such as those of Henrici (1962), Dormand et al. (1987)and Lambert (1973),
discussed the theory of direct nite difference method for solving this equation. Hairer and Wanner
proposed the Nystrm-type method wherein order conditions for the determination of the parameters of
the method were discussed. Henrici, Gear, Chawlaand Sharma, and Hairer developed independently
explicit and implicit RKN methods for the numerical solution of equation, Van der Houwen &
Sommeijer (1989) and Senu et al. (2010)derived a singly diagonally implicit RKN method for solving
oscillatory problems.
10

3.2 Third-Order ODEs

Generally, a special third-order ODE of the form (4) or (5) is frequently found in many physical
problems, such as electromagnetic waves, gravity-driven ows, and thin lm ow(Tuck & Schwartz
(1990)). This ODE is not explicitly dependent on the rst and second derivatives y (x), y (x) of the
solution. Researchers, scientists, and engineers used to solve the third-order ODE (4) or (5) by reducing it
to an equivalent rst-order system three times the dimension, then solved using a standard RK method or
multistep methods. This method developed by Awoyemi & Idowu (2005), and Jator (2008) also proposed
a class of hybrid collocation methods for the direct solution of higher-order ODEs. Samat et al. (2011)
developed an embedded hybrid method for solving special second-order ODEs; Waeleh et al. (2011)
developed a block multistep method which can solve general third-order equations directly; and Yatim et
al. (2010) developed a multistep method which can solve stiff third-order differential equations directly.
All methods discussed previously are multistep methods that need the starting values when used to solve
ODEs (4) or (5). Considering that there is no study yet on the numerical integrator of the RK type for
third-order ODEs, RKM methods are derived based on the derivation of RK and RKN methods, for use
in solving ODEs (4) or (5) directly.
3.3 Sixth-Order ODEs
During the last two decades, a large number of publications have been devoted to numerical
solutions of high-order boundary-value problems. Finite-difference, splines, decomposition,collocation
and variational methods have been used by various authors to solve numerically fourth-, fth-, sixth-,
eighth-, tenth- and twelfth-order ordinary differential equations. For some problems, comparisons were
made between different methods, but this is not the case for the majority of publications. In general,
nite-difference methods are known to be easy to use and adaptable with respect to increasing the
accuracy either by increasing the number of knots orby extrapolation. Their drawbacks come from the
fact that approximations are given at the knot points only and the discretization step is generally constant.
The spline methods have the ad-vantage of yielding continuous approximations over each subinterval. In
the case high-order problems, however, most of the papers cited in this review used matrices with huge
numbers, making the methods difcult to use. The relatively recent decomposition method seems more
elegant but, on the basis of the papers reviewed, there is no evidence showing their supremacy.
Collocation methods are also known to be attractive because of their simplicity and convenience, but they
may lack accuracy. Finally, some authors have shown that variational methods are very efcient in
dealing with high-order problems. In this tentative review, we did not in-tend to compare the different
methods or to classify them according to any criterion. Our main purpose was to point out the recent
advances in this research area, which has seen important contributions from various authors using various
numerical methods. We are convinced that the present review will be useful at least for young researchers
and especially those of developing countries. Shahid S. et al in 1995 used Spline to solve linear sixthorder boundary value problems ,Abdul-Majid W. in (2001) solved sixth-order boundary value problems
by the modied decomposition method, In (2002), Fang et al. had applied Finite Difference (FD), Finite
El-ement (FE) and Finite Volume (FV) methods in solving linear two-point boundary problems,
Mohamed EL-GAMEL et al. in( 2003 )used sinc- galerkin method for solving linear sixth-order
boundary-value problems, Ghazala Akram et al. in (2006) non-polynomial spline technique to solve sixth11

order boundary value problems, Vedat S. in ( 2007 ) used differential transformation method to solve
linear sixth-order boundary value problems, Syed Tauseef M. . et al. in(2009) used variation of
parameters method for solving sixth-order boundary value problems ,K.N.S. KasiViswanadham et al. in
(2010) used septic-spline collocation method for sixth order boundary value problems, K.N.S.
KasiViswanadham et al. in (2012) used Quintic B-spline Col-location Method For Sixth Order Boundary
Value problems, Bhrawy A. H. et al. in (2012) used An Extension of the Legendre-Galerkin Method for
Solving Sixth-Order Differential Equations with variable polynomial coefficients , Doha, E. H. et al. in
(2012) solved Multidimensional sixth-order boundary Value Problems Using Symmetric Generalized
Jacobi-Galerkin Method,, Mingzhu Li et al.in ( 2013) solved linear sixth order Boundary Value Problems
with Quartic B-Splines, J. Dabounou et al. in (2013) used hyperbolic uniform spline method to solve
sixth-order boundary value Problems, Muhammad A. et al. in (2013) improved Meshfree Approach to the
solution of sixth-order Differential Equations M. Khalid et al. in (2014) used neural net-work to solve
sixth-order differential equations arising in astrophysics.

4. Objectives
The research is performed to meet the following objectives:
1. To derive order conditions of direct integrators of RK type, known as RKM methods, for special
sixth-order ODEs;
2. To derive RKM methods of different orders for solving special sixth-order ODEs;
3. To derive embedded RKM methods of different orders so that variable step-size codes can be
developed for efciently solving the special sixth-order ODEs; and
4. To apply the sixth-order RKM method in solving sixth-order PDEs by converting the equation to a
system of sixth-order ODEs.

5. Methodology
The order conditions of RKM methods for solving sixth-order ODEs will be derived using Maple
software. Then, the MATLAB software will be used for computation and comparison of the new methods
with the existing methods. All results for different types of examples, ODEs, DDEs and PDEs, are
depicted in gures and tables form.

This Flowchart show the methodology for current research fresh

12

Collections Data

Runge-Kutta Method

Derive the order

conditions
of RKM
methods for solving
sixth - order ODEs

Delay differential
equetion

Partial differential
equation

Compression the
Resulte with the
existing methods by
using MATLAB
MATLAB

No

Milestones

Study latest published studies for solving ordinary and partial

differential equations to know the results .

Study latest published papers carefully to understanding which

methods used for solving two point boundary value problems
by using B-spline

Study latest published papers which method used for solving

higer order differential equations

Study published papers carefully to understanding the kind

13

Date
October
2014
December
2014
March
2015
April

and Definition of Runge-Kutta method.

5

Runge-Kutta method will be use to solve some kind of

differential.

14

2015
October
2015

GANTT CHART
N
o

Activities

Survey to
ODEs, PDEs,
IVP&BVP

Study
literature
review

Derivation of
RKM using
Maple

Implementatio
n

Verification of
application of
programming

Verification of
study

Thesis writing

2014

2015

2016

2017

O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M

15

References
Awoyemi, D., &Idowu, O. 2005, A class of hybrid collocation methods for third-order ordinary
differential equations, International Journal of Computer Mathematics, 82, 1287Bettis, D. 1973, A
Runge-KuttaNystrm algorithm, Celestial mechanics, 8, 229.
Butcher, J., & Wanner, G. 1996, Runge-Kutta methods: some historical notes, Applied Numerical
Mathematics, 22, 113.
Butcher, J. C. 1963, Coefcients for the study of Runge-Kutta integration processes, J. Austral.Math.Soc,
3, 185.
Cong, N. H. 2001, Explicit pseudo two-step RKN methods with step size control, Applied Numerical
Mathematics, 38, 135.
Dormand, J., El-Mikkawy, M., & Prince, P. 1987, Families of Runge-Kutta-Nystrom formulae,IMA
Journal of Numerical Analysis, 7, 235.
Faires, J. D., & Burden, R. 2003, Numerical Methods, Thomson Learning, Inc., Pacic GroveGear, C.,
&Skeel, R. 1987, in Proceedings of the ACM conference on History of scientic andnumeric
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