Irrigation System of Pakistan

Project and Report 1
Irrigation System of Pakistan

Submitted To
Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash
Subject Title
Subject Code
AENG-601
Report Title
By
Zia-ul-Hassan
2011-ag-2717
Pervez Akhtar
2011-ag-2778
Hafiz Ali Raza
2011-ag-2788
M. Waqas Sarwar
2011-ag-2793
Hamza Khalil
2011-ag-2902
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology

University of Agriculture Faisalabad
Page 1 of 127
Page 2 of 127
Declaration
We hereby declare that contents of this report Irrigation System of Pakistan are the product of
our own study and no part as been copied from any published source (Except the references,
tables, figures etc.). We further declare that this work has not been submitted for award of any
other diploma /degree.
Page 3 of 127
Dedicated
To
Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash

Dean Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology
University of Agriculture Faisalabad.
Our Guide
Who inspired us for this Remarkable work.
Page 4 of 127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to ALLAH, lord of all the worlds, the most Affectionate, the most Merciful, who
taught writing by pen, taught me what I knew not. After the Almighty Allah, all praise and
thanks to the Holly Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Who is forever a model of guidance and
knowledge for humanity.
If there were dreams to sell, marry and sad to tell and crier rings the bell, what would you
buy? , we will say that University Charming Days. Actually it is impossible, but it shows my
blind love to this institution which is homeland of knowledge, wisdom and intellectuality. We
are proud of being the students of this university.
The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the sympathetic attitude,
fatherly behavior, animate direction, observant pursuit, scholarly criticism, cheering perspective
and enlightened supervision of Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash, Dean Faculty of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology UAF. His thorough analysis and rigorous critique improved not
only improve the quality of this dissertation, but also our overall understanding in irrigation
system of Pakistan. We are grateful to his ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly
comments and constructive suggestions throughout the course of our studies.
May Allah almighty infuse us with the energy to fulfill his noble inspiration and expectation and
to further modify our competence. May Allah bless him with long happy and peaceful life
(Aameen).
Page 5 of 127
Contents
History of Irrigation....................................................................................... 12
1.1 What is Irrigation?................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation: ..................................................................................................... 12
1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation: .......................................................................................... 12
1.2 History of Irrigation in World:................................................................................................... 13
1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent: ...................................................................................... 14
1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan:............................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Irrigation System: .................................................................................................................... 15
1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System: ...................................................................................... 16
Indus Basin Irrigation System ....................................................................... 18

2.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Salient Features of IBIS: ........................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers: ............................................................................................... 20
2.3.1 Sutlej River: ...................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Ravi River: ........................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.3 Chenab River: ................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.4 Jehlum River: .................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Indus River:....................................................................................................................... 24
2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water: ................................................................................................ 27
2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces: .......................................... 27
2.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 31
Departmental Structure of Irrigation System ................................................ 33

3.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Federal Level:.......................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.1 WAPDA: ........................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 IRSA: ................................................................................................................................ 33
3.3 Provisional Level:..................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department: ...................................................................... 37
Page 6 of 127
3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA): ................................................................ 37

3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB): ................................................................................................ 38
3.3.4 Farmer Organization: ........................................................................................................ 39
3.4 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 39
Dams and Barrages of Pakistan ..................................................................... 40

4.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Dams of Pakistan:.................................................................................................................... 40
4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir:...................................................................................................... 40
4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan:......................................................................................................... 40
4.2.3 Dams of FATA: .................................................................................................................. 43
4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: .......................................................................................... 43
4.2.5 Dams of Punjab:................................................................................................................ 44
4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab:..................................................................................... 45
4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas: ..................................................................... 46
4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan: .......................................................................................................... 47
4.3.1 Tarbela Dam: .................................................................................................................... 47
4.3.2 Mangla Dam: .................................................................................................................... 52
4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir:........................................................................................................... 57
4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities: .............................................................................................. 57
4.4 Barrages of Pakistan: ............................................................................................................... 58
4.4.1 Chashma Barrage: ............................................................................................................. 59
4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage: ................................................................................................................ 60
4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage: ................................................................................................................. 61
4.4.4 Guddu Barrage:................................................................................................................. 62
4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage:................................................................................................................. 63
4.4.6 Kotri Barrage: ................................................................................................................... 64
4.4.7 Rasul Barrage:................................................................................................................... 65
4.4.8 Marala Barrage: ................................................................................................................ 66
4.4.9 Khanki Barrage:................................................................................................................. 67
4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage: ......................................................................................................... 68
4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage: ............................................................................................................. 69
Page 7 of 127
4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage:............................................................................................................. 70

4.4.13 Balloki Barrage:............................................................................................................... 71
4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage:.............................................................................................................. 72
4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage: ......................................................................................................... 73
4.4.16 Islam Barrage: ................................................................................................................. 74
4.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 75
Canal System of Pakistan............................................................................... 76

5.1 What is Canal? ........................................................................................................................ 76
5.2 Canal System of Pakistan: ........................................................................................................ 76
5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan:................................................................................................ 76
5.3 Link Canals:............................................................................................................................. 77
5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal:.............................................................................................. 77
5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal: ................................................................................................. 77
5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal: ..................................................................................................... 77
5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal: .......................................................................................... 79
5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal:............................................................................................... 79
5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal:............................................................................................. 79
5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal:............................................................................................. 79
5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal:................................................................................................ 79
5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal: .................................................................................................. 79
5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal:............................................................................................... 79
5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal:............................................................................................................ 79
5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal:............................................................................ 79
5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River: ......................................................................................................... 80
5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej:........................................................................................................ 81
5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River: .................................................................................................... 82
5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum:..................................................................................................... 85
5.4.5 Canals on Indus River: ....................................................................................................... 86
5.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 91
Telemetry System........................................................................................... 93
6.1 Telemetry System:................................................................................................................... 93
Page 8 of 127
6.2 Applications of Telemetry System:............................................................................................ 93

6.2.1 Agriculture:....................................................................................................................... 94
6.2.2 Water Management:......................................................................................................... 94
6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan: ............................................................................................... 94
6.3.1 Benefits:........................................................................................................................... 94
6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan:................................................................................................. 95
6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan: ............................................................................................. 95
6.4 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 96
Problems of Irrigation System ....................................................................... 97

7.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 97
7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System: .................................................................................... 97
7.2.1 Rigid System Design: ......................................................................................................... 97
7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage:........................................................................................................ 97
7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution: .......................................................... 98
7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity:................................................................................................ 98
7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas: .................................................... 99
7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning:................................................................................ 99
7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M): ................................................................ 99
7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning:................................................................................................. 99
7.4 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 100
Rainwater Harvesting and Management ..................................................... 101

8.1 History:................................................................................................................................. 101
8.2 Rainwater Harvesting: ........................................................................................................... 101
8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques ........................................................................................... 101
8.3.1 Land-Based:.................................................................................................................... 103
8.3.2 Roof-Based: .................................................................................................................... 103
8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting:............................................................................. 104
8.4.1 Rainfall: .......................................................................................................................... 104
8.4.2 Land Cover: .................................................................................................................... 104
8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile:....................................................................................... 104
8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth:............................................................................................. 104
Page 9 of 127
8.4.5 Hydrology of Area: .......................................................................................................... 105

8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions: .............................................................. 105
8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects: .............................................................................. 105
8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages: ......................................................................................... 105
8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages: ..................................................................................... 106
8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan: ............................................................... 106
8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab: ................................................................. 107
8.8.1 Focused Area: ................................................................................................................. 107
8.9 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 113
Ground Water and Its Quality..................................................................... 115

9.1 Importance of Groundwater .................................................................................................. 115
9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan: ...................................................................................... 115
9.3 Historical Background:........................................................................................................... 116
9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces:................................................................... 116
9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management:.............................................................................. 118
9.5 Ground Water Exploitation: ................................................................................................... 118
9.6 Groundwater Depletion:........................................................................................................ 120
9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution:.................................. 122
9.7.1 Soil Salinization:.............................................................................................................. 123
9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts: .................................................................... 123
9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects: ............................................................................................................. 124
9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects: .................................................. 125
9.9 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 126
Page 10 of 127
ABSTRACT
Pakistan is an agricultural country and its irrigation system relies heavily on availability of fresh
surface water. Pakistan has the world largest continuous irrigation system with three major
storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, 12 link canals, 46 main canals and thousands of hydraulic
structures. This was initiated in the last century and continuous to expand with more area coming
under canal irrigation.
This report takes stock of the present situation of water-resources, present needs and future
requirements; the challenges imposed, and suggest short, medium, and long-term strategies to
cope with the situation. The suggested short-term strategies include starting a mass-awareness
campaign, propagation of high-efficiency irrigation systems, changes in cropping-patterns,
identification of feasible surface-water storage sites and dams, and activation of water-user
organizations. The medium-term strategies suggest giving priority to lining of distributaries,
minors and watercourses in saline groundwater areas, construction of small dams and installation
of tube wells in technically feasible areas, improving flood and drought- forecasting methods,
and a much wider application of conjunctive water-use approach and propagation of highefficiency irrigation systems. Institutional reforms for better co-ordination and a wider
formulation of a national water-policy are other priority areas under the medium-term strategic
plan. Long term strategies include formulation of a regulatory framework on groundwater
abstraction, construction of large storage dams, better flood and drought-forecasting mechanisms
and resolving water-distribution problems between provinces. It is recommended that a National
Commission on Water, supported by an experts panel, be created to steer the formulation of the
strategies and ensure the implementation of the strategies proposed.
Page 11 of 127
Chapter No. 01
History of Irrigation
1.1 What is Irrigation?
Artificial application of water to the soil through manually or mechanically managed
system for the purpose to;
Supply moisture essential for plant growth.

Encourage plant root development.
Cool the soil and atmosphere.
Create favorable condition for plant growth.
Transport nutrients from soil to plant.
It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscape

and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting
plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In
contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land
farming.
1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation:

Following are some objectives of irrigation;
To
To
To
To
To
To
Supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need.

Cool both the Soil and the Plant.
Leach Excess Salts.
improve Groundwater storage.
Facilitate continuous cropping.
Enhance Fertilizer Application- Fertigation.
1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation:

Following are the water resources for irrigation;
1. Surface Water.
2. Rainfall/Precipitation.
3. Groundwater.
Surface water is diverted to the fields by the use of rivers, canals, channels etc.
Rainfall/Precipitation may directly fall into the fields; groundwater is abstracted from soil and
diverted to the fields.
Page 12 of 127
1.2 History of Irrigation in World:

History of irrigation in the world is very old. Archaeological investigation has identified
evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops. Perennial
irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered
throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in
the field.
Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate
land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile
sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. There is evidence of the
ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the
natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry
seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile, (Wikipedia).
The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheel-like device
called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia sometime between the third and second millennium
BCE. It largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other
rivers in what is now the Sudan, (Wikipedia).
In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and
civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and
water harvesting, (Wikipedia).
Terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and
China. In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists found remains of three
irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and
the 9th century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of
a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium
canal. Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley
Civilization in present-day Pakistan and North India, including the reservoirs at Girnar in 3000
BCE and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Large scale agriculture was
practiced and an extensive network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation, (Wikipedia).
Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley
was grown in areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a
crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known
irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North
Africa. The system comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into
the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. The noria, a water wheel with clay pots
around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by animals where the water source was
Page 13 of 127
still), was first brought into use at about this time, by Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150
BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water.
The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in
the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years,
were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground
canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to
their engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called masters of irrigation. Most of
these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa,
because of the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and
further extended during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu (11531186 CE), (Wikipedia).
Following are some historical facts about irrigation;
Joseph Canal (1900 B.C).

Greatest system inherited by Ramses II.
Worlds oldest Dam (3100 B.C).
Alhazen (Aswin Dam).
Community of Saba (Marib Dam).
Kanates/Karez in Baluchistan.
Irrigation in China (Tu-kiang Dam).
Western Jamuna Canal systems.
1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent:

In the recorded history of Sub-Continent, practices of irrigation can be found back to the
8 century when Muslim rulers differentiated between irrigated and un-irrigated land for the
purpose of levying tax. There is evidence that irrigation has been practiced in the Sub-Continent
along the Indus system of rivers from 3000 B.C. In the beginning, only the narrow strips of land
along the river banks were irrigated, but with time, irrigation was extended to other nearby areas
by breaching the banks or the natural levies of the rivers to bring water to the low lying fields.
This was done only during high water periods.
The first canal was constructed some five or six centuries ago and extended under the
Mughal Emperors. The early canals were inundation channels and delivered water to the fields
when rivers were in high flow during the summer. They tended to be unpredictable in operation
and subjected both to frequent breaches and serious siltation problems. The next stage in the
evaluation of the Irrigation System was construction of perennial canals having permanent
headworks. These headworks either did not extend across the entire stream or allowed the floods
to pass over their crests. The first evidence of perennial irrigation on any of the Indus rivers dates
back to early seventeenth century when a 80 Km long canal was constructed by the Mughal
Emperor Jahangir (reigned 1605-27) to bring water from the right bank of the Ravi to the
pleasure gardens of Sheikhpura.
The present elaborate system of the Western Jamuna canal is believed to have been
based on a system initiated by Feroze Shah Tughlaq. Hasli canal leading off the Ravi which
th
Page 14 of 127
forms the nucleus of Upper Bari Doab canal was constructed by Ali Mardan Khan, an engineer
and governor of Punjab.
Upper Bari Doab canal at Madhopur headwork was constructed in 1858 and started
irrigation about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from
Ravi (Biswas, 1992pp.202).
In the middle of the 19th century when British took control there were only a few
inundation canals in Sub-Continent. By the end of 19th century a number of separate inundation
systems were developed for each river. At the end of 19th century efforts were also made to
construct a weir controlled irrigation system. The inundation systems were merged with various
perennial irrigation schemes when they were completed.
Continent
Table 1.1 Continent wise Irrigated Areas (Million Acres)*

1900
1940
1950
1960
1970
1985
2000
Europe
8.6
19.8
24.7
37.1
51.87
74.1
111.2
Asia
74.1
123.5
160.5
333.5
419.90
543.4
574.1
Africa
North America
6.2
9.9
9.9
22.2
12.35
32.1
17.3
42.0
22.23
61.75
29.6
79.0
44.56
86.5
South America
1.2
3.7
7.4
12.0
17.29
24.7
37.1
2.5
3.95
5.4
7.4
Australia Oceania
0
0.7
1.24
*Figures rounded to one place of decimal.
Source: Irrigation and Hydraulic Structure by Dr. Iqbal Ali.
1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan:

The irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world
serving approximately 18 million ha of cultivated land. There are 3 major storage reservoirs, 19
barrages, 12 inter-river link canals, 45 independent irrigation canal commands and over
140,000 watercourses. The water of the Indus River and its principal tributaries (the Kabul, the
Swat, and Kunar from the West, and the Jehlum, the Chenab, from the East) feed the system. The
concept of participation of a farming community in irrigated agriculture in Indo-Pak
subcontinent is not new as it has been practiced since time immemorial (Gill 1998). The civil
canals in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan are an example of Participatory
Irrigation Management (PIM) and these have been constructed, operated and maintained by the
stakeholders since long (1568-1800). Irrigation development in Pakistan started on a technical
foundation in the latter part of 19 century with major objectives to reduce the risk of famine and
maintain political and social stability (Stone 1984).
1.5 Irrigation System:

The irrigation system was designed with an objective to optimize the production per unit
of available water, ensuring equitable distribution between canals, branches and also among the
off takes (outlets). The duty (area irrigated by unit discharge during the base period) was fixed
Page 15 of 127
relatively high in order to irrigate more land with low cropping intensities. Another design
objective was to keep the administrative and operational requirements and cost as low as possible
and therefore the number of control structures in the canals was kept to a minimum. The
irrigation intensity was also kept low at an average of 75 percent. This design practice is known
as protective irrigation (Jurriens 1993, Jurriens et al. 1996).
1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System:

Following are the
components of an irrigation system,

Watershed
River
Dam
Barrage
Canals (Link, Main, Branch, Major and Minor)
Watercourse
Fig 1.1: Components of Irrigation System

Watershed receive rainfall and contributes to the formation of river, dams and barrages are
storage structures and rise the head of water, link canals deliver water from one river to another
river, main canal takes its supply from river and water of main canal is used for irrigation
through branch, major, minor and watercourse. In next pages we will discuss these components
of an irrigation system one by one.
Page 16 of 127
References:
Dr. Nazir Ahmad, Water Resources of Pakistan, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September
1993.
Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), Ten Year Perspective Development
Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04.
http://www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/
Dillehay TD, Eling HH Jr, Rossen J (2005). "Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian
Andes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (47): 17241
4.doi:10.1073/pnas.0508583102. PMC 1288011.PMID 16284247
Snyder, R. L.; Melo-Abreu, J. P. (2005). "Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and
economics" (PDF). Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. ISSN 1684-8241
Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Dll, J-M. Faurs, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (2006-1110). "Tropentag 2006 Conference on International Agricultural Research for
Development" (PDF). Bonn, Germany. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
Provenzano, Giuseppe (2007). "Using HYDRUS-2D Simulation Model to Evaluate
Wetted Soil Volume in Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems". J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 133 (4):
342350.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(342)
Page 17 of 127
Chapter No. 02
Indus Basin Irrigation System

2.1 Introduction:
Pakistans Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the strong heart of the countrys
economy. Its creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original
system (1847-1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and
institutions (particularly the Water and Power Development Authority [WAPDA] and the
provincial irrigation departments) who have spent the last 60 years adding new dams and
barrages, building new link and branch canals, and modernizing and maintaining the worlds
most complex and extensive irrigation system. From the 1950s onward, the IBIS has also been
the product of the generosity and intellectual input of a host of international experts and
international institutions, particularly the World Bank (Shahid, 2009).
The Indus River rises in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar. It flows
in Tibet for about 200 miles before it enters Ladakh, (part of Kashmir under Indian control) and
then flows on towards Gilgit in Pakistan. Flowing through the North in a southerly direction
along the entire length of Pakistan, it falls into the Arabian Sea near Pakistans port city of
Karachi. With a total length of 3,200 km (1,988 miles), the rivers estimated annual flow is
approximately 207 billion m3 . The Indus River feeds ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and
arid countryside. Its five major tributaries are the Jehlum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the
Sutlej (also having origin in Tibetan plateau). Another two tributaries of the Indus, the Kabul and
the Kurram, rise in Afghanistan. Most of the Indus basin lies in Pakistan and India, with about 13
per cent of the total catchment area of the basin situated in Tibet and Afghanistan. The Indus
drainage basin area is shared by Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China.
Table 2.1 Co-riparian States in Indus River Basin
Basin Name Total Area of
Country Name
Area of
2
Basin in Km
Country in
Basin in Km2
Indus
1,138,800
Per cent area of

country in basin (%)
Pakistan
India
China
597,700
381,600
76,200
52.48
33.51
6.69
Afghanistan
72,100
6.33
Chinese control
claimed by India
9,600
0.84
Indian control
claimed by China
1,600
0.14
Nepal
10
0.00
Source: ASIA: International River Basin registers.
Page 18 of 127
The Indus River system is the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world with a
command area of 20 million hectares and an annual irrigation capacity of over 12 million
hectares. Irrigation in the Indus River basin dates back centuries; by the late 1940s the irrigation
works along the river were the most extensive in the world. These irrigation projects had been
developed over the years under one political authority that of British India, and any water
conflict could be resolved by executive order. The Government of India Act of 1935, however,
put water under provincial jurisdiction, and some disputes did begin to crop up at the sites of the
more extensive works, notably between the provinces of Punjab and Sindh.
2.2 Salient Features of IBIS:

Pakistan, with a Geographical area of 796,095 square kilometers, possesses large rivers,
like Indus which, along with its 5 tributaries, namely Chenab, Jehlum, Ravi, Kabul and Sutlej,
forms one of the mightiest River-Systems of the world. The River-System comprises 2 storage
reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks, 45 Canal Systems measuring 58,000 kilometers, some 1.6
million kilometers of water-courses and field Irrigation Channels. Pakistan has big rivers like
Indus, Chenab, Ravi, Jehlum and Sutlej, where discharges in summer season vary from 100
thousand Cusecs to 1,200 thousand Cusecs (3 thousand to 34 thousand comics) and can cause
tremendous loss to human lives, crops and property. Due to limited capacity of storage at Tarbela
and Mangla Dams on river Indus and Jehlum, with virtually no control on Chenab, Ravi and
Sutlej, devastating problems are faced between July and October in the event of excessive
rainfall in the catchments.
The Irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world,
serving almost 18 million ha of contiguous cultivated land. The system is fed by the waters of the
Indus River and its tributaries. The salient features of the system are three major storage
reservoirs, namely, Tarbela and Chashma on River Indus, and Mangla on River Jehlum, with a
present live-storage of about 15.4 BM3 (12.5 MAF), 19 barrages; 12 inter-river link canals and
45 independent irrigation canal commands. The total length of main canals alone is 58,500 Km.
Water courses comprise another 1,621,000 Kms.
Indus Basin Irrigation System is the largest irrigation network of the world. Salient
Features of the system are given below;
Pakistans Indus River Basin System comprises five main rivers, namely the Indus,
Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.
IBIS is also aided by a number of smaller rivers (Kabul, Swat, Haro, Kunhar, Chitral,
Tochi, Shah Alam, Naguman, Adezai, Soan etc.) and streams/Nullahs, these five
rivers supply water to the entire Indus Basin Irrigation System.
These rivers have their origin in the higher altitudes and derive their flows mainly
from snow-melt and monsoon rains.
Catchment area of Indus is most unique in the sense that it contains seven (7) of the
worlds highest peaks after Mount Everest. Among these include the K2 (28,253 ft.),
Nanga Parbat (26,600 ft.), Rakaposhi (25,552 ft.) etc.
Further to above, seven (7) glaciers situated in the Indus catchment are among the
largest in the world, namely, Siachin, Hispar, Biafo, Baltura, Baltoro, Barpu and
Hopper
Page 19 of 127
Fig 2.1: Rivers of Pakistan.
2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers:

Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jehlum and Indus are the main rivers of Pakistan. Following are the
main features of these rivers;
2.3.1 Sutlej River:

Origin
Length
Catchment Area
Pakistan portion
Tributary Rivers
Largest Tributary
Dams on the River
Barrages on River
Western Tibet in the Kailas Mountain range and near the source of Rivers
Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra.
960 miles/1536 Km
47,100 Sq. miles/75,369 Sq.km (70% in India)
Flows into Pakistan (Punjab) near Ferozepur and eventually joins Chenab 3
miles u/s Punjnad Barrage
Eight major tributaries (all except Rohi Nallah join Sutlej in India)
River Beas (290 miles/464km), catchment area (6,200 Sq. miles/9,920
Sq.km)
Bhakra, Nangal, Pong, Pandoh (all in India),
Rupar Barrage, Harike Barrage, Ferozepur Barrage (India), Sulemanki &
Islam in Pakistan
Page 20 of 127
Fig 2.2: Schematic Diagram of Sutlej River Basin
2.3.2 Ravi River:

Origin
Originates from the lesser Himalayas Range in India
Length
550 miles/880 Km
Length of River Ravi 422 miles
in Pakistan
Catchment Area
15,600 Sq. miles/24,960Sq.km
Pakistan portion
Tributary Rivers
Largest Tributary
Barrages on River
Annual Average Flow
Runs almost along the Indo-Pak Border -15km d/s Madhopur to 20

miles u/s of Shahdara (58 miles)
Five major tributaries (Ujh, Bein, Basantar, Deg,
Hudiara nullahs upper catchments lie in India)
Deg Nullah (160 miles/256km), catchment area (456 Sq. miles/730
Sq.km)
Madhopur Headwork (India), Balloki & Sidhnai (Pakistan)
1.47 MAF (0.93 kharif and 0.54 rabi)
Page 21 of 127
Fig 2.3: Schematic Diagram of Ravi River Basin
2.3.3 Chenab River:

Origin
Length
Catchment Area
Pakistan portion
Tributary Rivers
Largest Tributary
Dams on the River
Barrages on River
Forms at the confluence of streams Bhaga & Chandra which join at a

place called Tandi in Occupied Jammu & Kashmir state.
-Upper most part is snow covered and forms the North East part of
Himachal Pradesh
-From Tandi to Akhnur the river traverses through high mountains
770 miles/1,232 Km
26,100 Sq. miles/41,760 Sq.km
The river enters Pakistan a little over Head Marala with very sharp
changes in slope (130 ft./mile above Tandi reduced to 2 ft./mile close to
Trimmu)
Twelve major tributaries (6 each in occupied Jammu & Kashmir and
Pakistan). Doara, Dowara, Halsi, Bhimber, Palku and Budhi join close to
Marala
Palku Nullah (75 miles/120km), catchment area (793 Sq. miles/1,269
Sq.km)
Salal, Baglihar (India),
Marala, Khanki, Qadirabad, Trimmu, Punjnad (Pakistan)
Page 22 of 127
Fig 2.4: Schematic Diagram of Chenab River Basin
2.3.4 Jehlum River:

Origin
Originates in the Kashmir Valley about 34 miles (54 km) east of Anant Nag.
Length
510 miles/816 Km
Catchment Area
24,500 Sq. miles/ 39,200Sq.km
Pakistan portion
-From Mangla to Jehlum city it moves southwards and then turns westwards
up to Khushab;
-Beyond this it moves south up to its confluence with River Chenab and
Trimmu;
-Slope up to Muzaffarabad is 35 ft./mile, 60 ft./mile up to Kohala, 10
ft./mile up to Mangla
Tributary Rivers
Ten major tributaries (including Neelum/Kishan Ganga, Kunhar, Poonch,

Kanshi)
Kishan Ganga/Neelumh (165 miles/264km), catchment area (2,480 Sq.
miles/3,968 Sq.km)
Largest Tributary
Barrages on River
Mangla Dam, Rasul Barrage
Page 23 of 127
Fig 2.5: Schematic Diagram of Jehlum River Basin
2.3.5 Indus River:

Origin
Length
-One of the largest rivers of the world and the main river of the Indus
valley;
-Originates near lake Mansarovar on north of Himalayas range in the
mountain of Kailash Parbat in Tibet at an elevation of 18,000 ft.;
925 miles/1,489 Km above Tarbela
Catchment Area
1,80,000 Sq. miles/2,88,000 Sq.km
Tributary Rivers
Twenty seven (27) major tributaries above Guddu Barrage
Largest Tributary
Shyoke river (400

miles/20,160 Sq.km)
Dams on the River

Barrages on River
Tarbela
Kalabagh, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkar, Kotri, Jinnah
miles/640km),
catchment
area
(12,600
Sq.
Page 24 of 127
Fig 2.6: Schematic Diagram of Indus River Basin
Fig 2.7: Structures on Indus River System
Page 25 of 127
Fig 2.8: Schematic Diagram of Indus Basin Irrigation System

Page 26 of 127
2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water:

There was no question over water sharing in Sub-Continent till early 20th century.
However, the situation changed after World War-I. There were several new projects like Thal,
Haveli, Bhakra Dam and Sutlej Valley canals in Punjab and Sukkar Barrage in Sindh were
proposed. It was first time in the history that some regions particularly Sindh as lower riparian,
felt that their river rights were threatened (Malik, 2011).The dispute of Indus Waters sharing
began long before the partition of India and Pakistan in the form of interstate differences
between the Punjab, Sindh, Bahawalpur, and Bikaner(Michal,1967).
Government of India acted as neutral third party and facilitated through negotiations.
Independent commissions were appointed to arbitrate in case of negotiation failure. The
situation was serious when Upper Bari Doab Canal was completed in 1858 and started irrigation
about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from Ravi
(Biswas, 1992pp.202).
2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces:
The dispute over water distribution of Indus River System (IRS) between provinces was
started in 1921 when British rulers started developing irrigation system with construction of new
barrages, canals and dams. Government of India appointed various committees to resolve the
water issue between provinces. Following committees & commissions were set up for
distribution of the Waters of the IRS between provinces:
Tripartite Agreement (1921)

Indus Discharge Committee (1921)
SVP Inquiry Committee (1932)
Anderson Committee (1937)
Rao Commission (1945)
Indus Water Treaty (1960)
Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968)
Fazle-e-Akbar Committee (1970)
Chief Justices Commission (1977)
Haleem Commission (1983)
a) The Tripartite Agreement (1921):

The first contract between Punjab province, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States was signed
in 1921. It was for distribution of waters of the Sutlej and Beas rivers. Bahawalpur State
protested against the provision of water supplies to the non-riparian Bikaner State on the ground
that the water was insufficient to meet the needs of the two riparian Punjab and Bahawalpur
State. The Government of India convinced the Punjab, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States to sign
the tripartite agreement. The agreement was based on three widely recognized water-right
principles as below:
A. Priority of existing use
B. Recognition of claims of riparian owners, and
C. Equitable apportionment regardless of history of use or of geographical location.
Page 27 of 127
b) The Indus Discharge Committee (1921):

Government of Bombay (Sindh was also part of Bombay presidency till 1935) objected
to Punjabs proposals for new projects. States of Bahawalpur and Bikaner were also demanding
for more water provisions. Different claims from Punjab and Sindh were referred to the
Secretary of State London. He sanctioned construction of Sutlej Valley Project (SVP) and
Sukkar Barrage with seven canals. Decision on the other projects was postponed till after more
reliable river flow data was available (Federal Planning cell, 1990).
In response to petitions and counter claims by Sindh and Punjab, Government of India
appointed the Indus Discharge Committee in 1921. The committee scheduled to observe daily
discharge at several sites on the rivers and canals in Indus Plains. To improve the availability of
hydrological data for these and other concerned projects, Government of India suggested to the
provincial government a comprehensive network of gauge and discharge observation sites at all
important sites along Indus and its tributaries. Arrangements were also made between Sindh and
Punjab to cooperate in discharge observations and in procedures of keeping their record. Sindh
was also allowed to appoint resident engineers to observer river and canal discharge in Punjab.
The committee recommended project of Haveli Canal and pointed out that future projects
proposed by Punjab should be considered by taking into account the possible effect on Sindh
water rights. A two member Nicholson Trench Committee was appointed to study the
feasibility of Bhakra dam. In 1930, the committee in its report cleared Bhakra for construction.
c) SVP Inquiry Committee (1932):
Actual operations of SVP canals exposed that there was storage of supplies, especially in
early Kharif because actual river flows fell short of requirements. A committee was chosen in
1932 to look into the problem. It recommended exclusion of some areas in Bahawalpur State,
construction of new feeder canals and adjustment in the command areas of certain canals
(Federal Planning cell, 1990).
d) Anderson Committee (1937):
By the 1932, all the 11 SVP canals with four barrages and Sukkar Barrage project were
completed. A number of problems arose with the operation of these canals network. Bahawalpur
and Khairpur States wanted extra supplies. Punjab also asked for extra water for Haveli project.
In 1935, Government of India formed Committee of the Central Board of Irrigation on
Distribution of Waters of the Indus and Tributaries, known as the Anderson Committee. It
comprised representatives of K.PK, Bikaner, Khairpur and Government of India. It had eight
authorities to look into the matter and find a solution. Committee submitted its report in 1937. It
increased irrigation water supplies for Haveli and Thal projects. As regards Bhakra Dam, a
contract had already been reached between the governments of Bombay and Punjab in 1934. The
report cleared Haveli canal project which was started in 1934 and finished in 1939. Construction
of Kalabagh Barrage and Thal canal was started in 1939. But due to outbreak of World War II, it
was not commissioned till January, 1947.
e) Rao Commission (1945):
After the implementation of Government of India Act 1935, the development of river
waters became a provincial matter. Provinces were allowed to plan and start any work for
advancement of river waters passing through its territory. The Governor-General could interfere
only on receiving complaint by one province in contradiction of the other.
Page 28 of 127
On receipt of complaint by Government of Sindh against Punjabs proposal for increased

extractions of water from the rivers passing through its region, Government of India appointed a
Commission named Rao Commission in September 1941. The commission had two chief
engineers namely P.B Hickey and E.H Chave as its members. Terms of reference of the
commission were to examine effects of water withdrawals on lowering of water levels in Sindh
to result from storing water in Bhakra Reservoir and from withdrawals allowed for Haveli, Thal
and Sutlej Valley Canals (Malik,2011 pp. 70).
Rao Commission submitted report in July 1942. The commission established priority for
the water allocation for Paharpur canal and also confirmed allocations for the Thal and Sukkar
schemes as recommended by Anderson Committee. The commission found that upstream
extractions of water would harmfully affect operation of inundation canals in Sindh, especially
during September. The best way to counteract this effect was to build barrages at Guddu and
Kotri. The Commission also suggested that compensation should be paid to the Sindh from
Punjab province for damages likely to result from upstream withdrawals (Malik, 2011, pp.70).
Its findings and recommendations were neither accepted by Punjab nor by Sindh. At this stage
negotiation were opened between the two chief engineers of Sindh and Punjab to find a solution
and reach on an agreement. After prolonged negotiations between Sindh and Punjab, a draft
agreement was drawn in September 1945. It was matter to settlement of the financial phase of
the dispute with respect to sharing of waters of the Indus and Punjab rivers.
f) Indus Water Treaty (1960):
On 14 August 1947, when Sub-Continent was divided into two independent countries,
there existed one of the most highly established irrigation systems in the world. The boundary
line between two countries was drawn without any consideration of irrigation work. Just after the
creation of Pakistan, India stopped water on April 1, 1948, in Pakistan Canals off-taking from
rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, whos Headwork, were situated in India (Ali, 1973). This gave rise
to a serious first water dispute with India, which was ultimately resolved through the good
offices of the World Bank and Indus Water Treaty (IWT) was signed with India in 1960.
The Treaty gave exclusive water rights of the three eastern rivers namely Ravi, Beas and
Sutlej to India, while the water rights of the three western rivers namely; Indus, Jehlum and
Chenab were allotted to Pakistan except for some specified uses in the occupied State of Jammu
& Kashmir. Pakistan was required to meet the needs of eastern river canals from the western
rivers by constructing the suitable replacement works comprising storage dams and inter-river
transfer links. These works were to be completed by Pakistan in a period of ten years i.e., from
1960 to 1970, then after that period, India was given right to stop water flowing to Pakistan in
the three eastern rivers (Ghani, 2009).
Briefly, the Indus Water treaty, having discarded the joint development plan for
developing the Indus Basin as suggested by some international bodies, allotted the three western
rivers of the Indus basin- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jehlum to Pakistan and the three eastern
rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi to India. The Treaty in its Annexures acknowledged certain rights
and privileges for agricultural use of Pakistan drawing water from eastern rivers and similarly
India drawing water for similar reasons from the three western rivers.
The treaty permitted India to draw water from the western rivers for irrigation up to
642,000 acres that is in addition to another entitlement to irrigate 701,000 acres. India has so far
not made full use of its rights to draw this quantity of water from the western rivers. These
allocations were made based on the water flows and usage as existed on April 1960. While India
Page 29 of 127
is not permitted to build dams for water storage purposes (for consumptive uses) on the western
rivers passing through India, it is allowed to make limited use of waters including run of the river
hydroelectric power projects.
g) Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968):
A Water Allocation and Rates Committee were constituted by the Government of West
Pakistan (one unit) in May 1968. It was called Akhtar Hussain Committee after the name of its
chairman (Government of the Punjab, 2002). Its terms of reference included:
Review barrage water allocations.
Reservoir release patterns.
Drawdown levels and use of ground water in relation to surface water deliveries.
However the committee submitted report on 30 June, 1970. One Unit was dissolved
splitting West Pakistan into four provinces. And this report could not attain any attention.
h) Justice Fazle Akbar Committee (1970-71):
Government of Pakistan set up a committee on October 15, 1970, chaired by former
justice Fazle Akbar of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The Committee was to recommend
allotment of water allocations of groundwater and its coordinate use with flow supplies and
sensible water requirements of the provinces for agriculture, industrial and other uses.
The committee submitted report to the government in 1971. No decision was taken on the
report. In the meanwhile ad hoc distribution of waters stored by Chashma Barrage and later
Tarbela Reservoir was ordered among provinces. Seasonal ad hoc distribution of waters stored
by two reservoirs continued till coming into effect of Water Apportionment Accord in 1991 as
noted presently.
i) Chief Justices Commission (1977):
Government of Pakistan in 1977 established a commission to observe the issue of water
apportionment. The commission contained all chief justices of the four provincial High Courts
and was chaired by the chief Justice of Supreme Court of Pakistan. Its report however remained
pending with the government till the Water Apportionment Accord came into effect in 1991.
j) Haleem Commission (1983):
This commission conducted the hearing of the case within limited framework and
submitted report to the president of Pakistan in the end of the April 1983 (Siddique, 2003). The
issue of water distribution could not be resolved and provinces received irrigation supplies
through ad hoc distribution of Indus waters notified by Federal Government for each
period/season of the year.
k) Water Apportionment Accord (1991):
The government of Pakistan appreciating the urgency of the matter approved Water
Apportionment Accord on March 16, 1991. It was approved by the Council of Common Interest
on March 21, 1991. According to the Water Apportionment Accord, share of each province, both
for Kharif and Rabi and allocation of balance supplies was allocated in MAF as given in Table 1.
The main clauses of Water apportionment Accord (1991) are given as follow:
Page 30 of 127
It supersedes all previous sharing arrangements and agreements arrived at in this

regard.
It protects the existing uses of canal water in each province.
It apportions the balance river supplies including flood surpluses and future storage
amongst the provinces.
It recognizes the need for constructing new storages wherever feasible on the Indus
and other rivers for planned future agriculture development.
It also recognizes the need for certain minimum escapee to sea below Kotri to check
sea intrusion for which further studies are to be undertaken.
It lays down the procedures for sharing shortage and surpluses on all Pakistan bases.
The need to establish an Indus River System Authority for implementation of the
Accord was recognized and accepted. It would have representation from all the four
Provinces.
The balance river supplies including flood supplies and future storages are allocated
as: 37% for Punjab, 37% for Sindh, 14% for K.PK and 12% for Baluchistan.
Table 2.2 Water shares of provinces according to water accord 1991
Water Shares
Balance Supply
Province
Total
Shares (%) *
Kharif
Rabi
Punjab
Sindh
K.PK
Civil Canals **
Baluchistan
Total
37.07
33.94
3.48
1.80
2.85
77.34
18.87
14.82
2.30
1.20
1.02
37.01
55.94
48.76
5.78
3.00
3.87
114.35
37
37
14
12
100
Source: Save Water Save Pakistan by B.A Malik.

*Including flood flows & future storage
** Ungagged civil canals in K.PK
2.5 Conclusion:
In short we can say that Indus river system is the largest system of irrigation. It includes
five main rivers with their tributaries. It is the strong heart of the Pakistans economy. Its
creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original system (18471947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and institutions
who maintained the system. There were no disputes on the shearing of I.R.S water till 20 th
century, however the situation changed after the World War-I. In-order to resolve these disputes
several commissions and committees were made as we discussed in previous pages. In next
pages we will discuss about departmental structure of Pakistan irrigation system.
Page 31 of 127
References:
World Water Assessment Programme, The United Nations World Water Development Report
3: Water in a Changing World, (Paris: UNESCO, and London Earthscan, 2009), p.29.
M. Zeitoun and N. Mirumachi, "Trans boundary Water Interaction I: Reconsidering Conflict and
Cooperation", International Environmental Agreements, 8: 4, 2008, p. 298.
Pacific Institute initiated a project in the late 1980s to track and categorize events related to water
and conflict which have been continuously updated ever since. See, Dr. Peter H. Gleick, Water
Conflict Chronology, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security,
2009, at <http://www.worldwater.org/conflict/list/>.
Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2009-10, op.cit. (ref.21), p.13.

Ahmer
Bilal
Soofi,
Dawn
(Islamabad),
February
20,
2010,
http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-contentlibrary/dawn/the
newspaper/editorial/water-war-with- india-020
Ali, C. M. (1973). Emergence of Pakistan. Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan,
University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Biswas, Asif, K. (1992) Indus Water Treaty: the Negotiating process, water
international.P.202.
Government of the Punjab Effects of water Regulation, irrigation and power department,
2002. P.4
Haider.Ghulam,
Dr.(2002).Water
Resources
Development,
Conservation
and
Management, The Environ Monitor,(vol.11, No.6).
Malik, B. A. (2005). Indus water treaty in retrospect. Brite Publishers, Lahore.
Malik, B. A. (2011). Save Water Save Pakistan (First Ed.). Islamabad-Lahore-Karachi
(Pakistan): Ferozsons
Rajput, Muhammad Idris (2007) Water problems: perspective from Sindh. Problems and
politics water sharing and management in Pakistan. Edited by Parvez Iqbal Cheema,
Rashid Ahmad Khan, And Ahmad Rashid Malik, Islamabad Policy Research Institute.
Page 32 of 127
Chapter No. 03
Departmental Structure of Irrigation System

3.1 Introduction:
Irrigation system of Pakistan is the world largest system. Different departments are made
to manage this system. Success of this system totally depends upon the performance of these
departments. There are two levels of these departments;
Federal Level
Provisional Level
The irrigation system of Pakistan is primarily managed and operated by the Provisional
Government. At Federal level, a separate ministry of water and power exists for management,
planning and development of irrigation system. Now we will discuss about these departments in
details.
3.2 Federal Level:

At federal level following are the two departments;
WAPDA
IRSA
3.2.1 WAPDA:
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was established in 1958. Following are
the responsibilities of WAPDA.
The responsibility of large scale construction and water resources facilities such as
storage dams, barrages, and link canals lies within WAPDA.
It is responsible for planning and execution of ground water development and
management schemes such as pipe drainage, tube well drainage and reclamation projects.
After the completion of these projects, transfer to the provisional Irrigation departments
for operation and maintenance.
3.2.2 IRSA:
IRSA is the abbreviation of Indus River System Authority.
a) When and why it was formed?
21st March, 1991, will go down in the history of Pakistan as a pivotal breakthrough in its
leap towards the 21st century and turning point in its march towards national consolidation. On
Page 33 of 127
that day was unraveled a dispute that had been festering in this part of the subcontinent for the
past seventy years.
As a follow-up to the meeting of the Chief Ministers at Lahore on March 3, 1991, a
meeting of the representatives of the four provinces was held at Lahore on March 04, 1991.
Another meeting was held at Karachi on March 16, 1991. The list of participants is attached.
The participants agreed on the following points:

There was an agreement that the issue relating to Apportionment of the Waters of
the Indus River System should be settled as quickly as possible,
In the light of the accepted water distributional principles the following
apportionment was agreed to;
Table 3.1: Distribution of Water among Provinces

PROVINCE
PUNJAB
SINDH
N.W.F.P.
(a) CIVIL CANALS**
BALOCHISTAN
TOTAL
KHARIF (maf)
RABI(maf)
37.07
33.94
3.48
1.80
2.85
77.34
+ 1.80
18.87
14.82
2.30
1.20
1.02
37.01
+1.20
TOTAL(maf)
55.94
48.76
5.78
3.00
3.87
114.35
+3.00
b) Aims and Objectives:

Water release from dams and barrages to the main irrigation system is assessed and
controlled by Indus river system Authority (IRSA) and received by the provincial irrigation
departments for further operation& maintenance.
To resolve disputes among the provinces pertaining to their share of water
To monitor , regulate and distribute the available water resources of the country
among the provinces
The monitoring of water resources withdrawn by each canal system is done
through telemetry system. The data collected through telemetry system is
transferred to central unit of IRSA for analysis
Each province prepared its indents for release and sends it to IRSA .The
statements of withdrawals are also prepared and verified by the provinces.
Page 34 of 127
c) Current Situations:
Following are the current situations of IRSA including discharge from different dams and
barrages.
Table 3.2: Current Situation of major reservoirs
Sr#
Dams/Barrage
Mean Inflow(Cs)
Mean outflow(Cs)
INDUS @ TARBEL
20300
35000
CHASHMA
37193
30000
JEHLUM @
MANGLA:
10334
42000
Table 3.3: Current Situation of Different Barrages

Headwork /Barrage
U/S Discharge (Cs)
D/S Discharge (Cs)
KALABAGH
5878
51285
TAUNSA
29376
29376
GUDDU
40698
34411
SUKKAR
32590
4790
KOTRI
6087
CHENAB @ MARALA:
7058
3000
PANJNAD
Total Rim Station inflow = 45762Cs

Total Rim Station Outflow= 95748Cs
d) Water Allocation to the Provinces:
Punjab
Sindh
Baluchistan
KPK
= 57,900cs
= 3,500cs
= 4,800cs
=3,100cs
Reference (http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)
Page 35 of 127
Fig 3.1: Organizational Chart of IRSA

Page 36 of 127
3.3 Provisional Level:

Following departments are worked on provisional level;
3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department:

The Provincial Irrigation Departments exercise their management over the irrigation
system below dams, comprising Barrages, Headworks, main canals, and distributaries, minor
and main watercourses. The On Farm Irrigation System below canal outlet comprising main
watercourses is managed by the provisional Irrigation Department of Irrigation (PIPD) but
constructed and maintained by the cultivators or shareholders of the command. The field
watercourses or Farmer Branches are constructed and maintained by the farmer themselves
PIPD also administers water Distribution and resolution of conflicts among water users.
Water distribution among the shareholders is implemented through Warabandi schedule issued
by the PIPD that predefined the location and time of each users turn.
3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA):

a) When and why it was established?
On cognizant of the problems in irrigated agriculture and water management in the
province, Government of the Punjab decided to adopt the institutional reforms in irrigation
sector. Hence, during june-1997, the Punjab provincial assembly passed the Punjab Irrigation &
Drainage Authority act. The Government of the Punjab established PIDA as autonomous body
under act 1997 to take over the functions of the irrigation and Power department pertaining to
irrigation, drainage and flood control. Under this act PIDA has been vested with control over;
Rivers
Canals
Drainage
Streams
Hill torrents
Springs
b) Responsibilities:
Perform all the duties and functions of the irrigation wing of irrigation and power
department.
Plan, design, construct, operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage and flood
control infrastructure located within the territorial jurisdiction of PIDA.
Introduce the concept of participatory management through the pilot AWB and
FOs and to adopt and implement policies aimed at promoting growth and
development of FOs monitoring of their performance planning.
It will also be responsible for its own finances including the collection charges
from the clients (Government of the Punjab for flood control and other public
services corporation and district councils) and from AWBs and for negotiating
transfer payments and subsidies from the Government of the Punjab.
Page 37 of 127
c) Current Situations:
Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) is pursuing the implementation of
Institutional Reforms in irrigation sector of Punjab. After the transfer of Irrigation Management
to 85 Farmer Organizations in pilot areas; Lower Chenab Canal (East) Circle Faisalabad, 67 FOs
in Lower Chenab Canal (West) Circle, 30 FOs in Chashma Right Bank Canal Circle, 10 FOs in
Lower Jehlum Canal Circle and 3 FOs in Bahawalnagar Canal Circle, PIDA has also initiated the
reforms implementation process in Lower Bari Doab Canal Circle and Dera Ghazi Khan Circle.
3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB):

a) When and why it was formed?
The first AWB was set up on the lower Chenab canal (east) circle Faisalabad that
commands for 1.6 million acre. The second Area Water Boards has been established at lower
Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) circle Sahiwal that commands about 0.07 million acres of land. The
Area Water Boards was formed to assume the responsibilities of managing and progressively
financing the operation and maintenance cost of irrigation and drainage network within its
jurisdiction Preliminary the Area Water Boards was responsible for management of the canal
command and its branch system from Barrage to district heads drainage and flood control
infrastructure. Under the act 1997, the Area Water Boards are expected to perform the following
functions
Approve and monitor the operation and maintenance work plan of FOs.
Recommend the development Schemes for annual development programs.
Approve rotational program of the water distribution
Checking water thefts and other offences
Monitor expenditures and budget allocations.
Assist the authority and Govt. in the formation, promotion and development of FOs
and Monitor their work.
b) Current Situations of AWBs:

PIDA Authority shall appoint a registrar for an Area Water Board and a registrar at its
Head Office who shall perform all functions relating to the registration of the farmer
organizations
Lower Chenab Canal (East)

Lower Chenab Canal (West)
Bahawalnagar Canal
Dera Jaat Canal
Lower Bari Doab Canal
Page 38 of 127
3.3.4 Farmer Organization:

It was formed for the management of system at the minor distributary level which are
owned and controlled by the farmers. The Farmer Organization is responsible for managing the
minor distributaries that fall into branch drains. It is also responsible for manage fresh ground
water tube wells, on farm tile drains& off farm sub drains.
Functions:
To manage, operate and maintain the irrigation infrastructure including any hydraulic
structure located on it, for which it has been established.
To obtain irrigation and water supplies from the authority or relevant area water board &
its head regulator and consequently pay the agreed amount to the AWB concerned or
between Farmer Organization concerned & the authority
To supply the irrigation water equitably to the farmers and other water users within the
area.
To assess the water rates and other irrigation charges to be collected from the water users.
3.4 Conclusion:
This was all about different departmental structures of irrigation system of Pakistan.
Every province has its own irrigation and drainage authority to manage its irrigation system.
Success of our irrigation system is totally depends upon the performance of these departments. In
next pages we will discuss about different barrages of Pakistan in details.
References:
Irrigation & Drainage Practices for Agriculture by Dr. Muhammad Rafique Chaudhary
(http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)
Page 39 of 127
Chapter No. 04
Dams and Barrages of Pakistan

4.1 Introduction:
Pakistan is an agriculture country so, agriculture is the backbone of Pakistans economy
and more than 50% population depends upon agriculture. As Pakistan is an agriculture country
so irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The irrigation system of Pakistan comprises of 2 major
storage reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks and a number of small dams. In this chapter we
will discuss in details about these dams and barrages of Pakistan.
4.2 Dams of Pakistan:

There are many smaller and larger scale dams are in Pakistan. Following is a list of
different dams in Pakistan with their storage capacity and location.
4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir:

Table 4.1: Dams in Azad Kashmir
Name
Location/Nearest
city
Impounds
Kakra Dam
Mirpur District,
Kakra
Mirpur District
Saddle Dam
Mangla
Dam
Shukian
Mirpur District
Dam
Jari Kas Dam Mirpur District
Jari Rim
Mirpur District
Works
Height
(ft.)
138
Storage
Capacity
(Acre ft.)
n/a
Year of
Completion
1967
Jehlum River
453
5,879,139
1967
Saddle Dam
144
n/a
1967
Saddle Dam
Saddle Dam
276
138
n/a
n/a
1967
1967
4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan:

Table 4.2: Dams in Baluchistan
Name
Location/Nearest
city
Impounds
Akra Kaur Dam
Gwadar
Amach Dam
Mastung
Akra Kaur
River
Amach River
Height
(ft.)
69
Storage
Capacity
(Acre ft.)
17,025
Year of
Completion
1995
50
1,358
1987
Page 40 of 127

Baghak Dam
Band-e-Chaman
Dam
Bisialla Dam
Bostan Darra
Dam
Brewery Dam
Kuchnai Darra
Dam
Duz Durg Dam
Galangoor Dam
Ganj Dara Dam
Ghargi Dam
Ghat Amoon
Dam
Ghunza Dam
Ghuti Shela
Dam
Giwari Dam
Gogi Dam
Gokar Dam
Gur Dam
Haero Dam
Hingi Dam
Hub Dam
Khad Koocha
Dam
Khajeer Dam
Khori Dam
Kohar Dam
Nari Kach Dam
Kullan Dam
Lalai Dam
Machka Manda
Dam
Mana Storage
Dam
Mangi Dam
Mirani Dam
Morinko Dam
Murghai Check
Dam
Murghai Kotal
Dam
Turbet
Band-e-Chaman
River
49
2,000
1994
Quetta
Darra Manda
River
66
170
1987
Quetta
2008
Mastung
Duz Dur River
50
40
1984
Pishin
n/a
50
100
1986
Pishin
n/a
50
178
1984
Ziarat
Gogi River
54
400
1981
Kalat
n/a
50
404
1982
Quetta
Malir
Mastung
Hingi
Hub River
Kad Koocha
River
Khajeer River
49
157
50
163
856,924
95
1995-96
1979
1984
49
250
1991
Ziarat
Mana River
62
1,480
1961
Ziarat
Boin Viala
River
Dashat River
59
105
1982
128
302,396
2007
Qila Saifullah
Loralai
Makran
Page 41 of 127

Nail Mirdadzai
Storage Dam
Nishpa Dam
Nousahr Dam
Nundra Kapper
Dam
Palian Dam
Pinakai Dam
Rindak Storage
Dam
Sabakzai Dam
Sasnak Mana
Storage Dam
Sassi Punnu
Dam
Shadak Dam
Sgadi Kaur
Storage Dam
Shagai Dam
Sherran Manda
Dam
Shiker Dam
Spin Dam
Spinkarez Dam
Tabai Dam
Takhtani Dam
Tang Storage
Dam
Tanga Dam
Tangi Dababari
Dam
Tangi Dam
Thamarak Dam
Tooth Dam
Torkehezi Dam
Trikh Tangi
Dam
Under Base
Dam
Walitangai Dam
Mastung
Nishpa River
49
93
1994
Qila Saifullah
Pinakari River
50
39
1994
Zhob
Ziarat
Zhob River
Sasnak River
114
62
32,700
220
2007
1993
Pishin
Shadak River
50
70
1983
Quetta
n/a
50
309
1993
Pishin
Shiker River
62
49
1988
Quetta
95
5,513
1995
Quetta
Nar River &

Murdar River
Tabai River
49
142
1994
Qila Saifullah
Pishin
Kalat
Tangi River
n/a
Tooth River
50
50
52
61
195
397
1997
1986
1991
Qila Saifullah
Under Base
River
Walitangai
50
70
1985
79
413
1961
Quetta
Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Garuk Dam, Pelar
Dam, Winder Dam, Hingol Dam, Sukleji Dam, Naulong Dam and Darawat Dam.
Page 42 of 127
4.2.3 Dams of FATA:

Table 4.3: Dams in FATA
Name
Location/Nearest
city
Dandy Dam
Dargai Pal Dam
Gomal Zam
Dam
Miranshah
Wana
Wana
Impounds
Gomal River
Height
(ft.)
82
98
436
Storage
Capacity
(Acre ft.)
4,820
4,780
1,134,998
Year of
Completion
2011
2008
2012
4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa:

Table 4.4: Dams in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Name
Location/Nearest
city
Impounds
Allai Khwar
Dam
Auxiliary
Kandar Dam
Aza Khel Dam
Baran Dam
Chaatri Dam
Battagram
167
2012
75
2004
75
79
85
2004
1962
1971
Chanda Fateh
Khan Dam
Changhoz Dam
Kohat
Allai Khwar
River
Dargai Algada
River
n/a
Barran River
Nain Sukh
River
n/a
82
2004
Karak
141
2007
Darwazai Dam
Kohat
49
1976
Gandially Dam
Kohat
72
2002
Kahal Dam
Kandar Dam
Hazara
Kohat
72
89
1971
1970
Khal Dam
Haripur
75
1971
Khan Khwar
Dam
Khanpur Dam
Mang Dam
Naryab Dam
Warsak Dam
Besham, Shangla
Changhoz
River
Sodal Algada
River
Taru Algada
River
Kahal River
Dargai Algada
River
Khal Kass
River
Khan Khwar
River
Haro River
Haro River
Naryab River
Kabul River
151
2012
167
52
105
220
1985
1970
2006
1960
Kohat
Peshawar
Bannu
Haripur
Haripur
Haripur
Hangu
Peshawar
Height
(ft.)
Storage
Capacity
(Acre ft.)
62,013
Year of
Completion
Page 43 of 127
Zaibi Dam
Karak
82
1997
Kohat
Ghazi
Zaibi Algad
River
Kohat River
Indus River
Tanda Dam
Tarbela
Auxiliary -1
Dam
Tarbela
Auxiliary -2
Dam
Tarbela Dam
Sharki Dam
Duber Khwar
115
344
1967
1974
Ghazi
Indus River
220
1974
Haripur
Karak
Pattan, Kohistan
Indus River
Tem River
Khan Khwar
River
470
130
320.1
11,098,664
1974
2006
2013
Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Munda Dam and
Kalam Dam.
4.2.5 Dams of Punjab:

Table 4.5: Dams in Punjab
Name
Ghazi Barotha
Dam
Gurab Dam
Haji Shah Dam
Jabbi Dam
Jamal Dam
Jammargal
Dam
Jawa Dam
Jurash Dam
Kahuta Dam
Kanjoor Dam
Khasala Dam
Lehri Dam
Mailsi Dam
Mirwal Dam
Misriot Dam
Namal Dam
Location/Nearest
city
Impounds
Height
(ft.)
Storage
Capacity
(Acre ft.)
Indus River
Attock
Jehlum District
Gujar Khan
Jehlum District
Sil River
Year of
Completion
2002
72
1,459
2013-14
82
1,571
1994
Jehlum River
Rawalpindi
District
Jawa Stream
Kahuta
Attock District
Rawalpindi
District
Jehlum District
Mailsi
Attock
Rawalpindi
District
Mianwali District
Ling River
Page 44 of 127

Nirali Dam
Qibla Bandi
Dam
Rati Kassi
Dam
Rawal Dam
Salial Dam
Shahpur Dam
Shakardara
Dam
Tain Pura Dam
Simly Dam
Dhok Sandy
Mar Dam
Dhok Tahlian
Dam
Dungi Dam
Bhugtal Dam
Channi Bor
Dam
Chabla Bano
Dam
Chichali Dam

Rawalpindi
District
Attock
Islamabad Capital
Territory
Korang River
102
Attock
Attock
Nandana River
85
14,285
1986
Islamabad Capital
Territory
Chakwal District
Soan River
262
28,750
1983
Chakwal District
Gujar Khan
1990
Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Punjab i.e. Akhori Dam and
Kalabagh Dam.
4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab:

Following is a list of operational small dams in different districts of Punjab.
a) Attock District:
Following is a list of operational small dams in Attock district;
Basal Dam
Thatti Syedan Dam
Sawal Dam
Talikna Dam
Jabba Dam
Jalwal Dam
Page 45 of 127
b) Chakwal District:
There are 12 small dams in Chakwal District having storage capacity of 26,411 in acres
feet irrigating 11,089 acres of area.
Khokher Zer Dam

Surlah Dam
Dhoke Talian Dam
Kot Raja Dam
Dhoke Qutab Din Dam
Nikka Dam
Walana Dam
Khai Gurabh Dam
Pira Fatehal Dam
Bhagtal Dam
Dhurnal Dam
Mial Dam
Tain Pura Dam

Jammergal Dam
Garat Dam
Salial Dam
Domeli Dam
Shah Habib Dam
Gurha Utam Singh Dam
Fatehpur Dam
Lehri Dam
c) Jehlum District:
d) Dams of Sindh:
In Sindh there are two dams Karoonjhar Dam and Chotiari Dam, Also there are two
under construction dams in Sindh, Darawat Dam in Jamshoro District and Nai Gaj Dam in Dadu
District
e) Dams of Gilgit Baltistan:

Diamer Bhasha Dam, Bunji Dam and Dasu Dam are under construction in Gilgit
Baltistan. Satpara Dam is completed in 2013 in Gilgit Baltistan.
4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas:

Kurram Tangi Dam is proposed in Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
Page 46 of 127
4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan:

The major reservoirs/dams of the Indus River System are given below;
Tarbela dam
Mangla dam
Chashma reservoir
4.3.1 Tarbela Dam:

Tarbela dam is world's biggest earth and rock fill dam and was completed in 1974-75 and
is located on the Indus River. The dam is 485 feet high and 9000 feet long. A 100 sq. mile lake is
capable of conserving gross quantity of 11.7 MAF of water. Installed power generation capacity
is 3500 MW. It has two spillways), four tunnels for power generation on the right bank and one
for irrigation on the left. The gross capacity has now reduced to 9.745 MAF from its original
capacity 11.7 MAF (WAPDA and NEAC, 2004). Elevation capacity curves of the reservoir are
one of the important input parameters in reservoir simulation.
a) Objectives of Tarbela Dam:
The main objectives of the Tarbela dam are given below;
To augment and regulate the supply of Indus River water to irrigate the land of
Indus Basin System.
Hydropower generation.
Incidental Flood Regulation.
Based on the irrigation demands, reservoir operation studies were conducted by WAPDA
to develop operating rule curves for the dam operation (Tippetts-Abbett McCarthey-Stratton
consulting engineers, 1984).
b) WAPDA Operation Rule:
Tarbela reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1300 feet by 20 May
of each year.
The reservoir should be held at El. 1300 feet until 20 June unless inflows exceed low
level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1505 feet.
Above El.1505 feet, the reservoir should be filled at a rate of 1 foot per day in so far
as permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum maximum rule curve is
shown in Figure 4.4.
Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands
balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.
Page 47 of 127
Figure 4.1: Tarbela Dam Auxiliary Spillways
Figure 4.2: Tarbela reservoir

Page 48 of 127
Figure 4.3: Elevation-Capacity Curves for Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)
Figure 4.4: Minimum Maximum Rule Curve at Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)
Page 49 of 127
c) Reservoir Levels:
The minimum reservoir level is 1300 feet. This level will assure the required
minimum net head of 179 feet on the turbines with a margin of safety open and the
tailwater level is at El. 1115 feet or lower.
The maximum operating reservoir level is El. 1550 feet (normal full pool level). The
maximum water level for spillway design flood is El. 1552.2 feet which allow
adequate free board.
After satisfying irrigation requirement, the reservoir may be kept as high as possible
to maximize power production.
The rate of filling should not exceed 10 feet per day. The allowable rate of rise should
be determined according to operation experience. The normal releases for irrigation
should be made through the turbines whenever possible so that power can be
generated. Each turbine can produce 175,000 KW (or 239,000 Horse-power) when
the wicket gates are 95% open and the net head on the turbine is 378 feet. Under these
conditions discharge from each turbine is 6,450 cfs making a total of 25,000 cfs for
the four.
The irrigation tunnel will be used when the irrigation demand is higher than the
turbine discharge.
The irrigation tunnels should not be used with water level above El1505 when the
spillway provides sufficient release. Minimum discharge is 50000 cfs for the service
spillway and 70,000 cfs for the auxiliary spillway.
The sill level of irrigation tunnel is El.1160, 65 lower than the power intakes. Thus
until the delta encompasses the intakes, most of the heavier suspended sediment
would go through this tunnel and not through the power waterways.
Rapid variations in the downstream flow should be avoided.
Every year the reservoir should be drawn down to El.1300, (minimum pool level) to
effect sediment flushing.
d) Previous Benefits from the Reservoir:
The project has been instrumental in achieving self-sufficiency in food through timely
water releases for irrigation. Billions of units of electrical energy generated at Tarbela dam saved
the country's foreign exchange required otherwise for thermal power generation. The total
project cost was Rs.18.5 billion. During the past 18 years of its operation, the dam contributed
over 68.332 billion in terms of direct benefits from water releases and power generation. The
total cost has been repaid three times and over.
e) Benefits from Water:
From 1975 to 1993 about 154.65 MAF of water has been released from the dam for the
development. The benefits obtained from these releases were Rs.31, 561 million. About 6.31
MAF of water was released from the storage during 1992-93 which is worth Rs.1893 million
calculated at a rate of Rs.300 per acre feet.
Page 50 of 127
f) Flood Mitigation Benefits:

Additional benefits were achieved from the project with incidental flood control. Most of
the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. The flood discharge is composed of
snowmelt flood (base flow) plus storm flood. It has been estimated 1,773,000 cfs (a constant
snowmelt flood, 6000 cfs + PMF, 1,173,000 cfs). Assuming discharge through the turbines and
one irrigation tunnel, the probable maximum flood, when routed through the reservoir, showed
surcharge of 2 feet above full reservoir level of 1550 feet AMSL. The maximum discharge over
the spillway is 1,495,000 cfs. The maximum and minimum design curves ensure to take care of
incidental floods.
On the basis of flood predictions, the reservoir can be lowered to a pre-determined
elevation considerably below the normal pool level. Drawdown to El.1505 for example, would
provide storage of about 2.4 MAF of flood water, equivalent to a flow of 400,000 cfs for a period
of 3 days. Since immediate refilling is assured, this lowering of reservoir water level would not
result in loss of water to irrigation and power.
Table 4.6: Water Benefits from Tarbela Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)
Year (Jun-July)
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
Storage (MAF)
3.33
9.07
10
8.71
9.91
10.63
11.33
9.12
9.18
9.24
9.76
9.98
7.52
11.12
7.32
6.19
5.93
6.31
9.41
5.39
8.17
9.15
8.06
9.04
Benefits (Rs. Million)

666
1814
2000
1724
1982
2126
2266
1824
1836
1848
1952
1996
1504
2224
1464
1238
1186
1893
2823
1617
2451
8235
7254
8136
Page 51 of 127

1999-2000
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
Total

8.708
2.689
8.3
9.1
8.7
247.4
7837
7820
7470
8190
7830
101224
4.3.2 Mangla Dam:

Mangla dam on river Jehlum which is a 12th largest earth fill dam in the world has been
completed in 1967. Jehlum River at Mangla has a catchment area of about 12,870 sq. miles. Dam
height is 380 feet. The original gross storage capacity of the reservoir was 5.35 MAF in 1967.
Live storage capacity was 4.81 MAF which was about 90 percent of gross capacity whereas dead
storage capacity was 0.54 MAF. Capacity of main spillway is 1,100,000 cusecs while of
emergency spillway is 2,300,000 cusecs. The lake area of reservoir at maximum pool level (1202
feet. above sea level) is estimated to be 100 sq. miles. Reservoir of Mangla dam is shown in
Figure 4.10. The main objectives of the dam are (i) water storage for supplementing irrigation
supplies (ii) hydropower Generation (WAPDA, 1989). Before 1991 hydropower capacity of
Mangla dam was 800 MW with 8 units. In 1991, hydropower capacity of the dam was increased
to 1000 MW with 10 units. Figure 4.11 shows power house and Bong canal at Mangla dam.
The primary objectives from the reservoir are assured water releases for agriculture and
hydropower generation therefore, no space is particularly reserved for flood control. However
storage between reservoir levels 1202 feet and 1228 feet (1.5 MAF) is reserved to achieve
incidental flood benefits. Recreation and fish production are additional benefits from the
reservoir.
Reservoir capacity is depleted due to sediment inflows which were averaged 73 MST
(million short ton) per year from 1967 to 2002 (WAPDA and MJV, 2003). Elevation capacity
curves showing depletion in storage due to sediments are shown in Figure 4.7.
a) WAPDA Operation Rule:
Mangla reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1050 feet by 10
May of each year.
The reservoir should be held at El.1050 to El 1040 feet until 31 March unless
inflows exceed low level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1202 feet.
Mangla reservoir should be filled upto its maximum conservation level 1202 feet
before 1 September if permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum
maximum rule curve is shown in Figure 4.8.
Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands
balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.
Page 52 of 127
Figure 4.5: Mangla Reservoir at 1040 ft. AMSL
Figure 4.6: Mangla Dam Power House and Bong Canal

Page 53 of 127
Figure 4.7: Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)
Figure 4.8: Minimum Maximum Rule Curves at Mangla (WAPDA, 2004)
Page 54 of 127
b) Benefits from Water:

The Mangla reservoir has been impounded in 1967. According to an estimate on water
releases for agriculture, industrial or domestic use from the reservoir, total benefits have been
computed about Rs.24,179 million from 1967 to 1993 (WAPDA 1993). Therefore, average
annual benefits from water, estimated from 26 year operation (1967-1993) comes to be about
Rs.930 million whereas the benefits during (1991-92) and (1992-93) have been estimated to be
Rs.936 million and Rs.969 million respectively. These estimates, as reported, were carried out on
the basis of a unit return of Rs.200.00 per acre foot volume of water.
Table 4.7: Water Benefits from Mangla Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)
Year (Jun-July)
1967-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
Storage (MAF)
58.32
4.15
5.30
4.82
5.35
5.39
4.56
4.84
4.88
4.97
5.03
3.76
4.68
3.23
5.37
5.10
3.94
4.98
4.36

17046.3
1458.8
1881.5
2210.8
2587.8
2961.6
2821.8
3083.4
3220.5
3821.8
3952.5
3343.0
4232.9
3490.7
5939.8
6282.9
5684.9
7888.7
7805.9
c) Flood Mitigation Benefits:

Incidental flood control is an additional benefit which was achieved from the project.
Most of the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. Their duration is short but their
rate of rise and fall can be extremely rapid. The maximum and minimum design curves (Figure
4.13) ensures to take care of incidental floods. Available storage (1.5 MAF) between reservoir
level 1202 feet and 1228 feet is reserved to achieve incidental flood benefits. The project was
designed on a Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) of 2,600,000 cusecs. Total benefits from water
and power activities from Mangla dam comes to Rs.55,101.89 million since 1967 whereas total
benefits in financial years 1991-92 and 1992-93 from water and power has been estimated to be
Rs.2719.21and Rs.2703.03 million respectively.
Page 55 of 127
Although these benefits are quite high, recovering the total cost of the project several
times over, but it is however, a limited source. The country has been facing the major problem of
rapidly increasing population and food requirements. These problems seriously affected the
existing policies and it is essentially needed to design a policy which may overcome these issues
by expanding irrigated agriculture and increasing power generation.
d) Mangla Raising Project:
At the time of construction of Mangla Dam, Government of Pakistan requested the World
Bank that a provision should be made in the design and construction of the Mangla Dam to
facilitate its raising at a later stage by another 30-40 ft. The Government of Pakistan agreed that
the incremental cost of the provision for rising would not be charged to the Indus Basin
Development Fund. The World Bank accepted this proposal and hence, all the impounding
structures of the Mangla Dam Project were designed and constructed in 1967 for raising it by
another 30 ft. In year 2003, work on Mangla rising was started. It was proposed to raise the
Mangla dam by 30 feet. (WAPDA and Mangla Joint Venture, 2003). This will raise the present
maximum reservoir conservation level of 1202 ft. to 1242 ft. The work on Mangla rising is in
progress as shown in Figure 4.14. About 70% construction work has been completed on Mangla
rising till May 2008. The project is expected to be completed in year 2009. This would increase
the average annual water availability by 2.9 MAF. Power generation from the existing power
plant would also increase by about 11%. Elevation capacity curves after Mangla raising showing
depletion in storage due to sediments for the period 2007 to 2082 are shown in Figure 4.15
(WAPDA and MJV 2003).
Figure 4.9: Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla Raising (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)
Page 56 of 127
4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir:

Located on the Indus River downstream of Tarbela dam, this reservoir acts as a buffer
reservoir to re-regulate the releases from Tarbela. It was constructed in 1971 as barrage cum
reservoir providing diversion facilities for Chashma Jehlum link Canal on its left side and
Chashma right bank canal on the right side. The reservoir acts as a re-regulatory storage for the
releases from Tarbela which enable the reservoir to store 2.59 MAF of water and releases 2.52
MAF during 1992-93. According to 1986-87 hydrographic survey by WAPDA, the gross storage
capacity of Chashma reservoir has been reduced from 0.87 MAF (originally in 1971) to 0.497
MAF.
Upto 1993, about 100.44 MAF of irrigation water was received in the reservoir. About
94.97 MAF was released downstream of Chashma barrage and 3.794 MAF in Chashma Jehlum
Link Canal (CJ Link) and 1.607 MAF in Chashma right bank canal (CRBC) The benefits
obtained from the reservoir are listed in Table 4.8;
Table 4.8: Water benefits from Chashma Reservoir
Year (Jun-July)
Upto
1967-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
Storage (MAF)
8.41
0.74
0.70
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.45
0.28
0.46
2.72
2.52
1682
148
140
98
98
98
98
98
98
90
56
92
540
756
4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities:

One of the important factors for future water scarcity in Pakistan is due to loss of existing
reservoir capacities by sediment inflows. It is a natural process and every reservoir has its useful
life. The solution is to make new dams to overcome water crisis. Hydrographic surveys were
carried out time to time by WAPDA to determine the loss of reservoir capacities. Following table
shows the depletion in gross capacities in Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma.
Page 57 of 127
Table 4.9: Loss of Reservoir Capacities in MAF (WAPDA, 2004)

Reservoir
Gross Storage Capacity

Original
11.62
(1974)
5.88
(1967)
0.87
(1971)
18.37
Tarbela
Mangla
Chashma
Total
Year 2014
8.36
72%
4.64
78%
0.48
55%
13.48
73%
Gross Storage Loss

Year 2004
3.28
-28%
1.24
-22%
0.39
-45%
4.89
-27%
2012
4.17
-36%
1.72
-29%
0.48
-55%
6.37
-35%
2025
5.51
-47%
1.97
-34%
0.5
-57%
7.98
-43%
4.4 Barrages of Pakistan:

Irrigation system of Pakistan consists of 19 barrages. Following is the list of these
barrages.
Chashma Barrage
Taunsa Barrage
Jinnah Barrage
Guddu Barrage
Sukkar Barrage
Kotri Barrage
Rasul Barrage
Marala Barrage
Khanki Barrage
Qadirabad Barrage
Trimmu Barrage
Panjnad Barrage
Balloki Barrage
Sidhnai Barrage
Sulemanki Barrage
Islam Barrage
Mailsi Barrage
Ghazi Brotha Barrage
Munda Barrage
Page 58 of 127
4.4.1 Chashma Barrage:

Chashma barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Mianwali District, Punjab, 304km NW
of Lahore and 56km downstream of Jinnah barrage. The Contract for Chashma Barrage works
was awarded on 10 February 1967 to French Consortium Society Dumez and Society Borie and
was successfully completed by 25 March 1971. The total cost of Chashma Barrage works was
Rs.399 million but power generation started later in 2001. The installed capacity of power
Station is 184 MW, from eight Kaplan type bulb turbine units each with a 23 MW capacity. The
bulb turbines have been installed for the first time in Pakistan. The first unit was commissioned
in January 2001, while final commissioning of all units was completed in July 2001. The
8 Kaplan type turbines and synchronous generator units were made by Fuji, Japan. Chashma
Barrage is used for irrigation, flood control and power generation.
Figure 4.9: Chashma Barrage

Salient Features:
Length between abutments:
Total Bays:
Standard Bays:
Undersluce Bays:
Normal Pond Level:
Maximum Storage Level:
Maximum Flood Discharge:
Maximum Intensity of Discharge:
Width of Carriage Way:
Length of Navigation Lock:
Width of Navigation Lock:
Area of Reservoir:
Initial Capacity:
Date Commencement:
Date of Completion:
3556 ft.
52
41
11
642 feet
649 ft.
950000 Cusecs
300Cs. Per ft.
24 ft.
155 ft.
30 ft.
139 Sq.m
0.87 MAF
10 February 1967
25 March 1971
Page 59 of 127
4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage:

Taunsa barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Muzaffargarh district, Punjab. It is situated
20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Taunsa Sharif and 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Kot Addu.
This barrage controls water flow in the Indus River for irrigation and flood control purposes.
This barrage serves 2.351 million acres (951,400 hectares) besides diverting flows from Indus
River to the Chenab River through Taunsa-Panjnad (TP) Link Canal. The barrage also serves as
an arterial road bridge, a railway bridge, and crossing for gas and oil pipelines, telephone line
and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines.
Salient Features:
Table 4.10: Silent Feature of Taunsa Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
Max. Design Discharge (cusecs)
No. of Bays
Max. Flood level from floor (ft.)
Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs)
Taunsa
1959
750,000
53
26
36501
Figure 4.10: Taunsa Barrage
Page 60 of 127
4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage:

The Jinnah Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Kalabagh, Pakistan. It is part of the
Thal Project which helps irrigate 770,000 ha (1,900,000 acres) in the Sindh Sagar Doab east of the
Indus. Planning for the project dates back to the nineteenth century but final plans for the barrage
were made in 1919 and it was constructed between 1939 and 1946. The barrage diverts an
average of 283 m3 /s (10,000 cu ft./s) of water into the 51.5 km (32.0 mi) long Thal Canal where it
serves areas in Bhakkar, Khushab, Layyah, Mianwali and Muzaffargarh Districts with 3,362 km
(2,089 mi) of additional canal branches and distributors. It has a maximum flood height of 8.5 m
(28 ft.) and it spans 1,152 m (3,780 ft.) over the river. The barrage can discharge upto
950,000 m3 /s (34,000,000 cu ft/s) downstream with 42 spillway gates which are each 18.2 m
(60 ft) wide. Between 2006 and 2012, a 96 MW hydroelectric power station with four 12 MW pit
turbine-generators was added on the right bank. In June 2012 a major rehabilitation project for
the barrage began. The project includes the construction of a weir 244 m (801 ft) downstream to
help dissipate energy from the spillway upstream of it. New guide banks will be built and
existing ones repaired. The railway bridge upstream will be rehabilitated as well. The project is
expected to be complete in June 2016.
Salient Features:
Table 4.11: Silent Feature of Jinnah Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Jinnah
1946
950,000
42
28
7500
Figure 4.11: Jinnah Barrage

Page 61 of 127
4.4.4 Guddu Barrage:

Guddu Barrage is a barrage on Indus River near Kashmoor in Sindh. President Iskander
Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was
completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 million rupees and inaugurated by Field Marshal Ayub
Khan. Guddu Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation and flood
control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 1.2 million cubic feet per second (34,000 m/s). It
is a gate-controlled weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 64 bays, each 60
feet (18 m) wide. The maximum flood level height of Guddu Barrage is 26 feet (8 m). It controls
irrigation Supplies to 2.9 million acres (12,000 km2 ) of agricultural land in the Jacobabad and
Larkana districts of Sindh and Naseerabad district of Baluchistan province. It feeds Ghotki
Feeder, Begari Feeder, Desert and Pat Feeder canals.
Salient Features:
Table 4.12: Silent Feature of Guddu Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
Max. Design Discharge (cusec)
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Guddu
1962
1200000
64
3840 ft.
5
Figure 4.12: Guddu Barrage
Page 62 of 127
4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage:

Sukkar Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus near Sukkar city, Sindh. The Barrage was
built during the British Raj from 1923 to 1932 and named Lloyd Barrage. It was constructed
under the overall direction of Sir Charlton Harrison, CIE. On its completion it was opened by the
Viceroy of India, Lord Willingdon. The scheme had been launched by the Governor of Bombay,
Sir George Ambrose Lloyd (later known as Lord Lloyd) and it was named against his name.
Sukkar Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for the purposes of
irrigation and flood control. The barrage enables water to flow through what was originally a
network of canals 6,166 miles (9,923 km) long, feeding the largest irrigation system in the world,
with more than 5 million acres (20,000 km) of irrigated land. The retaining wall has 66 spans
each 60 feet (18 m) wide. Each span has a gate weighing 50 tons.
Salient Features:
Table 4.13: Silent Feature of Sukkar Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Sukkar
1932
1500000
54
4490 ft.
7
Figure 4.13: Sukkar Barrage

Page 63 of 127
4.4.6 Kotri Barrage:

Kotri Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Hyderabad, Sindh. The barrage was
completed in 1955. Kotri Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation
and flood control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 875,000 cusecs. It is a gate-controlled
weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 44 bays, each 60 feet (18 m) wide. The
maximum flood level height of Kotri Barrage is 43.1 feet. It feeds Fulleli, Pinyari, Linned and
Kolari Canals.
Salient Features:
Table 4.14: Silent Feature of Kotri Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Kotri
1955
875,000
44
43.1
-
Figure 4.14: Kotri Barrage
Page 64 of 127
4.4.7 Rasul Barrage:

Rasul Barrage is a Barrage on the River Jehlum between Jehlum District and Mandi
Bahauddin District, Punjab. It is situated 72 km downstream of Mangla Dam. Rasul Barrage is
used to control water flow in the River Jehlum for irrigation and flood control purposes. Rasul
Barrage was constructed in 1968 and has a discharge capacity of 24070 cubic meters per second.
Water is diverted from this point to Chenab River at Qadirabad through Rasul-Qadirabad link
canal and then ultimately transferred to Sulemanki Barrage on the Sutlej River. Rasul-Qadirabad
link canal has the second largest water discharge capacity after Chashma-Jehlum link canal. It
has 538-m/s discharge capacity while Chashma-Jehlum link canal has 615-m/s capacity.
Salient Features:
Table 4.15: Silent Feature of Rasul Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Rasul
1968
876000
42
3209 ft.
2
Figure 4.15: Rasul Barrage
Page 65 of 127
4.4.8 Marala Barrage:

Marala headworks is headworks situated on the River Chenab near the city Gujrat and
Sialkot in Punjab. Marala Headworks is a large hydro engineering project and is used to control
water flow and flood control in the River Chenab. After cutting across the Pir Panjal Range,
Chenab River enters the Sialkot District. Here the Marala Barrage was built across the river in
1968 with a maximum discharge of 1.1 million ft/s (31,000 m/s). Two major water channels
originate at the Marala headworksthe Marala-Ravi Link Canal and the Upper Chenab Canal.
Proposals are under consideration to build Mangla Marala Link Canal to overcome any shortage
of water in future.
Salient Features:
Table 4.16: Silent Feature of Marala Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
Max. Design Discharge (cumec)
No. of Bays
Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cumec)
Marala
1968
31,000
66
31
31000
Figure 4.16: Marala Barrage
Page 66 of 127
4.4.9 Khanki Barrage:

Khanki Headworks is a headwork situated on the River Chenab in Gujranwala District,
Punjab. It was constructed in 1889 and is considered to be the oldest headworks in Pakistan.
Khanki Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control. It is also used to provide water to
tributaries such as the Lower Chenab Canal, which originates from Khanki Headworks. Khanki
controls water distribution over 3 million acres (12,000 km) of agricultural lands by one main
distributary, the Lower Chenab Canal, and 59 minor distributaries.
Salient Features:
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Khanki
1889
750000
48
4000 ft.
1
Figure 4.17: Khanki Barrage
Page 67 of 127
4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage:

Qadirabad Headworks is headworks on the River Chenab in Hafiz Abad District, Punjab
Qadirabad Headworks is used to control water flow in the River Chenab for irrigation and flood
control purposes.
Salient Features:
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Qadirabad
1967
900000
50
3375 ft.
1
Figure 4.18: Qadirabad Barrage
Page 68 of 127
4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage:

Trimmu Barrage is a barrage on the Chenab River in the Jhang District, Punjab. It is
situated downstream of the confluence of the River Jehlum and River Chenab. It is situated some
25 km from the city of Jhang near the village of Atharan Hazari where the River Jehlum flows
into the River Chenab. Trimmu Barrage is used to control water flow into the River Chenab for
irrigation and flood control purposes.
Trimmu Barrage was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by English engineer. Its name
was changed later, primarily as a flood control mechanism to protect the city Jhang from floods.
Salient Features:
Table 4.19: Silent Feature of Trimmu Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
Max. Design Discharge (cumec)
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Trimmu
1939
645,000
37
3025
3
Figure 4.19: Trimmu Barrage
Page 69 of 127
4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage:

The Panjnad barrage is the last barrage constructed on River Chenab at downstream
confluence point of River Sutlej. The barrage was constructed in 1925-1929 with design
discharge of 450,000 cusec and upstream HFL RL 341.5 to irrigate 1.8325 million acres of
Bahawalpur and Rahim yar Khan Districts by diverting 11882 cusecs.
Salient Features:
Table 4.20: Silent Feature of Panjnad Barrage
Maximum designed capacity
Maximum recorded flood in 1973
Total width between abutments
Clear water way
Minimum U/S flood level R.L. 341.5
Minimum D/S flood level
Pond level normal
Off-Taking Canals
700,000 cusec
802,516 cusec
3,400 ft.
2,820 ft. (47 bays of 60 ft. each)
R.L. 341.50 ft.
R.L. 340.30 ft.
R.L. 337.50 ft.
3
Figure 4.20: Panjnad Barrage
Page 70 of 127
4.4.13 Balloki Barrage:

Balloki Headworks is a headworks on the Ravi River in the Punjab. Balloki Headworks
is used for irrigation and flood control.
Salient Features:
Table 4.21: Silent Feature of Balloki Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Balloki
1889
750000
48
4000 ft.
1
Figure 4.21: Balloki Barrage
Page 71 of 127
4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage:

The meaning of the word SIDHNAI is Straight River. A stretch of eight miles of River
Ravi at Sidhnai is nearly straight and does not meander. It is thought that is could be an artificial
channel excavated in the distant past to prevent flooding in the Multan area. Before construction
of the new Barrage, an old weir existed about six miles D/S of the Barrage. The weir known as
Sidhnai Weir could only pass some 100,000 Cs of water as its maximum capacity. A new
Barrage was designed to pass a maximum peak discharge of 150,000 Cs located about 31000 Ft
U/S of the old weir. D/S straight reach was excavated and widened to increase the capacity from
100,000 Cs to 150,000 Cs. The existing road bridge on Multan Shorkot road and Railway Bridge
were re-constructed and the existing weir was dismantled. The object of new Sidhnai Barrage is
to receive water from Chenab and Jehlum Rivers from Trimmu for feeding Sidhnai and SidhnaiMailsi-Bahawal Canals.
Salient Features:
Table 4.22: Silent Feature of Sidhnai Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Sidhnai
1965
167000
15
712 ft.
2
Figure 4.22: Sidhnai Barrage

Page 72 of 127
4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage:

Sulemanki Headworks is Headworks on the River Sutlej in the Punjab. Sulemanki
Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control.
Salient Features:
Table 4.23: Silent Feature of Sulemanki Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Sulemanki
1927
309000
24
2200 ft.
3
Figure 4.23: Sulemanki Barrage
Page 73 of 127
4.4.16 Islam Barrage:

Islam Barrage, located about six miles north-west of Hasilpur town, was constructed
across River Sutlej during 1922-1927 as a component of Sutlej Valley Project for feeding
Bahawal Canal (5,400 cusecs) and Qaim Canal (558 cusecs) on the left bank and Mailsi Canal
(4,883 cusecs) on the right bank. It was designed for a maximum discharge of 300,000 cusecs.
After the implementation of Indus Water Treaty, the head regulator of Mailsi Canal at Islam
Barrage was abandoned and the canal started receiving supplies from the new Sidhnai-Mailsi
Link Canal constructed in 1965. Similarly the capacity of Bahawal Canal was reduced to 1,000
cusecs by shifting lower areas of the canal on to the new Mailsi-Bahawal link.
Salient Features:
Table 4.24: Silent Feature of Islam Barrage
Barrage
Year of Completion
No. of Bays
Length of Barrage
Off taking canals
Islam
1927
300000
29
1650 ft.
2
Figure 4.24: Islam Barrage
Page 74 of 127
Mailsi barrage and syphon is constructed on Sutlej river to control water for flood and
irrigation purposes. Ghazi Brotha Barrage is on Indus River and is used for irrigation and flood
control purposes. Munda Headworks is situated on River Sawat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
approximately 5 km downstream of the under construction Munda Dam and 35 km of Peshawar.
It is used for irrigation and flood control purposes in River Sawat.
4.5 Conclusion:
Above all information was about the dams and barrages of Pakistan, some of them was
constructed after Indus Water Treaty in 1960 to overcome the shortage of water in eastern rivers
by constructing link canals from western rivers, in next pages we will discuss about different
canals off-taking from these barrages, their location and discharge etc.
References:
Economic Survey of Pakistan - P&D Division, Islamabad
South Asia - Water Vision 2025 - A Document Framed by Global Water Partnership
(2000)
Engr. Dr Izhar ul Haq, Barrages and Dams in Pakistan for Pakistan Engineering
Congress, 1990.
Pakistan Water & Power Development Authority, Annual Report 1999- 2000, 2001.
Asim R. Khan, M. Kaleem Ullah, Saim Muhammad, Water Availability and Some
Macro Level Issues Related to Water Resources Planning and Management in the Indus
Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan, 2002
1993.
www.scribid.com
Sridhar seema(2008), Kashmir and Water: conflict and cooperation, In shahid imtiaz
Advanced Contemporary Affairs(Ed),Lahore: Advanced Publishers, pp 263-269.
Partial data acquired from Indus River System Authority for flows of rivers in Pakistan.
www.wikipedia.com
Page 75 of 127
Chapter No. 05
Canal System of Pakistan

5.1 What is Canal?
Canal may be regarded as a man-made water way that serves the function of drainage or
irrigation. Canal takes the water from river and transports it to the field area where utilization is
made. The canals come out from river dams and barrages. A canal may be lined or unlined
depending upon its material of formation. If a canal is made up of natural material then it is
unlined, if the material is other than natural material then canal is lined.
5.2 Canal System of Pakistan:

The irrigation and canal system of Pakistan is regarded as best among others worldwide.
It is also the largest. About three fourth of the agricultural land of Pakistan comes under this
canal system. At present Pakistan have three large dams and many small dams in this system.
These dams are controlled by 19 barrages. A total of 58 canals are included in this system.
Among these 12 are linked and other 46 are normal canals. To utilize ground water 0.7 million
tube wells have been installed. In Pakistan canals are the most popular means of irrigation as
they supply plenty of water at very cheap rates.
5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan:

Canal System of Pakistan consists of three main important types of canals;
Perennial Canals
Non-Perennial Canals
Inundation Canals
a) Perennial Canals:
These are crucial in canal system of Pakistan. Perennial canals ensure regular supply of
water all the year round. These canals supply water to farmers field. Perennial canals sprout
from barrages or dams. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Lower and upper Bari
Doab, Lower & Upper Chenab canal and Sidhnai. Apart from these Upper Jehlum and river
Sutlejs Canals are also important. Trimmu Headworks is the starting point of Jehlum canals.
Sutlej River originates from it at Islam, Panjnad, Ferozpur and Sulaimanki Headworks.
b) Non-Perennial Canals:
Non-perennial canals only run in Monsoon and summer. They get their water from rains.
This category also has many canals. These include Sutlej, Sidhnai (from Ravi) and haveli (from
Chenab) canals. They also constitute an important part in canal system of Pakistan.
Page 76 of 127
c) Inundation Canals:
Rainy weather and season is the only time when these canals run. It actually happens due
to raised level of water in rivers. Uncertain water quantity is supplied by them. Their source of
water is also river but there is a difference. They carry extra flood water. That is why these are
also called flood canals. Some canals of Chenab and Indus River are the examples.
5.3 Link Canals:

Link canals are used are used to divert water from one river to other river. There are 12
link canals are in Pakistan. Following are the link canals of Pakistan. These link canals were
constructed after Indus Water Treaty during the period of 1960 to 1970s.
Chashma-Jehlum
Taunsa-Punjnad
Marla-Ravi
Upper Chenab-Ravi
Rasul-Qadirabad
Qadirabad-Balloki
Balloki-Sulemanki
Trimmu-Sidhnai
Sidhnai-Mailsi
Mailsi-Bahawal
Abasia Link Canal
BRBD
The link canals have a total length of about 800 Km with a total capacity of about
100,000 cusecs. These canals transport water from the three western rivers to the three eastern
rivers which run short of water as their water has been allotted to India. Now we will discuss the
features of these link canals.
5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal:

It joins the Jehlum and Indus River. It off takes from Chashma Barrage on its left bank
and conveys water to River Jehlum to meet the requirement of the canals off-taking on trimmu
headworks on river Jehlum near Jhang. The link is an unlined earthen channel with a design
capacity of 21,200 cusecs, bottom width 380ft, and a full supply depth of 14ft.The work on the
canal was started in 1967 and completed in 1970.its length is 94km. Greater Thal canal also off
takes from C-J link canal. Discharge of Greater Thal canal is 8500 cusec.
5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 1200 cusecs. It takes off from Taunsa on the Indus and transfers
water from the Indus to the Chenab to feed the Punjnad Canals Its length is 58 kms.
5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal:

This canal was designed for a capacity of 22,000 cfs with a velocity of 4.28 feet per
second, a depth of 14.6 feet. It links are Chenab & Ravi. Its length is 100kms.
Page 77 of 127
Fig 5.1: Different Canals off taking from Different Barrages
Page 78 of 127
5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal:

It originates from Marala barrage on river Chenab. It links Chenab with Ravi. Its Head
discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs. Its length is 26.659 miles. It passes
from district Sheikhpura and reaches to the River Ravi.
5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 19000cusecs and it is the 2 nd largest link canal after ChashmaJehlum link canal. It transports water to the Chenab River Upstream of the Qadirabad Barrage. It
is the link between Jehlum and Chenab. Its length is 40km.
5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal:

It originates from Qadirabad Barrage on River Chenab. Its discharge capacity is 18,600
cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab to Ravi at Balloki Barrage. Its length is 125kms.
5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal:

It originates from Ravi River at Balloki barrage. Its discharge capacity is 15, 400
cusecs. It connects the Ravi with Sutlej. Its length is 84kms. The Balloki Sulemanki (BS) Link
Canal was constructed in 1967 under Indus Basin Treaty off-taking from Balloki Barrage.
5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 11000 cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab via Trimmu
Barrage to the Ravi. Its length is 66kms.
5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal:

It originates from Ravi River at Sidhnai barrage and joins Sutlej River at Mailsi. Its
discharge capacity is 10,100 cumec. Its length is 198kms.
5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 310 cumec. It originates from Mailsi Siphon, and supplies
water to Bahawal canal.
5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal:

It originates from river Chenab at Panjnad barrage.
5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal:

The Link Canals have discharge capacities ranging from 2200 cusecs to 4200 cusecs.
Three rivers are linked. Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Its length is 158kms.
5.4 Irrigation Canals:

Irrigation canal is one whose water is used for irrigation purposes. Irrigation canals
consist of main canals, Branch canal, Major and minor distributaries. There are about 46 main
Page 79 of 127
canals in Pakistan. Here we will discuss the main canals off-taking from the barrages discuss in
previous chapter.
5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River:

Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Ravi;
a) Balloki Barrage:
Following irrigation canal off takes from Balloki barrage;
Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC):
Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) off-takes from Balloki Barrage which is located
southwest of Lahore at a distance of about 65 km. The Balloki Barrage was constructed during
1911-13 and LBDC was commissioned in 1914. The LBDC serves a cultivable command area of
about 1.7 million acres in Districts Kasur, Okara, Sahiwal and Khanewal. Approximately
275,000 farm families in the LBDC command derive their livelihoods directly from crops grown
over the command area including wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, fodder, flowers,
vegetables, and citrus and other orchard crops. LBDC is an important and progressive agriculture
area in Punjab and offers significant potential for increased productivity.
Salient Features of LBDC:
Designed Capacity at Head
9,841 cusecs
Canal Command Area
1,700,000 acres
Present Carrying Capacity (Kharif)
8,600 cusecs
Water Allowance
3.33 cusecs/1000 acres
Length of Main Canal
125 miles
Length of Branch Canal
33.5 miles
Length of Distributaries and Minors
1,500 miles
Fall Structure
20
Head Regulators
55
Bridges
17
Outlets
3,927 No's
Page 80 of 127
b) Sidhnai Barrage:
From Sidhnai Barrage Sidhnai canal with discharge capacity of 127 cusec, Sidhnai-Mailsi
and Mailsi- Bahawal link canals are off take.
5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej:

Following irrigation canals off take from River Sutlej;
a) Sulemanki Barrage:
Following irrigation canals off take from Sulemanki Barrage;
1) Pakpatan Canal:
Location: Multan
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5508 cusecs and tail discharge is 24 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 113.47 miles Area to Be Irrigated.
Gross area is 1046326 and culturable area is 961158.
2) Eastern Sadqiya Canal:
Location: Multan.
Length of Canal: 49 miles Area to Be Irrigated.
3) Fordwah Canal:
Location: Multan.
Length of Canal: 8.97 miles.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 465024 and culturable area is 430112.
b) Islam Barrage:
Following irrigation canals off take from Islam Barrage;
1) Qaim Canal:
Location: Multan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 483.00 cusecs and tail discharge is 61 cusecs.
Page 81 of 127
Length of Canal: 7.43 miles Area to Be Irrigated.

2) Bahawal Canal:
Location: Multan.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 57469and culturable area is 52023.
5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River:

Following canals are off-take from Chenab River;
a) Marala Barrage:
Following irrigation canals off take from Marala Barrage;
1) Upper Chenab Canal:
Location: Lahore Zone Design
Discharge: Head discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs
Length of Canal: 26.659 miles
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 19600 and culturable area is 12449
2) Marala Ravi Link Canal:
Location: Lahore Zone
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 22000 cusecs and tail discharge is 20000 cusecs
b) Khanki Barrage:
Only one canal off-takes from Khanki barrage which is Lower Chenab Canal.
Page 82 of 127
Lower Chenab Canal: It was dug in 1892. Following distributaries are coming out of L.C.C;
Rakh Branch Canal

Jhang Branch Canal (Upper)
Jhang Branch Canal (Lower)
Gogera Branch canal etc.
These canals irrigate 1.2 million acres of cultivable lands in Hafiz Abad, Nankana Sahib,
Faisalabad, Jhang, Toba Tek Singh and Chiniot districts through a network of 67 distributaries.
The land of LCC (W) Area Water Board is very famous all over the world for the production of
rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, wheat, oil seed and fodder. The Lower Chenab Canal (East) is
about 300 km in length and 60 km in width. It covers a gross area of about 2.12 million acres
with CCA of 1.84 Million acres in the districts of Gujranwala, Hafiz Abad, Sheikhupura,
Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib and Toba Tek Singh.
Salient Features of L.C.C:
Table 5.1: Salient Features of LCC
Year of completion
Design discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Area to be irrigated
Location of area
i.
1892
11727 cusec
155.9 (canal mile)
Left bank canal(Khanki head works)
3054000 acres
1.24 mHa
Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad Distt
Rakh Branch Canal:
The Rakh Branch originates from canal Lower Chenab. The canal was dug in 1892
during colonial rule. Many famous towns are situated at near the Rakh Branch such
as Safdarabad, Sangla Hill, Salarwala, Chak Jhumra, Gutwala, Abdullahpur and Faisalabad. The
canal ends at Samundri. Rakh Branch Canal has a length of 31.86 kilometres. The upstream and
downstream discharge of Rakh Branch Canal in Hafiz Abad Division is given in the following
table as;
Table 5.2: U/S and D/S discharge of Rakh Branch Canal

Sr no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Discharge U/S Discharge D/S

(cusec)
(cusec)
1099
1066
1055
938
938
878
878
755
755
640
640
576
U/S level
(FSL) ft
666.90
657.45
651.49
646.44
636.73
628.88
D/S level
(FSL) ft
664.59
654.73
649.29
640.44
631.18
626.41
Drop
Ft
2.31
2.72
2.20
6.00
5.58
2.47
Page 83 of 127
Fig 5.2: Line Diagram of LCC

ii.
Gogera Branch Canal:
Gogera branch canal also called as upper Gogera branch off-takes from LCC, with a
design discharge of 6000 cusec and length of canal is about 77.51 miles. Barala branch and lower
Gogera branch canals are off take from upper Gogera branch.
iii.
Jhang Branch Canal:
The Jhang Branch is a canal that originates from the Lower Chenab canal. It is the
longest
canal
of Sandal
Bar. It
supplies
water
to
lands
in
three
districts, Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh. Hence, the canal's major area of distribution
is Rachna Doab.
c) Trimmu Barrage:
From Trimmu barrage Haveli canal, Rangpur canal and T-S link canals off take. Both
canals run parallel and ultimately fall in river Ravi at Sidhnai. T-S link canal is a link canal while
Haveli canal is an irrigation canal.
Page 84 of 127
Haveli Canal:
Location: Multan Design
Discharge: Head discharge is 12500cusecs and tail discharge is 10000 cusecs
Length of Canal: 44 miles
d) Panjnad Barrage:
Following canals off take from Panjnad Barrage;
1) Panjnad Canal:
Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge.
Head discharge is 10484 cusecs and tail discharge is 4274 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 38 miles.
2) Abbasia Canal:
Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge.
Head discharge is 1394 cusecs and tail discharge is 587 cusecs.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 117663 and culturable area is 111333.
5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum:

Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Jehlum;
a) Mangla Dam:
Upper Jehlum link canal off takes from Mangla dam.
Upper Jehlum Canal:
Year of Completion: 1915
Length of Canal: 55 miles
Discharge : 1200 cusec

Page 85 of 127
b) Rasool Barrage:
Lower Jehlum and R-Q link canals off take from Rasool Barrage. R-Q link canal is the
link canal and Lower Jehlum canal is an irrigation canal.
Lower Jehlum Canal:
Year of Completion: 1901
Location: It is a main canal located in Rasul Division.
Design Discharge: Its authorized head discharge is 5500 cusec. Its authorized tail
discharge is 3705 cusec.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross command area is 1728349.00 Acre. Its Culturable command
area is 1485776.00 Acre.
5.4.5 Canals on Indus River:

Following canals are off-take from different barrages of Indus River;
a) Jinnah Barrage:
Thal canals off-takes Jinnah Barrage;
Thal Canal: The amount of water that it carries is 2.534 MAF. It is divided into 2 different
divisions.
i.
Thal canal main line lower
Location: It is a main canal located in bhakkar.

Year of Completion:
1947
Design Discharge:
4100 cusec
Length of Canal:
100.50 miles
Gross Area:
3534 acres
Culturable Command Area:
2966 acres
Page 86 of 127

ii.
Thal canal main line upper
Location: It is a main canal located in kalabagh. It is categorized in the zone of Sargodha.

Year of Completion:
1947
Design Discharge:
9000 cusec
Length of Canal:
100.50 miles
Gross Area:
2460861 acres
Culturable Command Area:
2115931 acres
b) Chashma Barrage:
Chashma Right Bank and C-J link canals are off-take from Chashma Barrage.
Chashma Right Bank Canal (CRBC):
Design Discharge:
2500 cusecs
Length of Canal:
71 miles
c) Taunsa Barrage:
Following canals are off-take from Taunsa Barrage;
1) Kachi Canal (Under Construction): It will irrigate Muzaffargarh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur districts
of Punjab and Dera Bugti, Naseerabad, Bolan, Jhal Magsi Districts of Baluchistan.
Length: 500Km (300Km Lined in Punjab 200Km Unlined in Baluchistan)
Capacity:
6000 Cusecs
Distributaries & Minors
2000KM, 713000 Acres
Command Area:
PHASE-I:
PHASE-II:
PHASE-III:
102,000 CCA
267,000 CCA
344,000 CCA
Page 87 of 127
2) Dera Ghazi Khan Canal (DGK Canal):

Location: It is a main canal located in D.G Khan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8900 and tail discharge is 5514.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 947874 acres and CCA is 901984 acres.
3) Muzaffargarh Canal:
Location: Muzaffargarh Zone.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8901 and tail discharge is 2776.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 906490 and cultural command area is 838380.
d) Canals of Guddu Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Guddu Barrage;
1) Ghotki Feeder/Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1962
8490 cusecs
Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage)
855231acres 0.35mHa
Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.
2) PAT Feeder/Canal:
Location: Nasirabad and Jafarabad districts of Balochistan
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
1962
3176 cusecs
106CM
Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage)
380827acres 0.15mHa
Page 88 of 127
3) Desert Feeder/Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Off-taking location
Location of area
1962
12945 cusecs
Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage)
Sukkar, Mirpur,Rohri,Kalat Distt
4) Begari Sindh Feeder:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1962
15494 cusecs
Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage)
958857acres 0.39mHa
Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.
e) Canals of Sukkar Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Sukkar Barrage;
1) East NARA Canal:
NARA canal is the longest canal of Pakistan, carrying discharge almost equal to that of
Thames River at London and its bed width which is 346 ft. is 1 (one and half) times as big as
of Suez Canal.
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
13649cusecs
226CM
Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)
2240186acres 0.91mHa
Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.
2) Rohri Canal:
Rohri Canal is the 2nd largest canal of Pakistan which through slightly shorter in length
than Nara Canal is yet taking discharge much more than the former.
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
10883cusecs
26001213acres 1.1mHa
Page 89 of 127
3) East Khairpur Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
2096cusecs
10CM
369596acres 0.15mHa
4) West Khairpur Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
1940cusecs
24CM
322000acres 0.13mHa
5) North West Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
5152cusecs
36CM
Right bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)
940014acres 0.38mHa
6) Rice Canal:
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
10658cusecs
81CM
519660acres 0.21mHa
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1932
3150cusecs
131.1CM
550963acres 0.22mHa
7) Dadu Canal:
Page 90 of 127
f) Canals of Kotri Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Kotri Barrage;
1) Abdul Wah Canal (Feeder):
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Off-taking location
Location of area
1955
4100cusecs
Left bank canal (Kotri Barrage)
487347acres 0.20mHa
Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin, Mirpur
2) Fulleli Canal (Feeder):
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Off-taking location
Location of area
1955
14350cusecs
929358acres 0.38mHa
Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin,Mirpur
3) Pinyari Canal (Feeder):
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Off-taking location
Location of area
1955
13000 cusecs
786353acres 0.32mHa
3) Kalari Baghar Canal (Feeder):
Year of Completion
Design Discharge
Length
Off-taking location
Location of area
1955
9075 cusecs
5761m
Right bank canal (Kotri Barrage)
603741acres 0.24mHa
5.5 Conclusion:
Some irrigation canals are also off take from link canals. Upper and Lower Sawat canals
are off take from Munda Barrage. Left and Right Warsak canals are off take from Warsak dam
on Kabul River and only one canal also off takes from Ghazi brotha project. This was all about
the canal system of Pakistan. In next chapter we will discuss about telemetry system installed by
Government of Pakistan to observe withdrawal of water in different canals at different places of
Pakistan.
Page 91 of 127
References:
Safdar, M. (2007) Indus basin irrigation system of Pakistan. U.E.T.
Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, Proceedings - Water for
the 21st Century: Demand, Supply, Development and Socio- Environmental Issues, June
1997.
1993.
www.scribid.com
Kirmani, S. (1959). Sediment problems in the Indus Basin, part I: Sedimentation in
reservoirs, Proceedings of the West Pakistan Engineering Congress, 43. Lahore, West
Pakistan Engineering Congress, Paper No. 336.
Salman, M.A.S. and K. Uprety (2002). Conflict and Cooperation on South Asias
International RiversA Legal Perspective. (Part II: India-Pakistan Relations). Law,
Justice and Development Series, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Zawahri, N.A. (2007). India, Pakistan, and Cooperation along the Indus River System,
Water Policy (Accepted for Publication).
Gulhati, N.D. (1973). Indus Waters Treaty: An Exercise in International Mediation. New
York: Allied Publishers.
Farhan Sami, Water Quality Monitoring of Hudiara Drain, an independent consultancy
for data analysis and water quality management plan, November 2001.
1993.
Page 92 of 127
Chapter No. 06
Telemetry System
6.1 Telemetry System:
Telemetry is a highly computerized communications method by which measurements are
made and other data collected at remote or unreachable points and transmitted to receiving
equipment for monitoring. The word is derived from Greek origins: tele = remote and metron =
measure. The term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g. using radio,
ultrasonic, or infrared systems).
A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It contains a sensor, a
transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Telemeters are the physical
devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or
hard-wired, analog or digital, other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic
and optical.
6.2 Applications of Telemetry System:

Telemetry system has a wide range of applications some of them are given below;
Agriculture.
Water management.
Meteorology.
Oil and gas industry.
Space science.
Swimming Pools.
Defense, space and resource exploration.
Rocketry.
Flight testing.
Military intelligence.
Energy monitoring.
Resource distribution.
Medicine/Healthcare.
Fishery and wildlife research and management.
Communications. Etc.
Here we will discuss only its applications in agriculture and water management.
Page 93 of 127
6.2.1 Agriculture:
Many activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend upon well-timed
availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a key role in
disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters essential for
decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf
fitness for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to
calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial
to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to
come from within the crop, so telemetry system is used for this purpose.
6.2.2 Water Management:

Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging
functions. Main applications include AMR (automatic meter reading) groundwater monitoring,
leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. It can also be used on canal
heads to monitor the flow rate.
6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan:

Telemetry System has been designed to observe discharge with the help of gate openings
and water levels. Since sensors are used to observe these parameters, therefore, it helps in
obtaining accurate measurements. The telemetry system is linked to the entire network and can
be facilitated at any other place through telephone/radio system, thus information is spread out to
every corner simultaneously. Thus it helps enormously the managers in proper regulation and
distribution of water while the farmers know about the quantum of water received by them.
The Telemetry system worth Rs 330 million, installed by the Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) at around 23 points at various rivers for satellite monitoring
of water withdrawal from the rivers to help in resolving the issues relating to water distribution
and theft disputes between Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan.
6.3.1 Benefits:
Improved operating and stakeholder/ customer service capability.

Opportunities to standardize operating procedures and to better utilize staff.
Reduced costs and risks through standardization of technology.
Reduced incident risks through the reduction in the number and severity of operational
incidents and improved capability to respond once an incident has occurred (remote
monitoring, remote control, and ability to control groups of assets).
More knowledgeable and capable staff, learning through the power of the technology.
Better ability to negotiate with water managers and stakeholders.
IPD staff and Stakeholders receive information about distribution of water in their offices
etc.
Page 94 of 127
6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan:

In Pakistan telemetry system has been failed to provide correct data it has been providing
faulty data. In some cases there was a difference of almost 25 %, while in some places the
telemetry system even failed to provide data.
Earlier, the Indus River System Authority (IRSA) had refused to take over the charge of
the defective telemetry system, but the Water and Power Ministry ordered the regulatory body to
run the telemetry system, saying Siemens, a company which installed the system, would continue
to work with IRSA until the calibration becomes correct.
"Siemens, a German-based company, was monitoring the withdrawal of water at several
points of the Indus water distribution system through satellite and trying to confirm the
distribution of water among the provinces." There was an agreement between the government
and Siemens for operating the telemetry system for 6 months for which the company was being
paid Rs 8.8 million as operational charges. Half of the time of the agreement was expired, but so
far, at many points, the telemetry system was failed to provide correct reading.
Here are some examples of the faulty data of telemetry system providing on January 6
2005;
Telemetry system did not show any figures about the work of the spillways or
tunnel of the Tarbela dam, but in the manual reading considerable data has been
received. However, some data of the powerhouse was available there.
Similarly, regarding River Kabul flows at Nowshera the telemetry system reading
has shown mean discharge of about 19,743 cusecs, while in manual data it was
14,300 cusecs.
In Chashma, no data was available at the telemetry system; while in the manual
reading complete data was provided.
Regarding the water flows at Sukkur the telemetry system has shown 4,919
cusecs, which is 5,682 cusecs according to the manual data.
6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan:

Following are some causes of the failure of telemetry system in Pakistan;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Improper maintenance,
Lack of technical persons to operate telemetry system.
Sensor failure of the system.
No proper care. Etc.
Page 95 of 127
6.4 Conclusion:
In short telemetry system has many advantages. It reduces labor cost and save time. It
provides timely and exact data. But in Pakistan due to previous mentioned problems it is failed to
provide correct data. Therefore it is need of time to manage our telemetry system to avoid from
problems. In next chapter we will discuss different other problems faced by irrigation system of
Pakistan.
References:
David Hope, Justification for Large SCADA / Telemetry Systems, Perth, Western
Australia, November, 1998.
E.C. Mellinger, K.E. Prada, R.L. Koehler, K.W. Doherty, "Instrument Bus, An Electronic
System Architecture for Oceanographic Instrumentation", WHOI-86-30, August 1986.
H. Berteaux, S. McDowel, J. Bullister1 Carl Aibro, and A.J. Fougere, "Conceptual
Design: An Integrated Sea Water Sampler for the Ocean Sciences", National Science
Foundation, June 1989.
IEEE Serial Ascii Communication Protocol, IEEE- 997 Standard, 1985.
www.pakisan.com
Page 96 of 127
Chapter No. 07
Problems of Irrigation System

7.1 Introduction:
The future of Pakistans agriculture depends on the future of its irrigation and drainage
system, which currently faces major problems. Increasing water logging and salinity,
overexploitation of fresh groundwater, low efficiency in delivering and use, inequitable
distribution, unreliable delivery, and insufficient cost recovery are some of these problems.
These problems, however, are only symptoms of a deeper problem the treatment by the
government of irrigation water as a public good. Such a treatment has caused inefficient pricing
of water, misallocation of resources and widespread rent-seeking behavior. In this chapter we
will discuss about different major problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan.
7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System:

Rigid system design and inadequate drainage, low delivery efficiency and inequitable
distribution of water, waterlogging and salinity, and over exploitation of groundwater in fresh
areas represent major problems in Pakistans irrigation system.
7.2.1 Rigid System Design:

Although the development of barrages, reservoirs, and link canals has provided more
control over distribution, the irrigation system is operated on historic canal diversion patterns
that in many cases no longer correspond to water requirements. Inefficient reservoir capacity
combined with the highly seasonal pattern of river flows which provide roughly 85 percent of
water during the summer result in inadequate water availability at the beginning and end of the
summer and during the winter. This mismatch between water supplies and water requirements
constrains agricultural production.
Each watercourse is a miniature irrigation system, with channels up to 10 miles long.
Watercourse commands range from 200 to 700 acres, with discharges of 1 to 3 cusecs. Each
command is divided into 25-acre squares, each of which has access to the public watercourse at a
single point and includes a network of farm channels. Because the average farm is much smaller
than 25 acres and parts of the farm are not cropped each season, channels can take up as much as
8 percent of the squares area. A better organized square would allow for more cropping area and
less water loss. Improved layouts of farm land with shorter and fewer farm channels could also
improve on-farm delivery efficiency. Redesign of farm layout would require land consolidation
or integration, however, which is difficult in Pakistan because of poor land records. More
efficient designs could easily be adopted in new areas, however.
7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage:

Flat topography and lack of well-defined natural drainage in the Indus Plain create a
surface drainage problem, which has been compounded by the construction of roads, railways,
Page 97 of 127
flood embankments, and irrigation systems that obstruct natural drainage flows. Since the 1960s
efforts have been made to provide drainage in the irrigated areas and several large drainage
programs are ongoing. Out of the gross canal commanded area of 16.7 million hectare acres
about 6.5 million hectare acres requires drainage, of which about 1.86 million hectare acres are
covered under ongoing projects. Providing drainage to such a vast area is a large undertaking. An
area of about 2.38 million hectare acres is estimated to have a water table of less than 5 feet. The
government considers such areas disaster areas give them high priority for drainage. On-going
projects cover only 0.85 million hectare acres of designated disaster areas.
Provision of drainage is essential for maintaining the agriculture sector resource base:
disposal of drainage effluent in the rivers, canals, and evaporation ponds will not be feasible in
the long run. An outlet to the sea with link drains from the rest of the basin will be required to
carry highly saline effluent to the sea. Drainage investments are highly viable, with rates of
return close to 20 percent. The absence of natural drainage and the continuous nature of the
Indus Plain groundwater system require that all drainage infrastructures be developed in an
integrated manner. Independently developed local schemes may be in danger of being
overwhelmed by neighboring undrained areas with high water tables and becoming ineffective.
Because of the large scope of the investments and cross linkages, balanced development in the
drainage sector requires integration of local area drainage needs and such infrastructural
developments as outfall drains for the conveyance of drainage effluent from larger tracts.
7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution:

As a result of age, overuse, and poor maintenance, canal delivery is extremely inefficient.
Average delivery efficiency is 3540 percent from the canal head to the root zone, with most
losses occurring in watercourses. The loss of such a large proportion of surface water reduces
water available for crops and contributes to waterlogging and salinity.
In many irrigation systems with drainage, excess water and water lost in irrigation return
to the river, to be used again downstream. The loss in efficiency to the river basin is thus lower
than the loss to any single scheme. Inequitable distribution represents another serious problem.
Because of poor efficiency water does not reach users at the tail end of the system at least not
at the rate intended in the systems design. Illegal pumping from canals exacerbates the
inequitable distribution of water.
7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity:

Soil salinity may be robbing Pakistan of about 25 percent of its potential production of
major crops [World Bank (1992)]. In an environment like the Indus Basin (flat topography, poor
natural drainage, porous soils and semi-arid climate with high evaporation) irrigation without
adequate drainage will inevitably lead to rising water tables and salinity. The increase in the
diversion of river flows for irrigation and seepage from canals, watercourses, and irrigated areas
has meant a gradual rise in the groundwater table. By the 1960s a series of SCARPs were
initiated. Despite these efforts, however, about 30 percent of the gross commanded area is
waterlogged, of which about 13 percent is considered highly waterlogged. About 8 percent of the
gross commanded area is estimated to be severely affected by salt; another 6 percent is believed
to be moderately affected.
Page 98 of 127
7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas:

Groundwater use has contributed to increased agricultural production since the late
1970s. Groundwater tube wells not only supply additional water but provide flexibility to match
surface water supplies with crop water requirements. The explosive growth in groundwater use
by the private sector (6 percent annual growth in number 2 private tube well) may cause saline
water to contaminate freshwater aquifers by excessive lowering of water tables in fresh
groundwater areas. Furthermore, in many canal commanded areas, where canal water is not
sufficient because of inequitable distribution, farmers depend on tube wells and tend to
overexploit groundwater. In the absence of adequate leaching and effective conjunctive use of
surface and groundwater, excessive pumpage introduces salinity in the root zone.
7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning:

Following problems are faced by irrigation system of Pakistan due to inadequate planning
by government of Pakistan.
7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M):

Pakistans irrigation and drainage system has been deteriorating because of deferred
maintenance and utilization beyond design capacities. Under Bank Projects Provinces agreed to
maintain the 1988 levels of expenditure on surface irrigation and subsurface saline drainage
facilities in real terms. Actual expenditure fell far short of 1988 levels in all provinces except the
North West Frontier Province (NWFP): overall the gap is more than 24 percent, with gaps as
high as 37 percent in some regions (Sindh). Privatization of groundwater tube wells has
proceeded more slowly than planned and in Punjab and Sindh, where most of these tube wells
are located, O&M requirements are twice as high as estimated. Had O&M requirements of
publicly owned tube wells been included the financing gap would thus have been even larger.
7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning:

Investment planning for irrigation and drainage is conducted at three levels in Pakistan.
Sectorial plans establish a medium- to long-term framework for sectorial development, five-year
plans are used for short-term planning, and yearly allocations are made by the Annual
Development Programme (ADP). In the past much effort has gone into sectorial planning. Plans
such as the Revised Action Programme (RAP) and Water Sector Investment Planning Study
(WSIPS), prepared with foreign assistance, take a comprehensive look at sectorial requirements
and objectives. These plans are rarely incorporated wholly into either five-year plans or the ADP,
however and institutional and policy recommendations are often ignored. Instead, the tendency is
to invest in poorly planned civil works packages.
Page 99 of 127
7.4 Conclusion:
There are so many other problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan, including
influence of Indian dams on western rivers, water tempering by cultivators, conveyance losses
etc. so there is a need to mitigate these problems for efficient working of irrigation system of
Pakistan. Government of Pakistan is continuously trying to mitigate these problems and to
improve infrastructure of irrigation system.
References:
Bandaragoda D. J., and G. R. Firdousi (1992) Institutional Factors Affecting Irrigation
Performance in Pakistan. International Irrigation Management Institute Country Paper
Pakistan. 4: 3032.
Pakistan, Government of (1988) Report of the National Commission on Agriculture.
Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Islamabad.
Mase, Toru (1990) Study of Water Users Associations for Irrigation in Asia. Journal of
Irrigation Engineering and Rural Planning (Japan) 18: 516.
Scott, William E., and David A. Redding (1988) Agricultural Credit in Pakistan.
Islamabad: U.S. Agency for International Development. March.
World Bank (1992) Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Changes in Trade and Domestic
Taxation for Reform of the Incentives System and Fiscal Adjustment. Washington, D.C.:
World Bank.
Page 100 of 127
Chapter No. 08
Rainwater Harvesting and Management

8.1 History:
Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Baluchistan (in presentday Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), and Kutch (in present-day India) used rainwater harvesting
for irrigation. The north Punjab areas Rawalpindi, Attock, Jhelum and Chakwal natives rely on
water sources from rainfall and ground water. Pakistan is known as an arid country having
subtropical climate and it may be divided into two regions.
Indus plain
Highlands
Dry climate is dominant in most of the country parts except northern highlands. On an
average about 750 mm of rain fall occurs annually in northern areas. Baluchistan receives about
250 mm of rainfall annually (MINFAL, 2010).
8.2 Rainwater Harvesting:

Collection and concentration of rainwater and runoff and its productive use for the
irrigation of annual crops, pastures and trees domestic and livestock consumption and
groundwater recharge. OR it may be defined as a usual technique applied to accumulate, transmit
and store rainfall from comparatively clean surfaces for further use in future in the same area at a
later time where the rainwater falls such as a mountainous catchment, bare surface or rooftop
surfaces (Mbiliny et al., 2005).The quality of rainwater is always high because of absence of any
obstacle such as mountains and soil where there is no mixing of different minerals and
dissolvable salts, during the rainfall period (Che-Ani et al., 2009). In distant areas of a country,
rainwater harvesting is an important source of water for developing the agriculture. Tsubo et al.
(2000) categorized rainwater harvesting according to the nature of catchment surface used and
the extent of activity.
8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques

The development of rainwater harvesting technique has been practiced in various
world including Pakistan and in India (Glendenning and Vervoort, 2011).
important features about which a considerable knowledge and understanding
rainwater harvesting. There may be two rainwater harvesting techniques for the
rainwater that may be used for different purposes.
countries of the
There are the
is required for
accumulation of
Land-based.
Roof-based.
Page 101 of 127
Water
Harvesting
methods
Microcatchments
Roof-top
systems
Macrocatchments
On-farm
systems
Long-slope
systems
Flood-water
systems
Contour
bench
terraces
Contour
bunds
Hillside
conduit
Water
spreading
Eyebrow
terraces
Meskat
Large bunds
Wadi-bed
cultivation
Inter-row
systems
Negarim
Liman and
tabias
Jessour
Semi-circular
bunds
Runoff strips
Hafair and
tanks
Vallerani WH
basins
Small pits
Cisterns
Fig 8.1: Typical Layout of Water Harvesting Methods
Page 102 of 127
Roof
catchment
systems
Domestic
consumption
Rock
catchment
systems
Ground
catchment
systems
Check and
sand dams,
hafirs
Small scale irrigation, nurseries, livestock

consumption
Fig 8.2: Categories of Rainwater Harvesting on the Basis of its Use
8.3.1 Land-Based:
When the infiltration requirements of the soil have been fulfilled and excess amount of
rainwater flow as overland flow and then become the runoff and this runoff accumulated in
reservoirs for agriculture growth purposes, in ponds for recharging purposes and in tanks for
household, this type of rainwater harvesting technique is called land-base.
8.3.2 Roof-Based:
The rainwater that falls on the top of the roof is harvested for a domestic purpose, small
scale agriculture purposes and is also sometimes used for drinking water because this water is
usually collected from clean surfaces. This type of water harvesting is called roof-based water
harvesting. Further there are three basic components of a typical roof top rain water harvesting
system.
a) Rooftop Catchment:
Rooftop catchment of a RWH system is the surface, which receives the rain water
directly. This can be the roofs in a rooftop system and hill, slopes and watershed or any other
surface in a runoff system.
b) Gutters and Down Pipes:
These are the pipelines and drains that carry rain water from the catchments to the rain
water harvesting. Gutters can be of PVC/PE or Galvanized Iron sheets.
c) Filter unit:
If intended to use rainwater as drinking source.
d) Storage Tank:
Among the above elements the storage tank is the most key item especially its capacity
that determines the cost of the system and its reliability for sustainable water inflow.
Page 103 of 127
8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting:

Following factors should be considered for the identification of most suitable sites for
rainwater harvesting (Prinz and Anupam 2002).
8.4.1 Rainfall:
For designing a rainwater harvesting system, the information about the rainfall intensity,
distribution and other characteristics is the most basic requirement. The distribution of rainfall is
very important. In several rainfall-runoff models, a threshold value of 5mm/event is usually used
for estimation of runoff generation (Prinz and Anupam 2002). Practical rainfall factors intended
for rainwater harvesting system comprise.
Number of days when the rainfall increases the threshold rainfall of the catchment
on weekly and monthly basis.
In years, for the mean monthly possibility and incidence of rainfall.
Possibility as well as reoccurrence for maximum and minimum monthly rainfall.
Frequency distribution for rainstorm of various definite intensities.
Intensity of rainfall.
8.4.2 Land Cover:

Surface runoff generated by the rainfall is also affected by the land cover or vegetation.
Increase in the density of vegetation consequences in a subsequent increase in the interception
losses, retention and infiltration rates which consequently decrease the volume of runoff. Density
of vegetation may be characterized with the dimension of area covered under vegetation.
8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile:

The terrain structure with slope grade and relief intensity is other factor in determining
the nature of rainwater harvesting. The analysis of terrain can be applied in order to determine
the slope length which is a parameter considered extremely important used for the
appropriateness of area for rainwater harvesting. With the increase in slope, the volume of runoff
along the slope length increases. The slope length can be used to estimate the appropriateness for
large-scale, small scale or varied rainwater harvesting system (Prinz et al., 1998).
8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth:

The rainwater harvesting in the vicinity of either cropping or catchment strongly depends
on the characteristics of soil such as the structure of the surface which affects the process of
runoff generation from the rainfall, rate of percolation as well as infiltration, texture and depth of
the soil which will be useful in determining the volume of rainwater accumulated in the soil.
Page 104 of 127
8.4.5 Hydrology of Area:

The processes of hydrology related to rainwater harvesting techniques are concerned for
the generation, movement in addition to accumulation of runoff by rainfall surrounded by a
particular area. The rainwater that falls on an area may be valuable in the form of direct runoff
otherwise useless (evaporation, infiltration and deep percolation). The amount of rainfall that
falls on a particular area which generates a considerable volume of runoff is an indicator of
rainwater harvesting site suitability.
8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions:

The social and economic situations of an area being considered in support of rainwater
harvesting system are much significant for development, designing along with implementation.
The probability for achievements is much better if resource consumer as well as group of people
is taking part since early planning phase. The critical issues of the community should be
considered for the development of rainwater harvesting such as farming system, famers financial
potential, acceptance of farmer for advanced farming and irrigation techniques, possession and
rights of land use.
8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects:

Generally delicate and restricted capacities to adjust the environmental variation have
been observed in ecosystem of dry and hilly areas (prinz et al. 1988). If the rainwater harvesting
techniques are used in such areas then the results of environmental variation will be high. Latest
rainwater harvesting systems may possibly capture runoff at upstream element of catchment,
therefore decreasing the potential of runoff at downstream consumer of their share of resources.
Rainwater harvesting technique must be considered as constituent of the local rainwater
improvement and management system.
8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages:

In dry and hilly areas the main advantage of rain water harvesting is supplying water for
irrigation and domestic purposes. It also plays an important role to increase the moisture contents
of the soil, recharging the groundwater. The main advantages of rainwater harvesting are given
below;
This is free and comparatively clean source of water.

Rainwater is collected at that point where it is required.
The owner of the site operates and manages the rainwater harvesting structure.
Socially up to standard along with environmentally responsible.
It conserves soil and water resources.
Rainwater is friendly to landscape plants and gardens.
It can control heavy runoff.
It uses uncomplicated, flexible technology that is simple to maintain.
High costs saving particularly with increasing water costs.
Page 105 of 127
Supply safe water for human use after suitable treatment.

It has minimum operating expenses.
Construction, operation in addition to maintenance is not labor- intensive.
It can be used for groundwater recharging.
8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages:

Following are some disadvantages of rainwater harvesting;
The uncertainties of the rainfall and limited supplies of water are the major
disadvantages of rainwater harvesting.
For longer dry period it is not a reliable source of water.
Less storage capacity limits, on the other hand the increased storage capacities
will require more operating as well as construction expenses.
The animal wastes and other wastes may contaminate the rainwater making the
rainwater risky for human uses.
Cistern leakage may be caused for deterioration of slopes load-bearing.
Storage sites may be dangerous for children if suitable entrance safety is not
available.
8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan:

Pakistan is the sixth largest country in the world with a population of 2.48% of the
world's total population (UN, 2009). The total population increased from 34 million in 1951 to
170 million by the year 2010. The proportion of urban population increased from 17% in 1951 to
36% by 2010 with urban population of 58 million and population density of more than 209
persons per square kilometer. Hasty urbanization and high population growth rate have directly
impacted the water demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. In Pakistan, about
96 percent of its available water is being used for agriculture, 2 percent for industrial and the
remaining 2 percent is used for the domestic purposes. The year 2025 when the projected
population of the Country will reach up to 267 million, to avoid draught like situation the
adaptation measures are essential to be taken before the time (Ministry of Environment, 2012).
Rainwater harvesting is one of the alternate solutions to conserve and manage the water
resources. There is need to initiate rainwater harvesting not only in urban areas but in rural areas
also to deal with the emerging situation. The need is to be realized by the government as well as
the community. This is a high time to preserve rainwater at any cost and with an immediate
effect. In this regard, the pilot rainwater project has been started by the Capital Development
Authority (CDA) in Islamabad at the compound of Faisal Mosque with the partnership of UNDP
and Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR). After achieving the results,
Islamabad will be the first among the major cities of Pakistan to have a rainwater harvesting
facility to re-charge the underground water table. CDA has planned to establish 20 more
rainwater-harvesting projects in other locations of the Islamabad city (PCRWR, 2004). Rooftop
and Landscape Runoff RWH techniques have also been practiced by Earthquake Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) in many of the earthquake affected areas of Azad Jammu
Page 106 of 127
& Kashmir and Khabarpakhtun Khwah (Bagh, Rawalakot, Muzaffarabad, and Abbottabad)
which required technical improvement (Gardezi, n.d). The Sukaar Foundation and Water Aid
Pakistan have been striving to promote initiatives of rainwater harvesting in villages of Thar to
cope with the issue of water scarcity.
People in Thar Desert have been harvesting 0.06 % of total annual rainfall, enough to
meet one fourth of their yearly drinking water needs. The use of 0.25 % of total annual rainfall
can increase current rainwater harvesting capacity by three times and enable people to meet their
drinking water needs. By using further 0.28 % of total annual rainfall, the 23 % of total
cultivable land of Tharparker can be cultivated to produce low delta Rabi crops enough to meet
food needs of the people and help cope with frequent drought periods in the area (Suthar, 2012).
Importance of rainwater harvesting in Pakistan due to water scarcity especially the
drinking water should be realized. Due to unplanned urbanization, exploitation of ground water
usage has increased manifold and it is very hard to manage the water supply by the WASAs of
the country. The water conservation through rainwater harvesting in urban areas can be a
contribution to Sustainable Water Strategy for Pakistan. The marking out of potential rainwater
harvesting with the help of annual precipitation along with water demand in the present
investigation will of course help to conserve and manage water more efficiently and effectively
(Bhatti and Nasu, 2010). In urban areas, scarcity and accelerating demand of water is a major
concern as in case of Pakistan and it can be reduced by rainwater harvesting, using various
existing structures like rooftops, parking lots, playgrounds, parks, ponds, flood plains, etc.
8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab:

Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR) has been conducting
research studies on rainwater harvesting since 1989 in the Cholistan desert by developing
catchments through various techniques and constructing ponds with different storage capacities
ranging between 3000 m and 15000 m. These ponds have been designed to collect maximum
rainwater within the shortest possible time and to minimize seepage and evaporation losses. As a
result of successful field research on rainwater harvesting system, PCRWR has developed 92
rainwater harvesting systems on pilot scale in Cholistan desert (Kahlon, n.d). The increasing
groundwater extraction in urban areas especially the large cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan
and other cities is posing increasing recharge requirements of the ground water. The annual
rainfall is reasonable and regular enough with respect to quantity for its harvesting but the
Punjab government and the concerned departments have no such planning or policy to take any
initiative. However, a considerable part of rainfall can be harvested through different techniques
if the Punjab government amend and implement the building byelaws. Resultantly, we can
reduce the observed groundwater declining trends in the city (Basharat and Rizvi, 2011).
8.8.1 Focused Area:

Although there is dire need to address the water shortage issues across the country but the
current study area comprises of six (6) major cities of Pakistan in Punjab i.e. Murree, Lahore,
Faisalabad, Multan, Rawalpindi and Chakwal. The selection of cities was also based on the
availability of the rainfall data. However, the capitals of all the provinces have been given due
importance in the study. The mean monthly and average annual rainfall data of these major cities
are given below.
Page 107 of 127
Lahore(1931-2011)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
27
FEB
26
MAR APR
30
17
MAY JUN
17
48
JUL
165
AUG
154
SEP
69
OCT NOV DEC

12
6
11
Mean monthly rainfall data of Lahore

180
160
140
120
100
80
Rain fall(mm)
60
40
20
0
Faisalabad(1951-2004)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
13
FEB
17
MAR APR
22
20
MAY JUN
14
35
JUL
100
AUG
85
SEP
38
OCT NOV DEC

6
3
8
Mean monthly rainfall data of Faisalabad

120
100
80
60
40
Rain fall(mm)
20
0
Page 108 of 127
Multan(1950-2001)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
8
FEB
10
MAR APR
18
13
MAY JUN
12
13
JUL
58
AUG
35
SEP
22
OCT NOV DEC

4
3
7
Mean monthly rainfall data of Multan

70
60
50
40
Rain fall(mm)
30
20
10
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Chakwal(1981-2005)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
22
FEB
30
MAR APR
40
42
MAY JUN
10
10
JUL
61
AUG
90
SEP
50
OCT NOV DEC

20
5
12
Mean monthly rainfall data of Chakwal

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Rain fall(mm)
Page 109 of 127
Rawalpindi(1981-2005)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
50
FEB
80
MAR APR
82
50
MAY JUN
30
55
JUL
250
AUG
300
SEP
100
OCT NOV DEC

25
10
20
Mean monthly rainfall data of Rawalpindi

350
300
250
200
150
Rain fall(mm)
100
50
0
Murree(1981-2005)
Month
Rain
fall(mm)
JAN
25
FEB
35
MAR APR
130
125
MAY JUN
70
100
JUL
290
AUG
250
SEP
125
OCT NOV DEC

75
30
20
Mean monthly rainfall data of Murree

350
300
250
200
150
Rain fall(mm)
100
50
0
Page 110 of 127
Chakwal
Year
Rain
fall(mm)
1978
700
1981
550
1984
400
1987
530
1990
400
1993
550
1996
250
1999
330
2002
280
2005
400
Average annual rainfall data of Chakwal

800
700
600
500
400
Rain fall(mm)
300
200
100
0
1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Lahore
Year
Rain
fall(mm)
1966
550
1971
390
1976
1130
1981
830
1986
615
1991
520
1996
1185
2001
550
2006
750
2011
650
Average annual rainfall data of Lahore

1400
1200
1000
800
Rain fall(mm)
600
400
200
0
1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Page 111 of 127
Faisalabad
Year
Rain
fall(mm)
1975
430
1978
620
1981
650
1984
350
1987
360
1990
420
1993
270
1996
350
1999
290
2002
350
Average annual rainfall data of Faisalabad

700
600
500
400
Rain fall(mm)
300
200
100
0
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Murree
Year
Rain
fall(mm)
1960
1275
1961
1900
1962
1280
1965
1720
1970
1710
1975
1600
1980
1700
1995
1250
2000
450
2005
750
Average annual rainfall data of Murree

2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
Rain fall(mm)
800
600
400
200
0
1960 1961 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1995 2000 2005
Page 112 of 127
Multan
Year
Rain
fall(mm)
1982
215
1984
105
1986
220
1988
120
1990
160
1992
520
1994
300
1996
210
1998
130
2000
80
Average annual rainfall data of Multan

600
500
400
300
Rain fall(mm)
200
100
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Karachi is the provincial capital of Sindh Province and is the largest city where Lahore in
the capital of Punjab, the second largest city of Pakistan. Karachi is relies on the surface water
for domestic use. The Rawalpindi city is the fourth largest city of Pakistan and mainly relies on
groundwater. The Faisalabad and Multan are certainly located in the flat alluvial plain of Punjab
province whereas Peshawar and Rawalpindi are located in hilly areas.
8.9 Conclusion:
Rainwater harvesting is a best technique in rain fed areas for agriculture purposes. In
Pakistan there are so many potential sites for rainwater harvesting. It is used to overcome the
shortage of irrigation water. In this technique rainwater is stored in this way risk of flood is also
minimized. There is a need to adopt this technique to conserve our water resources.
Page 113 of 127
References:
Ahmad, I. (2013) College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Punjab:
Lahore.
AHMED, A., U. MUSTAFA AND M.KHALID.2011. Impact of roof top rain water
harvesting technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Ashfaq, A. and Ashraf, M. (2014) Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Groundwater
Behaviour in the Soan Basin of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan.
Pakistan Meteorological Department: Lahore
Page 114 of 127
Chapter No. 09
Ground Water and Its Quality

9.1 Importance of Groundwater
Groundwater is a reliable resource, which can be utilized any time. Groundwater is used for
agriculture, drinking water supply and industry all over the world, including Pakistan. Thirty five
percent of agricultural water requirements in Pakistan are met from groundwater. Most of the
drinking water supplies are also drawn from groundwater. If cost of one tube well is taken as Rs.
50,000, the total investment for groundwater development in Pakistan will be Rs. 30 billion.
Groundwater development is a significant factor in alleviating poverty, especially in rural areas
where groundwater access secures the agricultural output. Groundwater usage contributes US$
1.3 billion to the national economy per year. Studies have shown that due to use of groundwater,
yields of crops have increased 150-200 percent and cropping intensities have increased from 70
to 150 percent (Qureshi, 2004).
9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan:

Total Groundwater potential = 67 MAF. The Indus plains constitute about 34 million
hectares (over 85 million acres) of cultivable land, which is under-lain predominantly by sand
alluvium to a considerable depth. Annual recharge to ground water system of this Indus plain is
estimated around 55 MAF, out of which about 48 MAF is within the commands of Indus basin
irrigation system (IBIS). Presently, 39 MAF is being extracted annually. Ground water is also
found in some rain-fed (Barani) lands, and intermountain valleys at depths varying from 100 to
200 ft. During 1950s, large area in the Indus basin became waterlogged and soil salinity
increased adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. It was the time when government got
involved and took initiatives in the ground water development. The efforts began to control the
twin menaces of waterlogging and salinity by the way of providing drainage facilities.
Government embarked on a series of SCARPs in the late 1950s aimed at lowering the ground
water table by providing "vertical drainage" through large capacity deep tube wells. Because of
better economic returns, priority was given to locating SCARPs in the areas with ground water
quality suitable for supplemental irrigation, making the drainage a byproduct in effect. During
past four decades, about 15000 SCARP tube wells have been installed by the Government in 57
projects covering a gross area of about 7.7 million hectares affected land for putting it back into
production. Almost 75% of all SCARP tube wells were installed in the Punjab. About 81% of
total tube wells installed in Punjab province are located in fresh ground water areas, whereas,
remaining 19% tube wells have been installed in saline ground water areas. The tube wells
Page 115 of 127
installed in the fresh ground water areas have been pumping water directly into watercourses;
thus, they are being used for irrigation in addition to canal water. However, the tube wells
installed in the areas with saline ground water, discharge saline water directly into drains, from
where it is being disposed of.
9.3 Historical Background:

Before the introduction of widespread irrigation, the groundwater table in the Indus Basin
varied from about 40 feet in depth in Sindh and Bahawalpur areas to about 100 feet in Rechna
Doab (the area between Ravi and Chenab Rivers).After the introduction of weir-controlled
irrigation, the groundwater table started rising due to poor irrigation management, lack of
drainage facilities and the resulting additional recharge from the canals, distributaries, minors,
water courses and irrigation fields. At some locations, the water table rose to the ground surface
or very close to the surface causing waterlogging and soil salinity, reducing productivity.
In the late 1950s, the Government embarked upon a programme of Salinity Control and
Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) wherein large deep tube wells were installed to control the
groundwater table. Over a period of about 30 years, some 13,500 tube wells were installed by the
Government to lower the groundwater table. Of these, about 9,800 tube wells were in the Punjab.
The projects initially proved to be quite effective in lowering the water table but with time, the
performance of the SCARP tube wells deteriorated. The development of deep public tube wells
under the SCARPS was soon followed by private investment in shallow tube wells. Particularly
in the eighties, the development of private tube wells received a boost, when locally
manufactured inexpensive diesel engines became available. Most of these shallow tube wells
were individually owned. Now more than 500,000 tube wells supply about 41.6 MAF of
supplemental irrigation water every year, mostly in periods of low surface water availability.
These tube wells compensated the loss of pumping capacity of the SCARP tube wells and helped
in lowering the water table.
9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces:

Indus Basin is spread over four provinces of Pakistan Punjab, Sindh, North West
Frontier and Baluchistan. The groundwater potential for each of these is discussed in the
following sections.
a) Groundwater Potential in Punjab:
The main source of groundwater in the Punjab lies in the four hydrogeological zones,
namely Potohar plateau & salt range, Piedmont areas, alluvial plains and Cholistan desert. Indus
River and its tributaries drain the province. In Punjab a lot of work has been carried out on
seepage from the irrigation system and the resulting recharge to the groundwater (PPSGWP,
Page 116 of 127
1998). The groundwater potential is based on rainfall recharge, groundwater recharge and
recharge from irrigation system. The rainfall recharge of 9.90 MAF (15% from 380 mm/year) in
different SCARP areas was worked out during the period 1987-97 (PPSGWP, 1998). The
recharge from return flow, irrigation application, and sub-surface inflows was assessed 7.08
MAF (22.5% of 31.5 MAF). Canal seepage varies from 2 to 8 cfs/msf depending on the size of
canal and drainage characteristics. A delivery of 24 large canals for the irrigation year 1990-91
was with an average of 54 MAF. The recharge from these canals was estimated 21.70 MAF
(40% of 54 MAF). The recharge from rivers was 3.5 MAF and return flows from domestic and
industrial use were assessed as 0.57 MAF (22.5% of 2.52 MAF). The total available groundwater
resource of the Punjab Province was estimated 42.75 MAF.
b) Groundwater Potential in Sindh:
The most important feature is the Indus River, the sole source of surface water for the
Province. The groundwater lies in the three hydrogeological zones namely Eastern (Thar) desert,
Western mountain and Indus valleys. Useable groundwater in the Province is mainly found in the
Indus Plain, which is recharged from the meandering river and from the irrigation network that
has been developed in the area. The other source of recharge - rainfall, is quite scanty and its
contribution to the resource is limited. Rainfall recharge was 1.96 MAF (2% of 265 mm per
year) as worked out by ACE and Halcrow (2001). The recharge from return flows (22.5% of
38.2 MAF), irrigation returns (22.5% of 3.5 MAF) was assessed 8.58 MAF and 0.79 MAF
respectively. In the Sindh, canal water losses have been taken as 15 % of the total average canal
supply of 45 MAF for the period 1988-2000. The recharges from these canals was estimated 6.76
MAF. The recharge from the rivers was assessed 0.3 MAF. The total available resource of the
Sindh Province was assessed to be 18 MAF.
c) Groundwater Potential in K.PK:
K.Pk lies in the four broad geological units namely, metamorphic and igneous rocks of
the northern mountains, Mesozoic rocks of the southeastern part, Tertiary rocks of the
southeastern part and upper Tertiary. The main groundwater resources in the Province are the
alluvial plains and many valleys, which are intermountain basins of tectonic origin. The rainfall
recharge was estimated 0.7 MAF (7% of rainfall over a sub-catchment). The average flows for
the period 1988-2000 was 6.68 MAF (ACE and Halcrow, 2001). In this Province, recharges from
the canal system were worked out 1.0 MAF (15% of 6.7 MAF). The groundwater recharges
include returns from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge
from rivers. The recharge from the return irrigation flows was assessed 1 MAF (15% of 6.5
MAF) and other return flows (15% of 0.88 MAF) were worked out to be 0.13 MAF. The total
groundwater resource of the NWFP was assessed as 3.11 MAF.
Page 117 of 127
d) Groundwater Potential in Baluchistan:

The regions of the Province, which are underlain by unconsolidated sediments formed by
the deposition of mountainous outwash from the surrounding highlands, have been divided into
12 distinct Basins, flood plains and valleys fills. The Province lies in the five hydrological zones
namely, Mountain ranges, Piedmont plains, Valley floor, plains and rolling sand plains. The
groundwater, in substantial quantities, occurs in unconsolidated aquifers in almost all basins and
sub-basins. The groundwater resources in six basins of the province namely Hamune, Lora,
Kachhi Plain, Nari, Pishin and Zhob have been assessed. The effective rainfall coefficient of
20% to the annual rainfall for the mountain areas is used to estimate rainfall of 1.21 MAF. In
Baluchistan canal supplies are small in total and restricted to the east of the Province, adjacent to
Sindh Province. For the period 1988-2000 the average canal flow was 1.94 MAF and recharge
from these canals was assessed as 0.29 MAF (15% of 1.94 MAF). Most of irrigated area of this
Province lies in a saline groundwater zone. Other components of groundwater recharge include
return flows from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge
from rivers. The recharge from return flows of irrigation application was estimated 0.37 (22.5%
of 1.62 MAF) and other return flow was 0.08 MAF (20% of 0.45 MAF). The total groundwater
resource of Baluchistan Province was assessed as 2.13 MAF, mg/l, for drinking purposes, as
there are no alternatives. In Mastung Valley, the groundwater has been found to have high
fluoride content. The Makran coast and Kharan have also been reported to have high fluoride
groundwater.
9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management:

Groundwater management is facing the following challenges;
Depletion due to overdraft;
Pollution due to agricultural, industrial and human activities
Water logging and secondary salinization due to poor water management and
drainage and unregulated conjunctive use; and
Poor groundwater governance.
9.5 Ground Water Exploitation:

Total water withdrawal in 2008 was an estimated 183.4 km3 , of which surface water
withdrawal accounts for 121.8 km3 (66.4 percent) and groundwater withdrawal accounts for 61.6
km3 (33.6 percent). This mainly refers to the IBIS, the withdrawal outside the IBIS being
extremely small (GoP, 2008a).
Page 118 of 127
In 2008, agriculture withdrew an estimated 172.4, or 94 percent of the total water

withdrawal. Municipal and industrial water withdrawal was an estimated 9.7 km3 and 1.4 km3 ,
respectively (Figure 2) (GoP, 2008a; Zakria, 2000).
Fig 9.1: Groundwater Withdrawal by Source (Total 183.421 km3 in 2008)
Fig 9.2: Groundwater Withdrawal by Sector
Page 119 of 127
Groundwater is pumped using electricity and diesel fuels. There are currently one million tube
wells, of which 87 percent are operated by diesel. Power failures, extended load shedding and
poor electricity supply are the main reasons for the slow growth of electric tube wells compared
to diesel-operated tube wells (Ahmad, 2008b).
Table 9.1: No Tube wells per years in Pakistan

Year
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-2000
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
Total
506,824
531,259
563,226
609,775
659,278
707,273
768,962
950,144
984,294
999,569
931,306
921,121
921,229
Baluchistan
21,059
22,048
22,456
21,115
21,115
29,914
31,794
34,126
34,492
34,492
32,222
34,054
34,054
K.Pk
9,726
11,956
11,956
11,956
12,842
12,747
12,758
12,739
12,753
12,773
14,382
14,412
14,553
Punjab
452,431
473,667
500,631
543,243
588,130
610,750
656,898
824,879
845,573
857,774
884,228
872,444
872,444
Sindh
23,588
23,588
28,581
33,661
37,191
53,862
67,512
78,400
91,472
94,530
474
211
178
9.6 Groundwater Depletion:

There is no mechanism for regulating groundwater use in Pakistan. Groundwater rights
are not protected under legislation. Anybody having land and sufficient financial resources can
install a tube well on his or her land and abstract any amount of water at any given time without
consideration of safe yields. Groundwater abstraction from 1965 to 2002 has increased from 10
BCM to 68 BCM. Over 80 percent of groundwater is exploited by the private tube well
owners/farmers.
Unplanned pumpage is creating severe management and equity problems. Due to
continuous lowering of water table, groundwater is becoming inaccessible to small farmers,
which is threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Already 5 percent of the tube
wells in Punjab and 15 percent in Baluchistan are beyond the reach of poor farmers. This
situation is likely to increase to 15 and 20 percent in the two provinces, respectively
(Mohtadullah, 2004).
Page 120 of 127
Table 9.2: Ground Water Depletion in Pakistan
Fig 9.3: Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Components
Page 121 of 127
9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution:

Groundwater salinity in various provinces is shown in Figure 9.4. About 17 percent area
of Punjab and 75 percent in Sindh is underlain by saline groundwater (TDS>3000 ppm). About
70 percent of tube wells pump saline water for irrigation, which is escalating secondary
salinization. Problems are not only due to salinity but also sodicity.
Leaching from municipal and industrial effluents, fertilizers, pesticides, solid wastes, and
disposal of saline drainage effluent and seawater intrusion causes pollution and contamination of
groundwater. Untreated sewage and sullage in urban areas are disposed of into rivers and other
surface water bodies through a mixed system of open drains and sewage pipes in the major
metropolitan centers and primarily through open drains in the other urban centers. It is estimated
that in the province of Punjab, 112 comics of municipal and sewerage effluent is being disposed
of into the river bodies. The major part, i.e. 83 comics, of municipal and sewerage effluent of
Lahore city is disposed of into the river Ravi. Leakage of effluents from septic tanks and
sewerage drains endanger the aquatic and human life. A large number of industrial units are
scattered throughout Pakistan in rural and urban areas. These units dispose their wastewater into
the nearby drainage.
Fig 9.4: Groundwater Quality vs. Tube well Percentage for Different Provinces
Page 122 of 127
Table 9.3: Ground Water Quality in Faisalabad
9.7.1 Soil Salinization:

The salt-affected soils associated with the use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation
have become an important ecological entity of the Indus basin, yet according to the latest
estimates, the extent of salt-affected lands has decreased to about 4.5 million hectares from about
6 million hectares in 1980s (WAPDA 2007). Due to differences in annual rainfall and geomorphological conditions, the problem of salinity is much more severe in the lower part of the
Indus basin (Sindh province) where about 56% of the total irrigated land is affected with salinity.
This is mainly because of the presence of marine salts, poor natural drainage conditions and the
use Of poor quality ground water for irrigation because surface waters supplies in the Sindh
province are not enough to meet the actual crop water and leaching requirements. Furthermore,
leaching opportunities are also very limited due to highly saline soils at shallow depths and
highly saline groundwater at deeper depths (Bhutta and Smedema 2007). These problems have
brought into question the sustainability of the system and the capacity of Pakistan to feed its
growing population.
9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts:

Declining groundwater tables and land degradation as a result of poor quality
groundwater use for irrigation has seriously affected the social fabric of Pakistani society. Drying
of karez systems in Baluchistan have increased the livelihoods burden on women due to out
migration of spouses for income supplementation. On average, a woman must carry more than
200 l of water every day, which creates an enormous burden on her time and physical capacities.
Similar conditions also exist in the Cholistan areas of Punjab where women have to walk miles
to bring fresh drinking water from natural streams as groundwater is very deep and hazardous to
Page 123 of 127
health a it contains heavy metals. Soil salinity remains a hazard for the Indus basin and threatens
the livelihood of farmers, especially the small-scale ones. Land degradation is reducing the
production potential of major crops by 25%, valued at an estimated loss of US$ 250 million per
year (Haider et al. 1999). Groundwater overdraft has also led to sea water intrusion in the coastal
areas of the Indus basin which is threatening ecology of wetlands. Important aquatic resources,
mangrove forests and coastal areas need to be protected. Mangrove forests cover 130,000 ha and
are an important source of firewood and provide the natural breeding ground for shrimps.
9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects:

The problem of salinity is all the more serious because the groundwater in the Indus basin
is saline except where the fresh water of the Indus and its tributaries has refreshed it over the
millennia. Furthermore, the irrigated area is extremely flat and, without proper drainage, prone to
waterlogging. The problem of adding irrigation water to ground water is accentuated when the
irrigation water supply must be increased to leach salts or when farmers over-irrigate to
compensate for an unreliable system (or in response to artificially cheap irrigation water).
Fig 9.5: Scarp Projects Location in Pakistan
Page 124 of 127
Attacking the twin menace is a massive undertaking, and the IDA's assistance is only a
small part of the effort. The IDA has made 27 irrigation loans or credits to Pakistan for a total of
US$1,305 million. Nine of these, or US$457 million, were principally for drainage to control
salinization and waterlogging. Nevertheless, the problem is far from solved, and Pakistan
continues to lose almost as much irrigated land each year as it gains from investments .
The SCARP Transition Pilot Project was supported by an IDA credit for SDR 8.7 million
(US$1O million). Although the vertical SCARP tube wells had been highly successful at
lowering the water table and reducing soil salinity, they were an unsustainable burden on the
government's budget. The costs of operating and maintaining the wells were substantial, and the
government did not recoup these expenditures from the farmers. Service grew progressively
worse as the tube wells began to deteriorate and power supplies grew less and less reliable. The
transition pilot was designed to resolve these problems by eliminating public tube wells in areas
with plentiful fresh groundwater and enabling farmers to construct their own tube wells.
9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects:

By June 1985 WAPDA had completed 32 reclamation projects covering a gross area of
8.77 million acres. This included the construction of 12819 tube wells and 2131 miles of surface
drains at a total cost of Rs. 4955.00 million.
Table 9.4: Percent Change in Water Quality
Page 125 of 127
The projects in execution include 15 reclamation projects covering a gross area of 6.99 million
acres, involving construction of 3841 tube wells and 8979 miles of drains of which 4669 miles of
tile drains. The total estimated cost of these schemes is Rs. 10215.00 million. There can be no
doubt that the SCARP-projects have provided some relief to the affected lands but it is also
generally agreed that the objectives were only partially achieved. The SCARPs also had a great
impact through their demonstrative effect. This is evidenced by the construction of private tube
wells which number increased from a few thousands at the start of the programme to over
200000 by June 1985. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in
reducing the waterlogging and salinity conditions. Cropping intensities also increased but there
are many other factors involved and the exclusive contribution of the SCARPs has not yet been
evaluated. After 30 years of struggle and with billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from
solving the problem. The percentage change in water quality due to different SCARP projects is given in
table 9.4.
9.9 Conclusion:
This was all about groundwater and its quality. In some areas of Pakistan groundwater is
fit for agriculture and in some areas its quality is not good. Similarly due to continuous pumping
of water groundwater table declining day by day, water logging is also another problem of
groundwater. SCARP projects also have greater contribution in changing the groundwater
quality. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in reducing the
waterlogging and salinity conditions. It is our bad luck so that after 30 years of struggle and with
billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from solving the problems of groundwater.
Reference:
Richard Greenburg (2005). The Ocean Moon: Search for an Alien Biosphere. Springer
Praxis Books.
Ground Water Rule (GWR) | Ground Water Rule | US EPA. Water.epa.gov. Retrieved
on 2011-06-09.
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/students/wastsite/grndwatr.htm
http://www.pakissan.com/english/watercrisis/water.resource.potential.of.pakistan.shtml
ACE and Halcrow, (2001) Technical Report No.30, Exploitation and regulations of fresh
groundwater, February 2001.
Ahmad, Nazir, (1974) Water logging and salinity problems in Pakistan, Irrigation
Drainage and Floo Control Research Council of Pakistan, Lahore.
Hafiz, A., (2002). Groundwater resources of Pakistan, International Waterlogging and
Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI), WAPDA, Lahore.
NDP, (200). Sector Planning Studies Interim Report, 1 Part B, National Drainage
Program, Lahore.
Page 126 of 127
PEC, (1994) Proceedings of 65th Annual session 1994, Paper No. 538, Pakistan
Engineering Congress Lahore.
PPSGWP, (1998) Annual Progress Report, Punjab Public Sector Ground Water Project,
Lahore, 1998.
WAPDA, (1981) Planning Division, Groundwater development and potential in canal
commanded areas of the Indus Plain.
http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/gwmonitoring.aspx
Chanillo, B.A. 1999. Groundwater pollution by nitrogenous fertilizers: a UNESCO case
study. UNESCO report, Lahore, Pakistan.
Cook, J. 1987. Left Bank outfall drain Stage I project: scavenger well studies and pilot
project. Institute of Geological Sciences Technical Report.
Iqbal, S.Z. 2001. Arsenic contamination in Pakistan. Presentation at a UN-ESCAP
meeting, Geology and Health: Solving the Arsenic Crisis in the Asia-Pacific Region;
UNESCAP, Bangkok, May 2001.
Muzaffar, M.U. 1997. Atlas of Pakistan. Survey of Pakistan, Rawalpindi.
Ali, S., Zeng, F., Cai, S., Qiu, B. & Zhang, G. (2011). The intraction of salinity and
chromium in the influence of barley growth and oxidative stress. Plant Soil Environ.,
57(4), 153-159
Farah, N., Zia, M. A., Rehman, K. & Sheikh, M. A. (2002) Quality characteristics and
treatment of drinking water of Faisalabad city, Int. J. Agri. Biol.,4(3), 347-349.
Katyal, M. & M. Satake, (1990). Total Environmental Pollution. Annual Pub., India. 57
9.
WHO, (1985). Standard Methods for Examination of water and waste water. 16th Ed.
American Water Works Association: Washington DC, USA.
Page 127 of 127

Irrigation System of Pakistan

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Irrigation System of Pakistan

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Project and Report 1