Reducing Distribution Transformer Losses

Through the use of Smart Grid Monitoring

Kerry D McBee, Student Member, IEEE, Marcelo G. Simes, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractEnvironmental concerns have resulted in

distribution companies becoming more cognitive of the amount of
carbon emissions they produce. Research has shown that
distribution transformer losses comprise a significant amount of
the overall losses on a distribution and transmission system.
Although some of the losses are considered the cost of operations,
it may be possible to reduce the total losses associated with
overloaded transformers depending upon the amount of overload
and the efficiency of the replacement transformer. Through the
use of a Smart Grid monitoring system, overloaded distribution
transformers can be identified for replacement as soon as loads
become sufficient to shorten the expected life of a transformer.
This paper examines how to utilize a Smart Grid monitoring
system in conjunction with loss of life calculations to identify
overloaded transformers. Also described in the paper are the
necessary input requirements, algorithm requirements,
notification threshold levels, and an economic analysis that is
specific to a Smart Grid overloaded transformer replacement
program.
Index TermsDistribution transformer, no-load losses, lineload losses, loss of life, Smart Grid

I.

INTRODUCTION

Smart Grid will consist of an extensive communication

system that allows for continuous monitoring of most
utility devices [1][2][3]. Monitoring distribution transformer
loads and environment conditions continuously will provide
distribution companies with the ability to identify transformers
that begin to routinely serve loads that are higher than their
rating, which results in losses that are higher than those
experienced at the rated full-load. The higher the losses
produced, the more carbon emissions produced. As we move
into the 21st century, utility companies are experiencing
increasing pressures from governments and customers to
become more environmental friendly.
Losses associated with distribution transformers can make
up 26.6% of the average transmission and distribution losses
of a system, which can make up 7.5% of the power generated
[4]. Overloaded distribution transformers can have losses that
are considerably higher than those at rated full-load since lineload losses are a function of the square of the load current and
can be 5 times greater than no-load losses at rated load [5].
Manuscript received June 15, 2009
Kerry D. McBee is with Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, CO
80401 as a PhD student. He is also affiliated with Xcel Energy (email:
power.engineer@ymail.com)

Many distribution companies presently utilize transformer

overload limits or algorithms that are based on historical load
data, load profile estimates, and/or transformer loss of life
calculations to predict transformer failure [6][7]. Loss of life
calculations utilizes transformer loading, ambient temperature,
and transformer hot-spot temperature to predict the loss of life
of a transformer [7][8]. The most commonly used algorithms,
which distribution companies utilize to develop loading levels
and overload limits, are founded in IEEE Standard C57.91,
IEEE Std. C57.100, and/or IEC 354. Unfortunately, the loss of
life prediction results are only as accurate as the load and
temperature data applied to them, which may be based on peak
load values or demand estimates from energy meters [6]. A
Smart Grid can provide actual load data to improve the
accuracy of the loss of life calculations and also provide
immediate notification to utility personnel so that the
overloaded transformers are replaced as soon as possible,
thereby reducing losses immediately.
This paper examines how a Smart Grid monitoring system
can be utilized to incorporate a transformer overload
replacement program that will minimize losses, reduce carbon
emissions, and lower operating costs. Although a Smart Grid
program such as this may be merged with an existing
company program that routinely calculates transformer loss of
life, this paper describes a completely autonomous program
with the understanding that variations in structure may occur
depending upon budgetary restrictions, company goals, and
existing equipment and programs.
Section II of the paper focuses on the advantages of
identifying overloaded transformers, while Section III details
the necessary structure of such a program and the required
algorithm inputs. The required algorithms for a Smart Grid
transformer overload identification procedure are detailed in
Section IV. An example utilizing the described procedure is
then performed in Section V.
II.

OVERLOAD TRANSFORMER REPLACEMENT

Replacing a distribution transformer with the next higher

size typically results in more operational losses. Although
line-load losses are decreased due to the same load current
flowing through a smaller winding resistance, no-load losses
are increased due to increased core requirements. Since noload losses occur 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, the majority
of distribution transformer losses may occur due to these types
of losses.

Transformers that serve loads greater than rated capacity

may experience line-load losses greater than the accumulative
no-load losses depending upon ambient temperature and
duration of overload conditions. Unfortunately, without an
extensive monitoring system, utility companies find it difficult
to identify these transformers [6].
Replacing overloaded transformers with larger and possibly
more efficient transformers can be cost effective and
environmentally friendly depending upon the duration of load
conditions, ambient temperatures, and efficiency of existing
transformer and replacement transformers. The Department of
Energy (DOE) has recently established distribution
transformer efficiencies that are higher than the average
efficiencies of transformers that were installed in the past [9].
Existing inefficient 25kVA liquid-immersed distribution
transformers may have efficiencies as low as 97%, whereas
the same size DOE compliant transformer is 98.91% efficient
[5][9].

Without an active monitoring system, many utilities

determine daily load profiles by utilizing load probability
predictions that are derived from customer type, measured
historical load data, or neural networks [6][7][10]. Although
these approaches may be sufficient for an overall load
management system, they may not possess enough accuracy to
identify a specific distribution transformer as overloaded with
a high level of confidence [4]. Even if companies do employ a
proactive replacement program based on loss of life
calculations, the confidence in which the program is
implemented is low due to the lack of real physical evidence
that loading issues or inherent failure conditions exist.
Understanding that the use of estimated values may result in

predictions that are too conservative or extreme, many

replacement programs fall short of being able to identify
transformers before they reach the end of their life. The
extensive monitoring system of a Smart Grid can improve the
accuracy of a companys overloaded transformer identification
program.
III.

SMART GRID FUNCTIONS

A Smart Grid system consists of a communication system

that allows for two-way communication between the
distribution company and customer, while also providing the
distribution company with a means to monitor system and
device attributes [1][2][3]. Existing Smart Grid technology
allows for recording of transformer voltage and load values
[11]. Including environment and winding temperature sensors
on transformers will allow for real data to be utilized in loss of
life calculations.
Data provided by a Smart Grid monitoring system is input
into a multi-agent or Smart Grid software to determine if
system actions are required [2][3]. A multi-agent system is the
description given to a system that works in conjunction with
several agents to monitor and control a distribution system
without human interaction. Multi-agent technologies can
perform analysis based on monitored inputs to determine
optimal system configuration, optimal distributed generation,
active Voltage and VAR compensation requirements, and
demand response requirements [3].
The multi-agent or Smart Grid software that can identify
overloaded transformers and determine whether replacement
is warranted would require the ability to perform transformer
loss of life calculations and possibly economic evaluations
[5][8]. These calculations would require actual load data and
two types of information that must be manually input into the
initial programming. Figure 1 illustrates the basic structure of
a Smart Grid overloaded replacement program.
The first type of input data described consists of specific
transformer information. How the information is applied is
described in latter sections of the paper. Information required
include:

KVA rating of the transformer

Losses (no-load and line-load losses)
Installation date
Capital costs of next size greater transformer

Information regarding company costs and goals comprise

the second type of information necessary for calculating loss
of life and economic evaluations. How the information is
applied is also described in a latter section. Information
required includes:

IV.

Loss of Life/Actual Life ratios (LOL/AT)

Book life value of transformer
Attributes necessary to calculate no-load costs (A)
and load-line losses (B) of the transformer
IDENTIFYING OVERLOADED TRANSFORMERS

Transformer sensors that are connected through a Smart

Grid communication system will provide real-time data that is
utilized to evaluate the life expectancy of a transformer based
on load and environmental conditions.
A. Smart Grid Calculation Requirements
The Smart Grid algorithms must determine the following:
1) Calculate the hourly loss of life of a transformer.
2) Identify transformer as overloaded.
3) Determine the exhausted life of the transformer based on
load and environmental conditions.
4) Determine the remaining life of the transformer based on
load, environmental conditions, and installation date.
5) Perform economic evaluation that compares replacing
overloaded transformer to leaving the overloaded
transformer installed.
B. Calculating Loss of life daily
The loss of life calculations determine the rate at which the
internal insulation of a transformer deteriorates. The IEEE
standard utilizes an ambient temperature of 20C (68F),
hotspot temperature of 110C (230F), and rated load as the
normal conditions in determining a life expectancy of 180,000
hrs [8]. Loading above rated capacity during ambient
temperatures above 20C may have a significant effect on the
life of the transformer. Table 1 illustrates the daily load cycle
and temperatures of an overloaded transformer. Utilizing the
loss of life equations described in [8], the daily loss of life for
a 24-hour period is calculated to be 56.88 hrs.
Computation time and data storage may limit the amount of
data that can be stored continuously. Deleting loss of life input
information after the calculations are performed, which could
be performed hourly, can minimize data storage.
C. Indentifying Overloaded Transformers
Smart Grid software or a multi-agent should be set to flag
transformers that are expending more life than expected.
This paper considers a transformer that looses more than 24
hours of life in a 24-hr period as overloaded for that specific
period. However, just because a transformer is overloaded
does not necessarily mean the transformer will not last its
entire expected life. This paper utilizes a Loss of Life to

TABLE 1
DAILY LOSS OF LIFE CALCULATION RESULTS (CONDITION
- OVERLOADED) - 25kVA

Time

Load
(kVA)

ambient
Temp
(Cel)

Hotspot
(Cel)

Loss of
life (hrs)

Total

0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

7
9
9
9.2
10
10
11
20
28
22
19
18
23
32
35
37
42
43
46
43
41
37
22
15

18.6
17.5
16
16.1
15.5
16
17
18
19.7
20
22.4
24.5
26.6
27
28.5
29
31
29
29.3
28
26.3
24
23.4
20

74.6
70
66.1
67
58
55.7
54.6
80
85
76
89
104
121
122
128
130
131
132
130
132
120
116
107
99

0.0185
0.0104
0.0063
0.0071
0.0021
0.0015
0.0013
0.0358
0.0649
0.0220
0.1031
0.5362
2.9845
3.2864
5.8009
6.9842
7.6582
8.3935
6.9842
8.3935
2.7089
1.8296
0.7340
0.3141

0.0185
0.0289
0.0352
0.0423
0.0444
0.0459
0.0473
0.0831
0.1480
0.1700
0.2731
0.8093
3.7938
7.0802
12.8811
19.8653
27.5235
35.9170
42.9011
51.2946
54.0035
55.8331
56.5671
56.8812

Actual Time ratio (LOL/AT) to measure the longevity of a

transformer.
Having a LOL/AT ratio that is greater than 1 indicates the
transformer is loosing life faster than the expected life. The
higher the LOL/AT ratio, the more life is lost. Although a
transformer may be overloaded for a week, the determination
of LOL/AT should be calculated utilizing a minimum of one
years worth of data to account for off and on-peak periods.
Consider a transformer that exhausts 36 hrs of loss every
24-hr period for three weeks (21 days) a year, which is
referred to as the on-peak period. During the remainder of the
year (344 days), the loss of life for a single 24-hour period
never goes above 15 hrs. The highest ratio possible for the
load conditions during that year would be 0.675, which is
illustrated in equation 1. A ratio of 0.675 suggests that the
transformer is expending life at a rate that is less than the
expected life of a transformer. If the same transformer
exhausted 36 hrs of life daily for 300 days of year, the
LOL/AT ratio would be 1.34, which suggests the transformer
is expending life faster than the expected life of the
transformer.

LOL [(36hrs 21days ) + (15hrs 344days )]

=
= 0.675
AT
24hrs 365days

(1)

D. Determining the Exhausted Life of the Overloaded

Transformers
Determining the exhausted life of the transformer may be
the most difficult aspect of incorporating such a replacement
procedure. If the overloaded transformer was installed after

the Smart Grid monitoring system was installed, determining

the exhausted life will consist of utilizing actual data and will
not be difficult to calculate. However if the transformer was
installed prior to Smart Grid implementation, the distribution
company will have to estimate the exhausted life based on
current load and environmental readings.
One method for predicting the amount of life exhausted on
a transformer installed prior to Smart Grid implementation
utilizes the existing company methods of calculating loss of
life without continuously monitored data. This method is
probably the least time consuming since utility companies can
merely utilize information from prior or existing transformer
load programs; however, this approach suffers from the lack
of accuracy that the previous program suffers from.
Another approach to determine the amount of life that has
been exhausted on a pre-Smart Grid installed transformer is to
apply recorded monitored load information to the period
between transformer installation and Smart Grid
implementation. The average load growth and engineering
judgment should be applied backwards to the existing demand
to account for load growth since installation. Once prior load
history and corresponding hot spots are estimated, loss of life
calculations are performed to determine the amount of life
exhausted. Once the exhausted life is determined, it should be
subtracted from the overall expected life of the transformer to
calculate the remaining life of the transformer.
Due to the complexity of this procedure, many companies
may choose to only calculate the exhausted life only after a
transformer is identified as being overloaded. Only performing
these calculations when necessary may greatly reduce
calculation time, time spent researching transformer
installation date, and data storage requirements.
E. Determining the Remaining Life of the Overloaded
Transformers
The calculated or estimated exhausted life of the
transformer is subtracted from the overall expected life to
determine the remaining life of the overloaded transformer.
IEEE defines the life of transformer as 180,000 hours, whereas
IEC 354 doesnt specify a time but implies the life is 30 years
[8]. A study performed by Oak Ridge National laboratory
concluded that the typical distribution transformer life is 31.95
years [5]. Utility companies typically utilize a transformer
book life of 30 35 years (262,800 306,600hr) [5].
The loss of life calculations in the previous section
determined that the transformer described in Table 1
exhausted 56.88 hours of life a day. If this daily exhaustion of
life occurred 365 days a year, which is unlikely, the amount of
life exhausted in a year would be 20,761 hrs (56.88 hrs/day
365 day). If the transformer experiences this type of load from
install to failure, and the expected life is 180,000, the
transformers expected life would only be 8.67 years (180,000
hrs / 20,761 hrs/yr). Assuming the transformer was flagged in
year 2, the remaining life would be 6.67 years.

F. Determining Replacement Costs

Utility companies commonly utilize the Total Owning Cost
(TOC) equation to evaluate the economic value of a
transformer [6]. The typical TOC calculations utilize no-load
(NLL) and line-load losses (LL) at rated capacity, the costs of
no-load (A) and line-load losses (B), salvage and refurbish
costs, and transformer purchase cost to evaluate the cost of
owning a transformer. With several changes made to reflect
the utilization of actual load data, TOC calculations can be
utilized to evaluate transformer replacement on a Smart Grid.
There are several methods for calculating no-load costs and
line-load costs. This paper will not address the different
methods, but acknowledges that most of them utilize the
present worth value of energy costs, fixed costs, system
capacity costs, annual loss factor, and other factors that are
affected by losses [5]. A and B values, whose units are $/watt,
do not change for typical transformer purchase evaluations.
However, to compare transformer options for periods less than
the typical life utilized for transformer purchases, the A and B
quantities must reflect the shortened time frame and not the
typical life of the transformer. Therefore, the Smart Grid
software, or multi-agent, must be able to determine A and B
values for the time period (k), which is equal to the remaining
life of the transformer.
An additional change to the TOC calculation includes the
utilization of actual load-line loss data instead of rated losses.
The rated load-line losses are multiplied by the square of
average hourly demand (Pd) in per unit to account for actual
loading conditions. This change reflects the actual load profile
of the transformer and improves the accuracy of the economic
evaluation. The standard TOC and Smart Grid TOC equations
for transformer replacement are illustrated in equations (2) and
(3). Transformer purchase cost is added to the TOC equation,
while salvage costs are subtracted.

TOC = A NNL + B LL

(2)

TOC SmartGrid = A NNL + B LL ( Pd ) 2

(3)

V.

EXAMPLE

A 25kVA, 97.1% overhead liquid-immersed transformer is

installed on a Smart Grid system with initial load conditions as
illustrated in Table 2. Monitored data from the Smart Grid
indicates that the load profile remains constant over the first 5
years of operation with no substantial load growth. The
average LOL/AT ratio for the first 5 years is 0.3256, which
indicates the transformer is properly sized and should last the
remainder of its book life.
Air conditioning units are installed throughout the
neighborhood in year 6. Monitored load data indicates that in
the first year after air conditioning installation, the average
daily profile during May through September is similar to the

profile in Table 1. The LOL/AT ratio for the sixth year of

operation is 1.178, which indicates that the transformer may
not last its entire book life. The transformer is flagged as being
overloaded and Smart Grid software, or a multi-agent,
performs replacement analysis.
Loss of life calculations indicate that in the first 5 years of
operation, the daily loss of life for the transformer was 7.816
hrs in a 24 hour period, which results in a loss of life of 2,852
hrs for each year. Therefore, in the first six years of operation,
the transformer has exhausted 24,585 hrs (14,264 hrs first 5
years plus 10,322 hrs in year six) of its 180,000 hrs of life,
which leaves 155,415 hrs of remaining life, or 15.06 years.
This duration is utilized as the time frame (k) in the economic
evaluation.
The next decision to make is to determine whether or not
the replacement of the transformer is warranted based on
economic impact. The cost of replacing the transformer may
show that suffering the losses for a longer period of time is
warranted.
The Smart Grid TOC is calculated for the overloaded
transformer and replacement transformer to determine if an
upgrade is an acceptable economic decision. For the utility
company in the example, the purchase cost of a 98.3%
efficient 50kVA transformer is approximately $1,700. The
company no longer utilizes 25kVA transformer, so the
replacement transformer will be salvaged at a cost of $400.
The A and B costs are calculated for period (k) and are
determined to be 2.15 and 0.35 $/watt. The present worth
value of no-load and line-load losses for the overloaded
transformer are determined to be $1,699 and $2,079, while the
present worth value of losses for the replacement transformer
is $361 and $1,889.
The calculated Smart Grid TOC for leaving the transformer
until failure is $3,779, while the owning costs of replacing the
transformer is $3,550. These results indicate that upgrading
the transformer is a better economic decision by $229. It
should be noted that the results are very dependent upon A and
B quantities. If both A and B are reduced by $0.10, the best
economic decision by $163 would be to leave the existing
transformers. This is the main reason that A and B quantities
should be calculated for each individual case.
Distribution companies may have other considerations that
do not necessarily translate to costs. One benefit of replacing
the transformer proactively is the elimination of an unplanned
outage due to transformer failure, which affects the companys
overall reliability and customer service. Depending upon a
companys position on preserving the environment, they may
have a minimal acceptable loss when reducing carbon
emissions, which are typically accounted for in the calculation
of A and B.
The avoided losses by upgrading the transformer to a DOE
recommended efficient transformer 15 years prior to failure is
60,432 kWh for the remaining life of the overloaded
transformer. The losses avoided per transformer are small
when viewed on its own. However, utility companies may
experience several hundred overloaded transformers a year.
The same utility company in the example averages 300

overloaded transformers a year. If 10% of the transformers

identified as overloaded were experiencing similar conditions
to the one in the example, in a single year the company would
avoid 1,812,960 kWh of future generation.

OBSTACLES TO PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

VI.

TABLE 2
DAILY LOSS OF LIFE CALCULATION RESULTS (CONDITIONADEQUATELY SIZED) - 25kVA

Time

Load
(kVA)

ambient
Hotspot
Temp (Cel)
(Cel)

0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

19.5
19.5
14.975
16.375
13.35
12.5
13.65
14
16.25
19.5
20.025
20.75
22.05
23.25
24
24.75
29.5
30
26.5
25.25
22.5
21.675
20
19.25

9.5
9.3
8.5
8.7
8.8
9.5
10.8
12.2
13.8
15.4
17
18.4
20
20.8
21.8
21.9
21.5
20.4
19.2
18.4
16
15.3
12.5
11.9

74.6
73.3
66.1
67.9
58
55.7
54.6
55.8
57
64.1
69.5
76.3
79.8
86.5
89.8
110.2
114.2
115.9
114.3
110.1
97.8
93.2
84.5
84.2

Loss of
life (hrs)

Total

0.0185
0.0158
0.0063
0.0079
0.0021
0.0015
0.0013
0.0016
0.0019
0.0048
0.0097
0.0229
0.0350
0.0773
0.1130
1.0207
1.5293
1.8115
1.5447
1.0103
0.2757
0.1658
0.0612
0.0591

0.0185
0.0343
0.0406
0.0485
0.0506
0.0522
0.0535
0.0551
0.0569
0.0618
0.0715
0.0944
0.1294
0.2067
0.3196
1.3403
2.8696
4.6811
6.2258
7.2361
7.5117
7.6776
7.7388
7.7979

The Smart Grid will provide accurate load and possibly

temperature information, but other factors may reduce the
accuracy of the results.
Overloaded transformer evaluations are heavily dependant
upon determining the exhausted and remaining life of the
transformer. Without existing monitoring equipment, it may
be difficult to calculate these values for a distribution
transformer that was installed prior to Smart Grid
implementation.
To accurately predict loss of life of a distribution
transformer, the hottest spot within the transformer must be
known. Although this can be monitored with sensors, the
implementation costs of said sensors may be significant.
Relying upon ambient temperatures to calculate hot spot
temperatures may reduce the accuracy of the results.
VII.

CONCLUSION

A Smart Grid has the capability of actively monitoring

distribution transformers, which if applied to Smart Grid
software or a multi-agent, have the ability to identify
overloaded transformers without human interaction. By
utilizing actual demand data, unlike many existing programs,
the accuracy of calculating transformer loss of life is
improved. Once a transformer is identified, the software or a
multi-agent performs economic evaluations based on utility

economic goals to determine if a replacement is warranted.

Only if the replacement is warranted will utility personnel be
notified. Implementing such a program can be environmental
friendly while also being economically sound.

VIII.

REFERENCES

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IX.

BIOGRAPHIES

Kerry D. McBee (BS99-MS00) is pursuing his Ph.D. degree in the

Department of Engineering at Colorado School of Mines, which is where he
received his B.Sc. degree in 1999. He received his M.Sc. degree in Electric
Power Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, in
2000. During his career he has focused on power quality, reliability, forensic
engineering, and distribution design for companies such as NEI Power
Engineers, Peak Power Engineering, Knott Laboratory, and Xcel Energy. His
fields of interest include Smart Grid implementation affects upon distribution
engineering and utility operations.
Marcelo G. Simes (S89-MS95-SM98) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.
degrees in electrical engineering from the University of So Paulo, So Paulo,
Brazil, in 1985 and 1990, respectively, the Ph.D. degree from The University
of Tennessee, Nashville, in 1995, and the D.Sc. degree from the University of
Sao Paul, So Paulo, Brazil, in 1998.
He joined the faculty of the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, in 2000 and
has been working to establish research and education activities in the
development of intelligent control for high power electronics applications in
renewable and distributed energy systems.
Dr. Simes received the NSF Faculty Early Career Development
(CAREER) in 2002. He served as the Program Chair for PESC05, Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, and the Conference Chair for PEEW05,
Power Electronics Education Workshop, both held in Brazil. He has been

actively involved in the Steering and Organization Committee of the

IEEE/DOE/DOD 2005 International Future Energy Challenge.