Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
AXONOMETRIC
PROJECTION
OBJECTIVES
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.
6.
7.
AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
S13
A Portion of a Sales Brochure Showing General Dimensions in Pictorial Drawings. Courtesy of Oynojet Research, Inc.
OVERVIEW
Multiview drawing makes it possible to accurately
514
CHAPTER 14
Axonometric
14.1 Sketches for a Wooden Shelf using Axonometric, Orthographic, and Perspective Drawing Techniques- The
Axonometric Projections in this Sketch are Drawn in Isometric. Courtesy of Douglos Wintin.
UNDERSTANDING AXONOMETRIC
DRAWINGS
Various types of pictorial drawings are used extensively in cat
alogs , sale s literature, and technical work. They are often used
in patent drawings: piping diagrams: machine, structural,
architectural design, and furniture design: and for ideation
sketching. The sketches for a wooden shelf in Figure 14.1 are
examples ofaxonometric, orthographic, and perspective
sketches.
The most common axonometric projection is isometric,
which means "equal measure." When a cuhe is drawn in
515
Plane of
pro jection __
Plane of
projection
Object
Object
(plane of prOjectio n~
rolection
p I
Horizon line
Plane of
/
Picture plane
VP
/
F
Line of
sight
~~~~~ :;~s
at
observer's
eye (station
E
F
c
G
14.2
(d) Perspective
516
CHAPTER 14
AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
Plane of
projection
Axonometric
Object
';~~
~~",""m,n"
ar
foreshortened
proportionately
La=Lb=Lc
OX=OY=OZ
(a) Isomerric
14.4
Axonometric Projections
La=Lc
ox=OY
(b) Dimetric
517
s:
(a)
14.5
.J...
(b)
(c)
(a) Isometric View of a 1 inch Cube Shown in SolidWorks, (b) Dimetric View, (c) Trimetric View. Courtesy of
Solidworks Corporation.
14.6 Complicated 3D CAD Models such as this Dredge from SRS Crisafulli lnc., are Often Viewed on Screen Using
Isometric Display-Notice the Coordinate System Display in the Lower Left. Courtesy of SRS Crisafulli, Inc.
518
CHAPTER 14
AX ONOMETRIC PROJECTION
14.7
Isometric Projection
'---I
:j
Isometric projection
of cube
x~z
xO:,z
0 /
xO:'Y
:Oz I!JI!J
w
(a)
14.8
(b)
~
,
Diagonal
projects as
a point
" ~(v
:
0
'z
Iso~et~ic
projection
of cube
Z
y
(c)
Isometric
line
14.9
Isometric Axes
14.10
Nonisometric Edges
14 .4
ISOMETRIC SCALES
519
14.4 ISOMETRIC
SCALES
An isometric scale can be used to draw
correct isometric projections. All dis
tances in this scale are
x true size, or
approximately 80 percent of true size.
Figure 14.11a shows an isometric scale.
More commonly, an isometric sketch or
dr awing is created using a standard scal e,
as in Figure 14.11b. di sregarding the
foreshortening that the tipped surfaces
would produce in a true projection.
If
14.11
.------ TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
14.5 ISOMETRIC
DRAWINGS
When you make a drawing using fore
shortened mea surements, or when the
object is actually projected on a plane of
projection , it is called an isometric pro
jection (Figure 14.11a). When you make
a drawing using the full length mea sure
ments of the actual object, it is an
isometric sketch or isometric drawing
(Figure l4.llb) to indicate that it lacks
foreshortening.
The isometric drawing is about
25 percent larger than the isometric pro
jection, but the pictorial value is obvi
ously the same in both. Since isometric
sketches are quicker, as you can use the
actual measurements, they are much more
commonly drawn.
(a)
14.12
(b)
(c)
(d )
. - - - TIP - - - - - - - ,
Some CAD software will notify you
about the lack of foreshortening in
isometric drawings when you print
or save them or allow you to select
for it.
520
CH APTER
14
I-f
-e
14.13
y
1. Select axes along wh ich to
block in heigh t, weight and
dept h dimensions
y
3. Lightly bloc k in any remainin g
major portions to be removed
through the w hole block
14.14
1 4. 7
521
~B
(a)
14.15
(b)
Directly measure
dimensions that are
aiong isometric lines (in
this case, 44 mrn, 18 mrn,
and 22 mm) .
The dimensions
24 mm and 9 mm
are parallel to
isometric lines and can
be measured directly.
...-- T1 P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --------------.
To convince yourself that non isometric lines will not be true length in the isometric drawing, use a scrap of paper and
mark the distance BA (II) and then compare it with BA on the given top view in Figure 14 .16a. Do the same for line
CA. You will see that BA is shorter and CA is longer in the isometric than the corresponding lines in the given views.
522
C H A f' T E R 1 4
bJ
C,"", blade
Surface N
E C T ION
_E_ r--..:.urface M
~
Surface j
N /)---~
-kiT
(b)
(a )
14.16
(c)
14.17
14 .11
A N G L E S I N I S aM ET RI C
523
~
~D
I 6
0
60
1~
c
C
g~ E 30
~-L-..-.J~
given.
11.00 A
,.--- TI P - - - - - - - - - ,
Estimating 30 angles
If yo u are sketching on graph paper
and estimating angl es, an angle of 30
is roug hly a rise of 1 to a run of 2.
xB
----I
~~ 30.
~~,.
Not 60
Not 60
rl .OO--j
~ K
~' !
<,
524
CHAPTER 14
I~.
a
~bl--
1----r
l
Llli_
(a)
14.18
(b )
(c)
Sections cut
bYPlanes~/
t:::
' .
<,
~
1.Construct sections in isometric.
14.19
,..--- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
It is not always necessary to draw the complete construction box as shown in
Figure 14.18b. If only the bottom of the box is drawn, the triangular base can be
constructed as before. The orthographic projection ot the vertex 0' on the base
can be drawn using offsets 0' A and 0'8, as shown, and then the vertical line
0'0 can be drawn, using measurement C.
14 . 1 3
t
C
~~
~/<3
Equal in
lengt h /
14.20
Curves in Isometric
525
526
C HAP T E R 1 4
A X 0 N OM E T RIC
PRO J E C T I ON
-;-1-;1 --+--niI
lines to the
II -,
1\ /
Wh en more accuracy is required, divide the
c ircle into 12 equal parts, as shown.
Refer to Append ix 39 for detailed meth od s of
constru ctin g the ellipse .
1/1\
['\..1/
,""
I
12 point method
Nonisometric Lines
If a curv e lies in a non isom etri c plane , not all offset measurement s can be applied dire ctly.
The elliptica l face sho wn in the auxiliary view lies in an inclined noni som etri c plane.
etc.) to the fro nt view and down to the base, then measur e
along the low er edge of the constru ction box, as sho wn.
.r.
Dark en
final line s.
14 .15
14.21
Diamete~ ~D iameter
of circle
I
30
of circle
,
30
....-- TIP - - - - - - - - . ,
Here is a useful rule. The major axis of
the ellipse is always at right angles to
the centerline of the cylinder, and the
minor axis is at right angles to the
major axis and coincides with the
centerline.
~90~
Create perpendicular bi
sectors to each side.
They will intersect at four
points, which will be centers
for the four circular arcs.
'"
/,
/ ' 0"
\:
~Minor
axis coincides
with centerlines
, - - - TI P - - - - - - - - - ,
As a check on the accurate location of
these centers, you can draw a long
diagonal of the parallelogram as
shown in Step 4. The midpoints of the
sides of the parallelogram are points of
tangency for the four arcs .
527
528
(HAPTER 14
~True ellipse
1?-_4-""'"
ellipse
(a)
Centerline Method
Draw the isometr ic
ce nterlines . From the
ce nter, draw a constructi on
circ le equal to the ac tual
diameter of the hole or cy lin
der. The cir cle will intersect
the ce nterline s at four point s
A, B, C, and D.
/'" Constuction
A,)I' circle equal
D to diameter
of hole
c
B
Isometric
center lines
Draw lines at 60 0
from horizontal
through the foc i (po ints
C and D ) to locate the
ce nter of the large arc R.
Horizontal
D
~---'-t---\-L.....,~C
Perpendicular
Note that these steps are exactly the same as for the
regular fo ur center ellipse. except fo r the use of the
isometric centerlines instead of the enclos ing paral
lelogram. (When sketching. it worksfine tojust draw
the enclosi ng rectangle and sketch the arcs tangent
to its side s.)
14 .16
r---
529
TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Isometric Templates
Special templates like th is iso metric template
with angled lines and ellipses oriented in
various isometric planes make it easy to draw
isometric sketches.
The ellipses are provided with markings to
coincide with the isometric centerlines of the
hol es-a convenient feature in isometric
drawing.
You can also draw ellipses using an
[iJ~ 0B
(
t-
..-J-+-+--+-J..., __
I
(b)
~-
'
~/
--rc
14.23
I-A-I
(a)
> '
~J
,~/<:://
~/'
(d)
(c)
14.24
530
CHAPTER 14
AXONOMETRIC
0", diameter
R '" radius
()
14.25
PROJECTION
Arcs in Isometric
14.19 INTERSECTIONS
.:.-_-t= _=-
-- - - --
(a)
14.26
(a)
14.27
Intersection of Cylinders
(b)
(b)
1 4 . 20
531
m
A
al-
r---:;;;o-r--.::--+--,;
Given views
14.28
Isometric drawi ng
Jf
Isometric of a Sphere
(a)
14.29
Jt.r
(b)
(a)
14.30
532
CHAPTER
14
AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
(a) Aligned
14.31
(b) Unidirectional
(c) Incorrect
14.22 ISOMETRIC
DIMENSIONING
Isometric dimensions are similar to or
dinary dimensions used on multi view
drawings but should match the pictorial
style. Two methods of dimensioning are
approved
by ANSI-namely,
the
pictorial plane (aligned) system and the
un idirectional system (Figure 14.31) .
Note that vertical lettering is used
for either system of dim ensioning. In
clined lett ering is not recommended for
pictorial dimensioning. Figure 14.31a
and b show how to draw numerals and
arrowheads for the two systems.
In the aligned system, the extension
lines , dimension lines, and lettering for
the 64 rnm dimension are all drawn in the
(b)
14.32
14 .2 3
.'~-...
. . . " " """"'.......
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-
EX P L 0 D E D AS S E M B LIE S
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rut ~t..
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NO.
1
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II
12
13
14
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6J2241oo
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21620101
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21226200
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2119S301
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216'26'2 10
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CAR~IAGE M !C :>'~ E
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QUOTING OR
2121...300
CAR~""'GE ~ lGH r
'21n Qn
70
11626211
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36M203.(
PROTOTYPE ONLY
5,DEPANEL
14.33
36"88 100
f'i UI . 318- I ~ . N YL OC K
36561Q.cS
- .-- ;--
- - - - --,
11126810
14.23 EXPLODED
ASSEMBLIES
(Figure 14.33).
14.24 PIPING
DIAGRAMS
!'tOTES:
1) PIPINGSHOWN IS S01WAf.c
2) ALlOw 2' [ AOi SlD Cf 801lER WOOlJL[S fOR: SERW'lCE ACCESS
J ) DONOJ BlOCKR(WOVAl rY ANYJACl(T PIECES VIllli PIPING C~ N (C TlCli S
.4) HEAnNG POUPS AND AIRUIolI NA1M TO S( LOCA TED AS ~
5) PRCMOE C....s COO<S ON EACH BOllER
AS HIGH AS POSSIBLE
533
534
C HAP T E R 1 4
will show its true size and shape as PO '5 . If regular full-size
scale s are marked along the lines 0 ' P and 0 '5 , and the triangle
is counterrevolved to its original position , the dimetric scale s
may be divided along the axes OP and OS. as shown .
You can use an architect's scale to make the measurements
by assuming the scales and calculating the positions of the
axes, as follows :
cos a =
2hv
--=-.75 _
___.75 ->--.
-115244\
t 103
t
l
38'
'-
10338'
-i:
1338'
1338'
t
(b)
(a)
13125'
1.0
~
t
(c)
Dimettic drawings
1.0
/;~
1.0
~
I
(d)
>
(e)
Approximate dimetric drawings
14.35
(f)
14 .26
535
(b)
14.36
(c)
Dimetric Drawings
1-28-r141
7.5 0
5lJl
28
~28-1
INDICATOR
BRACKq
FOR
THREADING MACHINE
C I-I REaD
-j
An Approximate
Dimetric Drawing
Follow these steps to make a di
metric sketch with the position
similar to that in Figure l4.35e
where the two angles are equal.
- - -
536
CHAPTER 14
AXONOMETRI C PROJECTION
...--- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
14.37
Trimetric Scales
IS
The directions of both the major and minor axes, and the
length of the major axis, will always be known, but not the
length of the minor axis. Once it is determined, you can con
struct the ellipse using a template or any of a number of ellipse
constructions. For sketching you can generally sketch an
ellipse that looks correct by eye.
In Figure 14.38a, locate center 0 as desired, and draw the
horizontal and vertical construction lines that will contain the
major and minor axes through O. Note that the major axis will
be on the horizontal line perpendicular to the axi s of the hole,
and the minor axis will be perpendicular to it, or vertical.
Use the actual radius of the hole and draw the semicircle,
as shown , to establish the ends A and B of the major axis. Draw
AF and BF parallel to the axonomctric edges WX and YX,
1 4 . 29
T RIM ET RI C ELL I P S E S
(a)
i-= Dia t
Dil to
oscaJe--j/ 5Clll
(b)
.----- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
When you are creating a trimetric sketch of an ellipse, it
works great to block in the trimetric rectangle that would
enclose the ellipse and sketch the ellipse tangent to th e
midpoints of the rectangle .
PRESENTATION DRAWING
The MARGE (Mars Autonomous Rover
for Geoscience Exploration) aeroshell,
shown at right, is part of a NASA
Scout mission proposal developed by
Malin Space Science Systems and the
Raytheon Company in 2005 and
2006. The blunt, conical MARGE
aeroshell is an integrated system
providing safe delivery of its payload,
two small, autonomous rovers, to the
surface of Mars. The aeroshell is about
2.4 meters in diameter.
Shown here is the part of the
system which provides aerobraking
for the spacecraft's initial descent
from orbit, the terminal rocket
descent phase just before landing,
and the final soft touchdown with the
surface. With the protective backshell
(where the parachute is located) and
rovers removed, you can clearlysee
the components of the propulsion
and control systems integrated into
the rover egress deck, and color
coded for clarity. In addition to
aerobraking and rocket-powered
descent, the MARGE aeroshell design
incorporates crushable foam layers of
increasing density to cushion the final
touchdown with the planet surface.
After the descent and landing phase
is complete, clamps are disengaged
and the rovers drive off the lip of the
aeroshell under their own power,
537
MARGE SUB-ASSY
WHEEL WELL
THRUSTER
FUEL BAY
UNFINISHED
PYRO SEPS
UNFINISHED ROVER
MOUNTS
HELIUM BAY
AVIONICS BAY
538
C HAP T E R 1 4
14.39
To find the true size and shape of the top view. revolve the
triangular portion of the horizontal plane AOC, which is in
front of the plane of projection, about its base CA, into the
plane of projection . In this case. the triangle is revolved inward
to the plane of projection through the smallest angle made with
it. The triangle would then be shown in its true size and shape,
and you could draw the top view of the object in the triangle hy
projecting from the axonornetric projection. as shown (since all
width dimensions remain the same).
In the figure . the base CA of the triangle has been moved
upward to CA' so that the revolved position of the triangle will
not overlap its projection.
The true sizes and shapes of the front view and side view
can be found similarly, as shown in the figure.
Note that if the three orthographic projections, or in most
cases any two of them, are given in their relative positions. as
sho wn in Figure 14.39, the directions of the projections could
be reversed so that the intersections of the projecting lines
would determine the axonometric projection needed .
14.30
539
4~-X
z
C
Sketch
14.40
Axonometric Projection
540
CHAPTER
14.41
Axonometric Projection
14
AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
positions. You can draw the views on the baselines or even cut
them apart from another drawing and fasten them in place with
drafting tape.
To draw the elliptical projection of the circle, use any points,
such as A, on the circle in both front and side views. Note that
point A is the same altitude, P, above the baseline in both views.
Draw the axonometric projection of point A by projecting lines
from the two views. You can project the major and minor axes
this way, or by the methods shown in Figure 14.38.
True ellipses may be drawn by any of the methods shown
in the Appendix or with an ellipse template. An approximate
ellipse is fine for most drawings.
14 .31
COM P UT ERG R A P Hi e 5
541
PART NAME
uter Tub e
End
op
nner Tub e
Hea t exchanger
ssem Sa mp ler
Fan
a mple Bo ttom
HX Mounting Plate
10
11
o oling Hose
Door
2
3
4
5
6
QTY.
14.43
CAoD at WO R K
ISOMETRIC SKETCHES USING AUTOCAD SOFTWARE
Need a quick isometric sketch? AutoCAD software has
special drafting settings for creating an isometric style grid.
Figure A shows the Drafting Settings dialog box in Au
toCAD. When you check tbe button for Isometric Snap, the
so ftware calculates the spacing needed for an isometric
grid . You can use it to make quick pictorial sketches like
the example shown in Figure B. Piping diagrams are often
done this way, although they can also be created using 3D
tools.
Even though the drawing in Figure B looks 3D, it is
really drawn in a flat 2D plane. You can observe this if you
change the viewpoint so you arc no longer looking stra ight
onto the view.
The Ellipse command in AutoCAD has a special
Isocircle option that makes drawing isometric ellipses easy .
The isocircles are oriented in different directions depend
ing on the angle of the snap cursor. Figure C shows isocir
des and snap cursors for the three different orientations. In
the software, you press CTRL and E simultaneously to tog
gle the cursor appearance.
0 ~.w::onit~j
0 lidOn 1F71
Sr.ap ,~ing
G lid,~ing
Sn'Q X ,pacing
G,idX:poc@:
Snap Y ,paing:
Pol& , pacing
Pol
g. 1""""
Sr.ap Iype
@ G!id , nap
o R~tangulal snap
@ 1' ome1Iic map
G,idboh&vioI
o e,d6plive g1id
o AVow
subdivision below g,id
, pacing
o Oitplay gridbeyondl.imil.
o Follow Dynamic.\1CS
Isometric Snap Selection
OPlion,...
OK
II
Conce!
II
tlelp
o .
c:J
88
-"
10
lli
r-'
o
r
o
1:.1
r-'
o
'?
,.
r
r
;o OCJ
~ \Il o:Oll ~ : l.,..nT7---------------
ORfHO POLAR
isometric snap.
J l
Center cursor
Rightcursor
Left cursor
o
u
KEY W 0 R D S
KEY WORDS
Isometric
Pictorial
Axonornetric Projecti on
Orthographic Projections
Oblique Projection
Fo reshortening
543
adjacent view s, usually the top , front , and right side view,
ca n all be seen at the same time .
Inclined sur faces and oblique surfaces must be determ ined
by plotting the endpoints of eac h edge of the surfac e.
Angles, irre gular curves, and ellipses require spec ial co n
struc tio n techniques for accurate representation.
A co mmo n meth od of dra win g an obj ec t in isom et ric is by
crea ting an isometri c box and drawing the features of the
object within the bo x.
Unlike perspective dr awin g. in whi ch parallel lines co n
verge on a vani shing point, parall el lines are drawn paral
lel in axon ornetric drawings.
Dimerric Projection
Isometri c Axes
Isometri c Projection
Isometri c Se ctioning
Ex ploded As semblies
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Axo nome tric proj ection is a method of creating a pictorial
representation of an object. It shows all thre e dim en sions
of length. width, and hei ght in one view.
Isom etri c is the easie st of the axo no rnetric projections to
draw and is ther efore the most common pictor ial drawing.
Iso metri c drawings created with C AD are often ca lled 3D
models .
Th e spaces betw een the axes o f an isom etric drawing eac h
are 120. Isometric axes ar c dr awn at 30 to the hori zont al
and verti cal.
The onl y lines o n an isometric drawing that are to sca le are
parallel to the thre e isom etri c axes .
An axon om etric drawing is cr eat ed by rot atin g an objec t
about ima ginary verti cal and hori zontal axes unt il three
REVIEW QUESTIONS
I . Wh y is isom etri c drawing more co m mo n than perspecti ve
drawing in enginee ring work?
2. What are the differences between axonome tric projection
and perspecti ve?
3. Wh at type of proj ection is used when creating a 3D model
with CAD?
4 . At what ang les arc the isom etric axes drawn '?
5 . Wh at are the thre e view s that are typically sho wn in an
isom etric drawing '?
6 . Wh ich type of proj ecti on places the observer at a finit e dis
tance from the object ? Whi ch types place the observer at
an infinite distance '?
7. Why is isometric eas ier to draw than dirn etri c or trim etric?
8. Is the four circle ellipse a true ellipse or an appro ximation ?
9. Is an ellipse in C AD a four circle ellipse or a true co nic
sec tion?
EXERCISES
Axonometric Problems
Exercises 14.1-14.9 are to he drawn axonornctri call y. Th e ear
lier isometri c sketches may be dr awn on isometric pap er. and
later s ketches should be mad e 0 11 plain drawing pap er.
Since many of the exercises in this cha pter arc of a gen eral
natu re, they can also be solved using CAD. Your instru ctor may
assign yo u to use CAD for specific problems.
544
CHAPTER
14
A X O NOMETRI C P ROJECTION
1---
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