FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

Area: [units = inch2]

Area of a Rectangle = b d
Area of a Circle = r2
Area of a Triangle = 1 b h
2
Area of a Bolt, = d2 [where d = diameter]
Cable, Tube, Bar

Equilibrium:
M = 0; V = 0; H = 0
Force: {units = kips & pounds}
F = M [Force = Moment ]
d
distance
RETAINING WALL DESIGN {units = kips & pounds}
F = w h2 [Force exerted on the = (fluid pressure provided) X (height)2]
2
Retaining Wall
2
Remember: pcf = psf [pounds per cubic feet = pounds per square foot]
ft
one foot width of wall
SHEAR DIAGRAM SHEAR FORCE {units = kips & pounds}
R = V = w l [Shear Resisting Force= (uniform load per ft) X (distance)]
2
2
BEARING TYPE SHEAR CONNECTIONS {units = kips & pounds}
R = F v A bolts
[Resistance = (allow.shear stress) X (A of bolt cross sections. Remember
to Shear Failure
to multiply A by total # of bolts)]
Remember: Stress = P Therefore, P = Stress X Area
A
Moment: {units = (k ft); (lb ft); (k in); (lb in)}
TAKING MOMENTS ABOUT A POINT TO FIND EQUILIBRIUM
M = Fd [Moment = force X distance]
UNIFORM LOAD {units = (k ft); (lb ft); (lb in)}
M = w L2 [Moment = uniform load X (length)2]
8
8

POINT/CONCENTRATED LOAD AT THE CENTER OF A MEMBER

M=PL
[Moment = Point Load X length]
4
4
2
Remember: w l + P L when Point & Uniform loads combine.
8
4
Watch out: There are various types of Point loads.
ECCENTRIC LOAD {units = (k ft); (lb ft); (lb in)}
M = Pe

[Moment = force X eccentricity]

{Same as M=Fd}

Section Modulus: [units = inch3]

S = b d 2 in3
[Section Modulus]
6
S=M
[Section Modulus = Moment in Inches
Fb
Bending Stress]
Watch out: Both Moment & Stress should be in # or kips.
Remember: For a Roof Beam, S = M
F b X 1.25
S=I
[Section Modulus
= Moment of Inertia
c
(Just know this)
(dist. from extreme fiber to nuetral axis)]
Understand that S contains Moment of Inertia and c.

Moment of Inertia: [units = inch4]

Remember: Moment of Inertia occurs by default about the Centroidal axis.
I = b d 3 in4
[Moment of Inertia]
12
I = b d 3 in4
[Moment of Inertia of a rectangle about its base]
3
I base = I + A y2 in4 [I @ Base = I + Area X (dist. from centroid to base)2]

Center of Area:
Use the formula M = A d derived from M=Fd to find X and Y
A = Sum of Areas of ALL members

Stress: {units = ksi or psi}

BENDING / FLEXURAL STRESS {units = ksi or psi}
Remember: Max. Bending stress occurs at the extreme fibers.
fb = M
[Bending Stress = Moment
S
Section Modulus]
fb = M c [Bending Stress = Moment X (dist. from extreme fiber to N/A)]
I
Moment of Inertia
Remember: Greater the c, greater is the Bending Stress.

AXIAL STRESS {units = ksi or psi}

Remember: Max. Axial stress occurs along the entire cross-section.

fa = P

[Axial Tension or
= Axial Tension Force in lbs or kips]
A
Compression Stress
Area in in2
Remember: Axial Stress is the same at both Tension & Compression
SHEAR STRESS {units = ksi or psi}
Remember: Max. Shear stress occurs at the Nuetral Axis
Remember: Shear Stress is the same at both Vertical & Horizontal axis.
f v = 1.5 V [Actual Shear Stress = 1.5 X Shear Force]
A
Area
Just understand the fol. 2 formulas. No need to memorize:

fv = V Q
Ib
(Statical moment about the
[Shear Stress = (Shear force) X nuetral axis of the area above the plane)]
(Moment of Inertia) X (width of beam)
Q = (section Area) X (dist. from centroid of rect. to the centroid of section
above neutral axis)

f v = 1.5 V = 3 V
A
2bd
Notching on Tension side of a Wood Beam
f v = 1.5 V X d [d = overall d of beam]
b d
d [d = d of the beam that is notched]
Use Actual dimensions of the b and d, NOT Nominal dimensions
Short heavily loaded Beams & Beams with large loads at supports
fv = V
[Actual Shear Stress = Shear Force
dt
(depth of beam) X (thickness of beam)]

Deflection: {units = inches}

SHORTENING OF A COL. OR ELONGATION OF A HORIZ. MEMBER
=PL
AE
[Shortening / Elongation = Force X Length
A of cross-section of member X Modulus of Elasticity]
Remember: Stress = P
A
for change in length, Multiply Stress by Length
Modulus of Elasticity
DEFLECTION OF A BEAM
= 5 w L4
384 E I

[Deflection = 5 X (w in pounds) X (Length in feet X12)4

(384) X 12 X Modulus of Elasticity X Moment of Inertia]
Remember: w # = w #
ft
12
Length in inches = Length in feet X 12

Strain:
=
L

[strain = Deflection
Original Length]

Modulus of Elasticity:
E=f

[Modulus of Elasticity = Stress

Strain]

Thermal effects on structures: {units = inches}

SHORTENING OR ELONGATION DUE TO CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

= e L t
[Thermal Elongation = (Coeff.of thermal linear expansion) X (Orig.Length)
X (Temp Change)]
THERMAL STRENGTH IN A RESTRAINED MEMBER

ft = E e t
[Thermal Stress
= E X Coeff. of linear expansion X Change in Temp]
in a Restrained member

Slenderness Ratio (Loading Capacity): {units = inches}

STEEL COLUMN
kl is the effective length in feet.
SR = k l [Slenderness Ratio = (end cond.) X Unbraced length in inches]
r
Radius of gyration
Remember: Slenderness Ratio should be 200 for a steel column.
WOOD COLUMN
SR = k l [Slenderness Ratio = (k =1) X (Unbraced Length in inches)
b
(cross-section width of rectangle)]
Remember: Slenderness Ratio should be 50 for a wood column.
r=I
[Radius of Gyration = Moment of Inertia]
A
Area

Retaining Wall
F = w h2
2

[Force exerted on = (fluid pressure at top of soil) X (height)2]

the Retaining Wall
2

R M = 1.5 M OT
[DL Resisting Moment = 1.5 (Overturning Moment of the Retaining Wall)]
Factor of Safety (FS) for the Resisting Moment requires it .

FS = R M [Factor of Safety = Resisting Moment

M OT
Overturning Moment]
Remember: FS 1.5
SLIDING OF RETAINING WALL
FS against Sliding = Sliding Resistance (#)
Force causing tendency to Sliding (#)
Sliding Resistance = (Total Vert. Load in # on Ftg) X (Coeff. of Friction)
Force causing Sliding = (Earth pressure in # @ Base of Ftg) X (h in ft)
(2) ft
M= (F) h
[Bending Moment = Force X (ht at resultant force)
3
Remember: Bending Moment occurs at 1/3rd the height of the retaining
wall, where resultant force occurs.

Weld: {units = inches}

[.707 = 2 ]

Throat of Weld = Weld Size X (.707)

2
Capacity of Weld = (Allow. Stress)(Throat)(Weld Size)(Total Weld Length)
Allow. Stress = 18 ksi for E60 electrode weld for ASTM A-36 base plate.
21 ksi for E70 electrode weld for ASTM A-36 base plate.
ft= P
A

[Stress in the
= (Compressive/Tensile Force of the Weld)
throat of the weld (.707) X (Weld Size) X (Total Weld Length)]

Ultimate Strength Design for Concrete:

U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL

[Ultimate Load = 1.4(Dead Load) + 1.7(Live Load)]

M U = 1.4 M DL + 1.7 M LL
[Ultimate Moment = 1.4(Dead Load Moment) + 1.7(Live Load Moment)]
M U = A s f y(d a )
2
Remember: As is available in a table, ASTM STD REINFORCING BARS
[Moment = (strength reduction factor = 0.9) (cross-sectional area of tensile
reinforcemnt) (specific yield strength of reinforcemt) {(dist. from extreme
compression fiber to centroid of tensile reinforcement) (depth of
rectangular stress block) / 2}]

= AS
bd

min = 200
fy

[Percentage of steel to
= (area of tensile reinforcemnt)]
achieve a Balanced Design
(beam width) X (d)

min should be 3 f c
fy

Live Load Reductions:

R = r (A 150)
[Live Load Reduction = (rate of reduction) X {(Tributary Area) 150}
Remember: rate of reduction = 0.08 for Floors
See table 16-C Roofs
Rmax = 40% for single level floors
R max = 60% for multi-level floors
R = 23.1 (1 + DL)
LL
Remember: Do all 3 checks and then select the lowest value as your final
live load reduction.

Thrust in a 3 hinged Arch:

Thrust = w L2
8h

[Thrust in a 3 hinged arch = uniform load X (length)2]

8 X height

The Non-User's Pocket Guide to the Transient Knowledge Necessary for the Structural Divisions of the Architect Registration Exam- ARE
FORMULAE AND DIAGRAMS

CONCEPT

Trigonometry/Math

Memory Trick: SOHCAHTOA (Indian Tribe)

c (Rise)
Sin C = OPP or Rise or
B
Slope
a
HYP
b
Run
or
Slope
a

Cos C = ADJ or
HYP

c
or
Rise
b

90 triangle

Law of Sines and Cosines are used when triangle has no

C
(Slope)

a = b = c
Sin A Sin B Sin C

Law of Sines

right angles.

Non- 90 Triangle

Law of Cosines

b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac (Cos B)

c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab (Cos C)

Properties of a Force:

Py

Py

Px

3
2

PX

Shallower angles (<45) have

larger horizontal components

Steeper angles (>45) have

larger vertical components

1000# = 1

Components of a Force:
P

PX

P
Py

Py

Py

P
PX

Forces

PX

Py

Px
Py
P

Py

PX

Variations in Sense:

P
Py

PX

PX

Force Addition:
Graphic Method for Force Addition:
For finding the Resultant of several forces.

Algebraic Method:
For finding the resultant of several forces
2

September, 2004

Force

Horizontal

Vertical

+/-

+/-

+/-

+/-

+/-

+/-

+/- R X = X +/- R y = Y

3
2

R
1

3
Tail of 2 on Head of 1
Tails at same P.O.A. Tail of 3 on Head of 2

Resultant begins at 1s Tail

and ends at last Head

2004 David J. Thaddeus, AIA

A Force is defined by four properties:

1. Point of Application (P.O.A.)

2. Magnitude ( #,kips )
3. Sense (Arrowhead, Push or Pull, C or T)
4. Line of Action (L.O.A.) , (Angle with horizontal)
The Resultant of several forces is a single force that has the
same effect on a body as all the other forces combined.
The Resultant is also a force and is thus defined by the
four properties listed above.
The Equilibrant is also defined as a force that has the
same P.O.A., Magnitude and L.O.A. as the Resultant
but has an opposite sense (Arrow)

PX

Transmissibility:

Py

Law of Cosines is used when you are given more sides

than angles

Law of Sines is used when you are given more angles

than sides.

a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc (Cos A)

Variations in L.O.A.

used when triangle has a 90 angle.

SIN
RISE
COS
RUN
TAN
SLOPE
SIN and COS of any angle are between (+/-) 1
0 < angle < 45
COS > SIN
45 < angle < 90
SIN > COS

(Run)

Run

OPP
Tan C =
or
ADJ

COMMENTS

Algebraic Method for finding the Resultant of several

forces is used when force magnitudes and lines of
action for each force are known
Algebraic Method of Force Addition
1. Resolve each force into vertical and horizontal
components
2. The algebraic (+/-) sum of all horizontal components
gives the horizontal component of the Resultant.
3. The algebraic (+/-) sum of all vertical components
gives the vertical component of the Resultant
Graphic Method is used when a system is in equilibrium
and we need to calculate one or more unknown forces
that contribute to equlibrium
Graphic Method for Force Addition
1. Arrange all forces Head to Tail then add (independent
of order)
2. Resultant begins with its Tail at the Tail of the 1st Force
and Head at the Head of the last
3. Resultant can be determined through calculation

PAGE : 1 OF 4

The Non-User's Pocket Guide to the Transient Knowledge Necessary for the Structural Divisions of the Architect Registration Exam- ARE
FORMULAE AND DIAGRAMS

CONCEPT

COMMENTS

Moment
P

Distance

Force P creates a
Positive Moment
about point A

CW

Couple

B
Force P creates a
Negative Moment
about point B

Moment of a
Couple= P x d

Moments and Couples

CCW

(clockwise, CW)

( CCW )

Couple between top Chord (C) and bottom

chord (T) in a simply supported truss
Couple between compression in concrete ( top ) and
tension in rebar ( bottom ) of reinforced beam

Units
P
A

L: deformation, changes in Length (in)

caused by Axial Load (P)
P : Axial Load (#,k)
L0 : Original, undeformed Length (in. not ft.)
A : Cross Sectional Area (in2)
E : Modulus of Elasticity (PSI, KSI)

12

Sxx =

Ixx

bd2
6

Support Conditions

Roller: 1 Reaction ( V )

PSI

EA36,A-50= 29,000 KSI

P
L0
A
E

L
L
L
L

Shear

Modulus (In3)

Moment

2
V

d = depth
c = location of
Deflection
Neutral Axis

5. YIELD POINT/ YIELD STRENGTH: material is no longer elastic,

Modulus of
Elasticity: E
(slope)
Unit Strain ( L/ L0 )

8. E: Modulus of Elasticity.Measures material's resistance to deformation

Radius of = r = I
Gyration
A

CG ; Center of
Gravity

Simply Supported: (Determinate)

Indeterminate Loading:
2
3

2
1

2004 David J. Thaddeus, AIA

Shortening or Elongation of members along their axis

Change (Expansion & Contraction) of shape
due to Temperature

Examples include Columns, Trusses, Cables, Cross Bracing

If a Member is inadequate in Shear, increasing the Area

(either Width (b) or Depth (d)) is effective.
If a Member is inadequate in Deflection, increasing the
Moment of Inertia (Width (b) is OK; but Depth (d) is
cubed and) is much more effective in reducing Deflection.
If a Member is inadequate in Bending, increasing the
section modulus (width (b) is OK; but Depth (d) is
squared and) is much more effective in reducing Bending.

Statically Determinate (Simply Supported) loading = three

unknown reactions, and can be solved using the
equation of Static equilibrium.
Statically Indeterminate loading > 3 unknown Reactions
Call your engineer.
Pin/Hinged connections iclude most wood to wood, bolted
steel, and precast concrete connections.
fixed connections include most welded steel / steel
connections and cast-in-place concrete.

H
V

7. RUPTURE: Kiss it Good-Bye

x
b

deformation is permanent
6. ULTIMATE STRENGTH: material is about to fail

L = (T) L0
L: Deformation, change in length (in),
caused by change in temperature (F)
T: Change in temperature
: Coefficient of thermal
expansion/contraction

Bending

Fixed / Moment: 3 Reactions (V , H , M) Continuous: Multiple Reactions

3

and in length
4. FAILURE: Material is gone!

Area (In2)
Moment
of Inertia (In4)
Section

Pin / Hinge: 2 Reactions ( V , H )

September, 2004

Ixx = bd3

1. ELASTIC RANGE: straight line relationship, slope = E

2. PLASTIC RANGE: increase in strain, no increase in Load / Stress
3. STRAIN HARDENING: material deforming in section (necking),

b = width

A = bd

Geometry

Axial Loads

Modulus of
Elasticity=
Stress / Strain

in / in

Unit Strain

E:

Fu
Fy

L
Lo

PSI

Direct Stress

Stress (F=P/A)

Stress / Strain

F:

d/2

Formulas

L= PL0
AE

A & B are called Centers of Moment, or Centers of

Rotation
The perpendicular distance (d) is called the Moment Arm,
or Lever
Summing Moments (M = 0) to establish equilibrium
To find Beam / Truss reactions
To maintain equilbrium of members
Overturning Moments due to Wind Loads or Hydrostatic
Pressure
Unlike a Moment, a Couple is NOT about a certain point,
but rather it is about ANY and ALL points.
A Couple depends on Force (P), and perpendicular distance (d)
between two Forces that make up the couple.

Moment = Force X

PAGE : 2 OF 4

The Non-User's Pocket Guide to the Transient Knowledge Necessary for the Structural Divisions of the Architect Registration Exam- ARE
FORMULAE AND DIAGRAMS

CONCEPT

Example 1:

L< R

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

COMMENTS

12k
k

L = 5' x 12 = 4
15'
R = 10' x12k = 8k
15'

10'

5'

Example 2:
12k

18k

12k

w = 1k/ft.
W = 18k

w,W

Load/
FBD

15'

6'

6'
k

L = 23

18'

L = 21 + 2
L = 23 k

6'
R = 25

k
k

6'
k

L = 21

V=0

12k

6'
18'

6k

6'

12'

6'
18'

R = 21

R = 21 + 4
R = 25 k

R = 4k

L=2

M=0

L = 6'/18' x 6 = 2k
R = 12'/18' x 6k = 4k

Trusses

C
T

September, 2004

C
T

Method of
Sections:

A Truss is inherently stable due to triangulation

Truss is stable in its own plane but needs bridging or
cross-bracing perpendicular to its own plane
All joints in an honest Truss are Pinned Joints
Rigid Joints in a Truss will result in less Deflection than
Pinned Joints (Advantage)
Rigid Joints in a Truss will result in larger size members
than Pinned Joint Trusses since members will have to
resist V and M in addition to C or T (Disadvantage)
Members carrying Tension can be much smaller than
members carrying Compresion
m + 3 = 2 j ; where m = Number of Members
j = Number of Joints
Method of Joints is used to analyze Force / Stress in every
member of a Truss
Method of Joints is also used to analyze Force / Stress in a
member that is close to a support (not in middle of truss)
Method of Sections is used to analyze only a few (3 max)
members of a truss
After cutting a truss in 2 segments, each segment is
in Equilibrium
F X = 0 ; F Y = 0 ; M ANY = 0
Concentrated Loads in a Truss must be applied at panel
points; otherwise we have combined stresses
( T or C + V and M )
Joints that have three or less members framing into them,
may potentially have Zero Members

Possible
Zero Members
C

M = Moment
V =Shear
Equilibruim = Fx = 0; Fy = 0; MAny = 0
Sum of Areas in Shear Diagram = Moment
Magnitude of drop = Concentrated Load
Between concentrated loads, Moment Diagram Slopes
Uniform loads create gradual drop in Shear ( straight line )
Uniform loads create curve (downward cup) in Moment
Diagram
Overhangs and cantilevers will always have a negative
Moment in Moment Diagram. Simply supported beams
always have positive Moments
VMAX always occurs at support
Moment is minimum
MMAX occurs where V = 0
Uniform load coefficient, w, = slope in Shear Diagram
Point of Inflection (P.O.I.) is a point on the
Moment Diagram where M = 0
Point of Inflection only happens when a beam has an
overhang
If Loading Diagram (FBD) is symmetrical, then the Shear
Diagram and the Moment Diagram are also symmetrical.
Maximum Shear dictates how much Beam area is needed
Maximum Moment dictates how much Bema Depth is needed
If a hole must be punched out of a Beam to allow for passage
of pipe or similar reduction, this must happen at a location of
low Shear and low Bending Moment

Method of
Joints:
C

C C
T

Top and Bottom Chord Stress

Stress increases towards middle

Web Stresses
Stress increases towards end panels

2004 David J. Thaddeus, AIA

PAGE : 3 OF 4

The Non-User's Pocket Guide to the Transient Information Needed to Successfully Pass the General Structures Division of the Architect Registration Exam - ARE
FORMULAE AND DIAGRAMS

LOAD:

Fv , F b , E

DESIGN FOR
SHEAR:

GEOMETRY:

L, w, W, P, FBD

FC , FT , F P

VMAX, M MAX
V MAX

f v < F v ; Fv

A MIN

MMAX
f b< F b ; F b =S

DESIGN FOR
BENDING:

MIN

W = wL
L

W/2

L/2

P/2

L/2

W/2
P/2

VMAX = P/2

WL/8
PL/4

MMAX = WL / 8
= wL2/ 8

3
MAX = 5 WL = 5 wL4
384 EI
384 EI

MMAX = PL/4

L/3

L/3

L/3

PL3
EI

MAX = 1
48

L/4

L/4

L/4

L/4

3P/2

P
VMAX = P

VMAX = 3P/2
PL/2

PL/3
MMAX = PL/3
23 PL3
MAX =
648 EI

WOOD BEAMS:
Shear:

MMAX = PL/2
19 PL3
MAX =
348 EI

STEEL BEAMS:

FV = 3 VMAX

Bending:

AW
Bending : F b = MMAX
SMIN

SMIN

Fb= 24 KSI

A=bxd

Fb< 24 KSI
(partial lateral support)
LUNB , M-Charts

(full lateral support)

Sxx tables

WOOD COLUMNS:
Columns

slenderness
ratio

LUNB./ dLeast

Fc

September 2004

Stirrups: f y
f y, , A v, spacing
Bending Concrete: f'c

wood
steel

11

For all beams; actual = CONST.(W or P)(Lx12"/ft.)3

EI
Allowable Deflecion is specified by model codes as
a fraction of the span allow = L / 240, L / 360,...

Concrete: f 'c

b
AV
AS

b, d, f 'c
Rebars: f y
f y, (, # rebars), A s
FC = P/A
Long and thin ( slender ) columns tend to be
governed by buckling
Short and fat ( chunky ) columns tend to be
governed by crushing

Slenderness:
kLUNB.
r

kwood= 0.671 E

.- . . - .

STEEL COLUMNS:

Slenderness:

Deflection
Bending

b, d, f 'c

AWEB

Fb = MMAX

Beam design must satisfy Shear, Bending Moment and

Deflection requirements
The Allowable Stress (F) of a species of wood or a Grade
of steel depends on the material itself and is tabulated
DEFLECTION: actual = CONST.x (W or P) (Lx12"/ft.)3
in Manuals and Building Codes
actual < allow
EI
The Actual Stress ( f ) is an outcome of the application of
w
w
w
a load ( W , P ) on a member
W = wL
When a Load is applied perpendicular to the axis of a
W/2
W/2
W/2
W/2
member ( Normal Loading), Shear and Bending
stresses develop
W/2
The Strain associated with Bending is called Deflection
VMAX = W/2
and the deflected shape of a Beam is the inverse
(upside/down) of the Moment Diagram
When a load is applied along the axis of a member,
WL/8
Axial Compression and Tension Stresses develop
The strain associated with Tension is Elongation and the
MMAX = WL/8
strain associated with Compression is Shortening
= wL2/8
For the same Magnitude and span, a Uniform Load will
cause less Deflection than a Concentrated Load
w
for the same material and geometry
W=wL
The the same Load and Span, a Cantilever will deflect
L
L
L
more than a simply supported beam
0.4W
1.1W
1.1W
0.4W
For the same Load, Material and Geometry a slight
0.6W
increase in Span will create a huge increase in Deflection
0.5W
0.4W
For the same Load and Span, an increase in the
VMAX = 0.6 W
Modulus of Elasticity, E, ( a stronger material), will result
in less Deflection
0.4W
For the same Load and Span, an increase in the
0.6W
0.5W
Moment of Inertia, I , (a deeper member) will result in
0.08WL
0.08WL
less deflection
MMAX (+) = 0.08 W L
0.025WL
The Points of Inflection on the Moment Diagram of the
+
+
+
MMAX (-) = - 0.1 W L
Continuous beam (Left) indicate the locations of curve
P.O.I.
reversal, and are the locations where reinforcing steel
would be flipped from bottom to top of the beam.
- 0.1WL
- 0.1WL

Shear:

bf

Beams

2 A MIN

Shear

I = bd3/ 12
S = (bd2) /6

CONCRETE BEAMS:

F V = VMAX

Shear:

General Beam Design

VMAX = W/2

A = bd

MATERIAL:

COMMENTS

CONCEPT

k=0.5

k=1

k=2

50 L/d
200 KL/r

2004 David J. Thaddeus, AIA

PAGE : 4 OF 4