CONTOURING

The elevations and depressions (the undulations) of the surface of

the ground are shown on a map by means of contour lines.
For example, suppose a depression in the surface of the ground is
partly filled with water, and the elevation of the water surface is,
say 80 m. The shore line of this body of water raised successively by
1 m, the successive shore lines will represent 81, 82, 83 m contours
and so on.
Hence all points on any one contour have the same elevation above
the datum surface.

Contd . . .
The line joining the points of same elevation on a map is called a
contour line or a contour.
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is
called the contour interval, and the horizontal distance between
any two consecutive contours is known as the horizontal
equivalent.
For a given contour interval, the horizontal equivalent depends
upon the steepness of the ground.
The contour interval depends upon
(i) the nature of the ground,
(ii) the purpose and extent of the survey,
(iii) the scale of the map, and
(iv) the time and expense required in its determination.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR LINES

Contd . . .
Contour lines run close together near the top of the hill,
representing very steep ground, and wide apart at the foot of a hill
indicating flat ground.
A uniform slope is indicated when contour lines are uniformly
paced, while a plane surface is indicated when they are straight and
equally spaced.
Contour lines, cross ridge lines or valley lines are at right angles. A
ridge line is shown when the higher values are inside the loop or
bend in the contour, while in the case of a valley line, the lower
values are inside the loop. The same contour appears on either side
of a ridge or valley. Valley contours are convex toward the stream.
In the figure valley lines are shown by thick lines while ridge lines
are shown by dotted lines.

Contd . . .
Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on the map, except in
the case of an overhanging cliff (a). A vertical cliff is indicated when
several contours coincide, the horizontal equivalent being zero.
Contour lines cannot end anywhere, but close on themselves
either within or without the limits of the map (b).
A series of closed contours on the map indicates a depression
or a summit, according as the lower or higher values are inside them.
In the fig. 8.51 there are no depression and summits are represented
by (c). Depressions between summits are called saddles and are indicated
by (d). Line passing through the saddles and summits gives the divide
line or watershed line. It is shown by thick dotted line. The line becomes
the boundary line of the catchment area of a nalla or a river.

USES
By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the
character of the tract of country is obtained, whether it is flat,
undulating or mountainous, etc.
The most economical or suitable site for engineering works such as
a reservoir, canal, sewer, road or railway may be approximately
selected.
Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the contour maps.
Contours may. be used to determine the area of the drainage basin
and the capacity of the reservoir.

The sections may be easily drawn in any direction from the

contours.
Intervisibility of two given points can be ascertained from the
map.
A route of a given grade line can be traced on the map.

LOCATING CONTOURS
(METHOD OF RADIAL LINES)
If the area to be contoured is not very extensive, it is more
convenient to range out radial lines from a common centre by
theodolite or compass, in directions of greatest utility (fig. 8.54),
their relative positions being fixed by measuring the angles
between them or by chain survey.
For checking the levels, the bench marks are first established at the
centre and near the ends of the radial lines, and the contour points
located on these lines as described above, working either inward or
outward.
The positions of the pegs making the contours points are found
either at the same time or afterwards by measuring their distances
along the radial lines.
They are then plotted on plan, and the contours drawn by joining all
the corresponding points.

INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
By interpolation of contours is meant the process of spacing the
contours proportionally between the plotted ground points.
Contours may be interpolated by
(i) estimation,
(ii) arithmetical calculation, and
(iii) graphical methods.
In all these methods it is assumed that the slope of the ground
between any two random points is uniform.

ARITHMETICAL CALCULATION
Illustration : Suppose A and B are the two ground points and their elevations are 49.65
m and 52.85 m respectively. The distance between A and B is, say, 20 m
and the contour interval is 1 m. Between A and B the 50 m, 51 m and 52 m
contours can be located. The total difference of level between A and B is
52.85 - 49.65 = 3.2 m. The difference of level between A and the 50 m
contour point is 50 - 49.65 = 0.35 m. Hence the distance of the 50 m
contour point from A is
0.35
20 = 2.2
3.2
Similarly, the distances of the 51 m and 52 m contour points from A are
8.4 m and 14.7 respectively. These distances are then plotted to the scale
on the map.

ANY QUERIES

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