Solar Radiation

[Solar Energy] [Insolation] [Radiation Terminology] [Crop Photosynthesis] [Growth,

Development, Yield] [Light Stimuli & Responses]

Objectives

To know the characteristics of radiation

To know what factors influence insolation.
To know how plants respond to radiation
To understand how light can be managed in crop communities.
To know how plants respond to light quantity, quality, and daylength.

I. Solar Radiant Energy

1. Importance of solar radiation
1. Energy source in nature and for plants
1. Thermal (short wavelength infrared) radiation provides energy to
evaporate water from soil and plants and heat air and soil to drive
physiological processes.
2. Visible radiation provides energy to drive photosynthesis.
2. Physiological effects
1. Light intensity and quality (color) affects how plants grow
(photomorphogensis). Full sunlight produces leaves that are
smaller in area but thicker than those produced in shade. Crop
plants only develop chlorophyll in light and become elongated
(etiolated) in low light and in red light while those grown in white
or blue light have shorter internodes. Many photomorphogenetic
effects are mediated by phytochrome. See text for a discussion of
the importance of phytochrome (PR and PFR are the two forms) and
its effects. Flowering of photoperiod sensitive plants is in response
to a change in the PFR due to length of exposure to red light during
the day and length of the night (PFR is converted back to PR in
darkness).
2. Mutagenesis can be induced by ultraviolet light and plants contain
mechanisms to repair this damaging effect.
2. Radiation - energy transfer through space
1. All bodies having a temperature above absolute zero (K = Kelvin
temperature where 0oK is equal to absolute zero; 0 K = -273 oC) emit
radiation.
2. The higher the temperature of the body (sun, earth, etc.), the shorter the
predominant wavelength emitted.
1. The Sun's surface temperature is approximately 6000oK. The Sun's
spectra emittance ranges from cosmic to short wavelength infrared
radiation.

2. The temperature of the Earth is about 300oK; the Earth's spectral

emittance is all in the longer wavelength infrared regions of the
spectrum and ranges from about 3000 to greater than 30,000 nm
3. Characteristics of radiant energy
1. Waves - Wavelength is expressed in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1 x
10-9 m (0.0000000001 m).
1. Wave frequency (cycles per second or Hertz) for blue light is about
7.5 x 1015 cycles per second, much higher than the fastest computer
chips, which now (2004) are approaching 4.0 gigaHertz or higher
(4 x 109 cylcles per second).
2. Short wavelength radiation is high frequency radiation while longwavelength radiation is relatively lower frequency radiation.
2. Photons - packets of energy with energy level increasing as wavelength
decreases.
Calculating the energy (E) of a photon.
For those who might be interested, E = hc/wavelength (unit is meters (m)) where:
h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 J s (J = joule, s stands for seconds)
c = speed of light (2.998 x 108 m s-1) (The negative exponent is used here and below
instead of the slash (/) and is read as meters per second or m/s)
For blue light (wavelength = 4.0 x 10-7m)
E= (6.625 x 10-34 J s) ( 2.998 x 108 m s-1)/4.0 x 10-7 m = 29.9 J
E (red light, 700 nm) = 17.6 J
To obtain energy per mole, multiply to 6.02 x 1023 mole-1
1. Solar constant
1. The amount of energy reaching the outer limits of Earth's atmosphere is
1373 watts per square meter, which is abbreviated to W m-2 (W m-2 is the
widely accepted international unit. For more on such units, see National
Institute of Standards web pages).
2. Solar spectrum - (Fig. 7-1)
1. The radiation emitted by the sun at an average temperature of about 6000
K ranges from cosmic rays to very long-wave radio waves but most of the
energy emitted is in the wavelength ranges from gamma rays to short
wavelength infrared (near infrared) radiation (about 3000 nanometers
(nm)).
2. Wavelengths <100 nm (the symbol < stands for less than; > stands for
greater than). This is referred to as high energy radiation and includes
gamma and X-rays. This radiation represents a small fraction of the Sun's
energy and, fortunately, very little of this damaging raditation reaches
Earth.
3. Ultraviolet radiation - 100 to 380 nm. UV radiation has enough energy to
break chemical bonds and so is very damaging to most organisms.
4. Visible radiation, also referred to as photosynthetically active radiation or
PAR - violet to red with wavelengths ranging from about 380 to 700 nm.
The solar energy in the PAR band drives physiological processes but some

of this energy may also be absorbed by the soil and other objects, which
causes their temperature to rise.
5. Short-wave infrared radiation (IR) - energy that drives meterological
processes (primarily evaporation of water) in conjunction with other forms
of radiant energy that are absorbed and then converted to heat; wavelength
ranges from >700 to about 3000 nm
6. Long wave IR (thermal radiation is radiation emitted by the earth);
wavelengths are >3000 nm
3. Energy transfer processes and wavelength distribution at Earth's surface
1. Energy transfer to earth is by radiation; energy emitted by the sun
irradiates the earth (see Fig. 7.3)
2. Energy reaching the earth is reflected, scattered (up to 50 to 90% by
clouds), absorbed, or transmitted.
3. Distribution of energy at Earth's surface
1. UV represents about 3% of total incomding radiation. Selective
absorption by ozone in the atmosphere reduces UV to about 1% of
total radiation at Earth's surface. From a human health standpoint,
that reduction is significant.
2. PAR represents about 50% of the total incoming radiation. The
atmosphere is relatively transparent to PAR. The two components
of visible radiation are:
1. Direct - referred to as direct-beam radiation, which is
energy directly from the sun.
2. Diffuse - some direct-beam radiation is scattered by
particulate matter (dust, VOG, smog, water vapor and
droplets (clouds)); scattering can significantly reduce
energy receipt.
3. Infrared also is about 50% of total radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. Some IR is absorbed by CO2, methane (produced by
animals and swamps where anaerobic conditions exist), and water
vapor, especially at the longer wavelengths. Atmospheric models
show that increasing amounts of CO2 and methane can increase
retention of long wavelength IR and is believed to have increased
average atmospheric temperature slightly.
4. Radiation quality (fraction of energy in each wavelength range)
does not change much as a result of passage through the
atmosphere; however, there is measurably less UV and somewhat
more blue and less IR on cloudy days.

II. Factors Influencing Insolation

4. Latitude
1. Latitude affects insolation (radiation receipt) because as solar angle
(angle of incidence ranges from 90 degrees when the sun is
directly overhead to some low angle when the sun is in the

5.

6.

7.
8.

southern hemisphere, our winter) decreases, direct beam radiation

is spread over a larger area.
2. Relative depth of the atmosphere that radiation must penetrate
increases when sun is at a low angle. Radiation must pass through
a greater air mass (air mass when the sun is directly overhead =
1.0; with a longer path the air mass through which the radiation
must pass increases and this attenuates incoming solar radiation.
Absorption by aerosols in the atmosphere, reflection, and
scattering reduce energy receipt
Season
1. Variation in daylength occurs with time of year (Fig. 7-15). Hours
of sunlight in Hawaii vary from about 10 hours and 52 minutes in
winter to 13 hours 25 minutes in summer. However, radiation
receipt in summer is nearly twice that of winter because of the
combination of shorter daylength and the latitude effects described
above.
Elevation
1. Small changes in insolation, and reduced temperature, occur at
higher elevation where there is less water vapor to trap and hold
heat.
Time of Day
1. Daily irradiance varies from 0 to some maximum value and back
to 0 as the Sun travels from horizon to horizon
Other
1. Slope (slopes facing the sun receive more radiation than those
facing away from the sun.
2. Aspect (north-south orientation of the slope with respect to the
sun). When the sun is north of the equator and radiation comes at a
shallow angle in the southern hemisphere, a north-facing slope will
be warmed. The converse is true in the north when the sun is south
of the equator.
3. Presence of atmospheric pollutants.

III. Radiation Terminology and Measurement

9. Irradiance (energy falling on a unit area of surface)
1. SI units for irradiance
1. Watts m-2 (watts per square meter, abbreviated as Wm-2); an
instantaneous measure of irradiance (light energy). A watt
= 1 J s-1. The maximum level found in nature is about 200
W m-2 at midday.
2. Megajoules m-2 day-1; an energy intensity of 1.0 J s-1
sustained for one hour over 1.0 m2 results in 1 J m-2 h-1.
Since millions of joules (J) fall on one m2 each day, the unit
for cumulative irradiance for one day is megajoules.
Annual mean daily values can be above 20 in the dry

tropics and the highest daily values can reach 35 MJ m2

day-1.
3. Total irradiance - this term includes wavelengths from 300
to 3,000 nm (ultraviolet to short wavelength infrared)
4. Photosynthetically active radiation - this term includes only
those wavelengths that promote photosynthesis, i.e. those in
the range from approxamately 400 - 700 nm.
5. Measures of irradiance are used to calculate environmental
energy budgets. In agriculture, such measures are most
useful for estimating evapotranspiration (evaporation from
soil plus transpiration from plants), often abbreviated ET.
6. Instrument - radiometer, which measures the quantity of
energy transmitted through the atmosphere from the sun to
the earth.
2. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
1. Units - micromole m-2 s-1, and values can reach 2000 in full
sunlight at midday. A cumulative measure of PAR would
be moles m2 day-1; 1.0 mole = 6.02 x 1023 quanta.
2. Wavelengths - 400 to 700 nm (blue to red)
3. Instrument - quantum sensor; measures moles of quanta
available to drive photochemical reactions (photosynthesis,
phototropisms, etc), referred to as the photosynthetic
photon flux (PPF) and also known as photosynthetic flux
density.
4. Measures of PPF permit estimation of photosynthetic
efficiency (moles of CO2 fixed/ moles of photons
absorbed). The theorectical efficiency of photosynthesis is
about 8 moles of quanta per mole of CO2 fixed, but due to
inefficiencies, between 15 and 22 moles of quanta are
actually utilized in the fixation of 1 mole of CO2 into
carbohydrate. Plants are relatively inefficiet in their use of
radiation. Crop scientists also calculate radiation use
efficiency of crop plants, which provides a measure of how
efficiently a crop converts available raidation into
harvestable product.
10. Energy Receipt and Disposal
1. Radiation - transfer of energy through space. Any body warmer
than an adjacent body can transfer heat to the cooler body by
radiation. An irradiated object may absorb, reflect, or transmit the
energy falling upon it.
1. Absorption - materials show characteristic absorption
spectra (e.g. chlorophyll and leaf, Fig. 7-8; spectra for leaf
will be shown in class); totally black materials absorb all
wavelengths; leaves absorb primarily in the visibile portion
of the spectrum.

2. Reflection - objects show a characteristic reflection spectra

(e.g. Ilex corneata leaf absorption, reflection, and
transmission spectrum will be shown in class). Albedo is
the term used to describe the fraction of radiation reflected
from a body. A black body has an albedo of 0 while snow
has an albedo near 1.0.
3. Transmission - objects not opaque show a characteristic
transmission spectra (e.g. Ilex corneata leaf).
2. Dissipation of Absorbed Energy
1. Photosynthesis; 2-4% of incoming energy on a unit land
area basis is absorbed and typically 1-2% is actually
converted into plant material. The relatively small amount
of energy harvested results from the fact that no crop is
present part of the year and less that 100% of the energy is
absorbed as the crop canopy is developing. Then, usually
only a part of a crop plant is actually harvested.
2. Evaporation of water; the most significant mechanism for
dissapating energy because in a well- watered plant
environment, 70 to 85% of suns energy dissipated by
evaporation
3. Convection - at leaf level, convection, the mass transfer of
heat away from an object is important. Two categories of
convective heat transport are identified.
1. Free convection - mass transfer of heat in still air as
by the upward movement of a warm, light air
current.
2. Forced convection - mass transfer of heat, usually
laterally, by wind. Such transport of heat can
significantly increase evaporation rates when wind
moves from a hot, dry desert over an irrigated field
(the oasis effect).
4. Reradiation - bodies reradiate to 4th power of temperature
(Stefan Boltzman constant); the higher the temperature, the
more rapid the heat loss.
5. Conduction - direct transfer of heat between particles in
contact with each other. Sun irradiates the soil, soil heats
up, movement of heat downward from the soil surface
occurs primarily by conduction.
11. D. Supplemental illumination - (see Fig. 7-6) light intensity and quality of
source important. Too expensive for commercial culture for most crops.

IV. Crop Photosynthesis

1. Photosynthesis
1. Light response curves

1. Photosynthetic pathway affects how plant photosynthesis responds

to PPF (C3, C4 plants). Important terms to know related to
photosynthesis are light compensation point (photosynthesis
balances respiration so there is no net uptake of CO2), light
saturation (PPF increases but photosynthesis does not)
2. Leaves of C3 plants typically light saturate at half of mid-day full
sunlight
3. Light saturation typically does not occur for C4 plants.
4. Species adapted to full sunlight levels (most crop plants) generally
show increasing rates of photosynthesis in response to increasing
light
5. Species adapted to shade (philodendron, anthurium, some orchids,
many other shade-tolerant ornamental plants) have low rates of
photosynthesis at moderate light levels
6. "Shade" and shade-adapted species may be injured by exposure to
high light due to photooxidation and photobleaching
7. Photoinhibition, an injurious effect of light; photoinhibition occurs
but to date there is little evidence it reduces crop productivity
2. CO2 effects (see Fig. 7-9, Table 7-2)
1. C3 crop plants respond to light much like C4 plants if exposed to
elevated CO2 (levels double or more than ambient levels of about
0.034% or 340 parts per million). This is because elevated CO2
inhibits photosrespiration, allowing for higher photosynthetic rates
at a given light level. Elevated CO2 also causes partial stomatal
closeure, reducing transpiration and can increase the optimum
temperature for photosynthesis.
2. C4 plant photosynthetic rates do not increase in elevated CO2but
partial stomatal closeure does occur, reducing transpiration
2. Leaf adaptation to light
1. Specific leaf weight (SLW, the mass of leaf per unit of leaf area, a measure
of leaf thickness; mg cm-2) is greater for plants grown in high light relative
to those found at reduced light levels
1. More cell layers for high-light adapted plants.
2. "Shade" plants have fewer cell layers, reduced leaf RuBisco
content and reduced leaf resipration rate. Maximum photosynthetic
rate of leaves decreases as SLW decreases
3. Species tolerance to light
1. Shade requiring - primarily plants that evolved in the forest understory, for
example anthuriums
2. Shade tolerant; - follow shade intolerant colonizers in ecological
succession (at least some banyans, palms used as indoor plants)
3. Shade intolerant (sun requiring); includes colonizing species and most
crop plants

V. Effects of Light on Growth, Development, and Yield

1. Crop productivity
1. There is a direct relationship between the quantity of light harvested per
unit of land area and crop yield; because time has value, it is often
included in the equation, i.e. productivity is measured in terms of kg m- 2
day-1
2. Canopy Establishment - rapid canopy establishment utilizes resources
most efficiently. Optimum fertility, water, pest control result in most rapid
growth.
3. Plant Spacing
1. Plant population = number of plants per hectare (area of one
hectare = 10,000 m2, abbreviated ha) or number of plants m-2;
plants per acre (ppa) x 2.47 = ppha.
1. If plant spacing is known, the area occupied by each plant
can be calculated and divided into area of one ha; 0.2 m2
plant; 0.2 divided into 10,000 m2 = 50,000 plants ha-1
2. plants per acre is calculated the same way except there are
43,560 ft2per acre so the calculation is not so easy; if each
plant occupies 2 ft2, there would be 21,780 plants acre-1
3. Spacing between plants and rows varies with the crop; may
be determined by field operations, which require than a
tractor be able to pass between rows or that there be
sufficient space to accomodate laborers
2. Spacing models
1. equidistant spacing where the space on all sides of a plant
is equal; the ideal but not always the most practical. The
diagram below is an attempt to illustrate spacing of plants
at equal distances within and between rows.
x---x---x--x---x
--x---x--x---x--x---x---x--x---x
--x---x--x---x--2. rectangular spacing
x--x--x--x--x
x----x----x row
| | | | |
or | | | interspace
x--x--x--x--x
x----x----x row
3. Within and between row spacing usually is determined by
plant requirements and field operations, which dictate some
less than optimum arrangement of plants

4. Wider spacing is common in horticultural crops; quality is

often determined by size and/or appearance. The yield of
horticultural crops is measured in terms of those units that
have suitable quality to be marketable.
5. Closer spacing more common in agronomic crops where
maximum yield per unit of land area is the goal
4. Effects of plant population density
1. Influences days required to reach full crop canopy
2. Influences competition
1. between crop plants
2. between crops and and weeds.
3. affects size of head (cabbage, lettuce), grain, fruit, and nut
size as well as fruit quality and quantity.
1. ear, head, fruit, root, tuber size decline as
population increases from wide spacing to point
where interplant competition (mostly for light)
occurs.
2. seed or kernal size is little affected by population.
3. yield may be reduced by competition (mutual
shading); quantity of fruits reduced by shading (e.g.
pruning overgrown macadamia nut, lychee, have
increased yields per tree and per acre)
3. Planting costs vary with population
5. Factors affecting rate of establishment
1. fertility
2. water supply
3. pest control
2. Crops as a community of plants
1. Leaf area index or LAI (m2 of leaf area displayed per m2 soil) goes from 0
with no crop planted to a number greater than one, usually 3.0 or greater,
when a crop has a fully developed leaf canopy.
1. Plant population and time determine the days to maximum LAI.
As leaf area per plant in a crop increases over time, LAI also
increases.
2. The critical LAI -- For agronomic and tree crops, there usually is a
critical LAI (LAI where 95% of incident radiation is absorbed) for
most crops; growth and yield tend to be at a maximum at this LAI.
For many crops, the critical LAI is between 3 and 4. The critical
LAI is often the LAI where yield is near a maximum for many
cereal grain crops. Exceeding the critical LAI usually reduces the
yield per plant to the point where yield per unit of land area is also
reduced. (see Fig. 7-11)
2. Leaf Orientation
1. Categories
1. planophile (leaves parallel to ground surface; 0o angle)-taro comes closer than most crops

2. intermediate -soybean, cotton, most dicot species.

3. erectophile (leaves upright; 90o angle)-- modern corn and
rice cultivars have near-erectophile leaves
2. Benefits of breeding for erectophile leaves
1. Better light distribution in crop at midday
2. Increases crop photosynthetic efficiency
3. Makes closer spacing possible
4. Can increase yield because crop photosynthetic rate per
unit area is higher
3. Other factors
1. Variation in available light with time of year - Important consideration in
the tropics & subtropics with year-around growing season
2. Artificial shading - important for ornamental plants (many orchids,
anthurium, some ornamentals, special types of tobacco require shade)

VI. Light Stimuli and Responses

1. Light-Receptive Pigments
1. Phytochrome - absorbs red (660 nm) and far-red (730 nm) light and
controls some aspects of plant development
2. Duration of exposure determines response
3. Reversal of R or FR light will reverse process if done before more gross
physiological changes have begun
2. Photoperiodism
1. Plant developmental response to duration of relative period of darkness.
2. Light requirement very low, probably just above moonlight intensity
3. Flowering
1. Plant photoperiodic responses
1. short-day (flowering is induced when night length increases to
critical minimum value)
2. long-day (flowerin induced when night length decreases to critical
minimum value)
3. day-neutral (no flowering response to photoperiod)
4. quantitative but non-obligate (sugarcane & pineapple in this
category; respond to daylength but also to temperature)
4. Control of flowering
1. Important in horticultural crops (flowering of chrysanthum, poinsettia
controlled by covering or by supplemental lighting)
5. Tuber and Bulb Induction
6. Bud Dormancy
7. Leaf Abscission
1. Due to shading - reduced light reduces photosynthetic rate. When leaf no
longer contributes to plant carbon gain, the leaf is shed.
2. Due to photoperiod and temperature - leaves shed in the fall as plants
adapts to cold-weather environment. A mechanism to protect against
freezing injury. Produces beautiful fall colors

8. Perception of Photoperiodic Stimulus

1. Leaves required
9. Seed Germination
1. Phytochrome involved in light-sensitivit species; 660 nm light promotes
and 730 nm light inhibits germination. Some seed light requirements can
be overcome with gibberellic acid treatment
2. Germination of some species inhibited by light (American elm, some
cucurbits)
10. Photomorphogenesis - phytochrome mediated response; light requirement very
low
1. Inhibits stem elongation, promotes hypocotyl hook opening
11. Photoropism - a blue-light response
1. hypocotyl hook opening
2. heliotropism - leaf orientation towards the sun as in sunflower