Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955
University of East Anglia
Word Count: 2076

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955
Abstract
There is a lot of literature that suggests empathy and attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) individually has a relationship with criminal thinking. However,
there is limited research on these two factors when compared to the general
population. The aim of this study was to investigate if ADHD and empathy can
predict criminal thinking. The findings could possibly create models to assess
criminal thinking in a general population and recommend possible interventions for
ADHD individuals. Using opportunity sampling in the general population (n=73). The
results found that a backwards multiple regression model, with ADHD and empathy,
predicted criminal thinking. In addition, demographics collected showed that age and
occupation also holds a relationship with criminal thinking. This suggests that
empathy and ADHD can be used as practical interventions on criminal thinking.
Although further investigations are needed to establish predictive validity and
alternative roots for predictors are suggested.

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

Between January and February 2015, there have been a total number of
419,603 reported cases involving criminal activity in England and Wales (UK crime
Stats, 2015). Criminologist partake in investigating the role of individual and societal
factors that could influence root causes/indicators to criminal behaviour, ultimately to
lower crime on economical, political or social fronts for the safety of a community or
found areas through active interventions in delinquent and anti-social behaviour. But
where should one start in identifying criminal behaviour?
Mental disorders are prevalent in criminals, in fact, 64% of inmates showed
various mental health issues (James & Glaze, 2006). One example of a mental health
issue can be described as attention deficit/Hyperactive disorder (ADHD) where
studies investigating ADHD symptoms in prison inmates scored as high as 50%
(Gudjonsson, Sigurddsson, Young, Newton, & Peersen, 2009). ADHD is diagnosed in
early childhood where high levels of hyperactive, impulsive and/or impulse
behaviours are exhibited whilst impairment in two areas of life is recorded on a 6month scale (Young, Moss, Sedgwick, Fridman, & Hodgkins, 2015). Perhaps
criminal behaviour could stem from the inability to self-control ones actions? Not
only does ADHD persist through development but also it persists into adulthood
(Harpin, 2005). Harpin (2005), concluded that during adolescence, those with ADHD
are more aggressive and this further links to anti-social behaviour including
delinquency (Young & Gudjonsson, 2006). According to Young and Gudjonnsons
study, those with ADHD held higher antisocial behaviour compared to the control
group and those, exhibiting milder symptoms. Delinquent behaviour becomes a
consequence and this supports the concept that ADHD is associated to criminal
activity (Fletcher & Wolfe, 2009; Babinski, Hartsough, & Lambert, 1999; Pratt,
Cullen, Blevins, Daigle, & Unnever, 2002). However, ADHD is considered comorbid
within other disorders such as Conduct disorder or substance abuse suggesting that
ADHD tendencies itself, may not be the contributing factor to crime (Mordre,
Groholt, Kjelsberg, Sandstad, & Myhre, 2011). In addition, not all youths and young
adults with ADHD end up being criminals suggesting that maybe individual traits
may be an influence.

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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Whilst mental health may play a role in the reasons behind crime, perhaps its
an inability to consider others. Studies have found that criminals lack or low empathy
(Smallbone, Wheaton, & Houringan, 2003; Mahmut, Homewood, & Stevenson,
2008). Low empathy is often associated with psychopathic tendencies and it is
estimated a total of 15% of the prison population have been diagnosed as being
psychopaths (Decety , Skelly , & Kiehl, 2013). The study found that those in the
psychopathic group generally had less neural activity in the Ventromedial prefrontal
cortex and orbitofrontal cortex, an area measuring pain and distress when shown
stimuli of other persons experiencing pain. However, several studies have suggested
that criminal behaviour is not the lack of empathy but the inability to actively switch
it on (Meffert, Gazzola, den Boer, Bartels, & Keysers, 2013). The study revealed that
when instructed to focus on the actors emotions, brain regions involving empathy
activated concluding that psychopaths can empathize, just not to the extent of others.
Generally, the relationship between empathy and ADHD remains clear. Those
with ADHD traits are more likely to be seen as less empathetic and lower levels of
social perspective (Braaten & Rosn, 2000). Interestingly is the non-conclusive
relationship between low empathy and aggression (r = .11) suggesting that whilst
empathy may be strongly associated with ADHD it is not a direct influence of
criminal thinking (in terms of aggression).
Alternative reasoning for criminal thinking could be the result of demographic
factors. A 50 year longitudinal study investigating predictors involved examining
children with delinquent behaviour found that generally, children who had low
intelligence and attainment, impulsivity, criminality, poverty, poor parental childrearing behaviour whilst marriage, and employment reduced chances in offending
(Farrington, 1995). It is under this assumption that demographic information where
possible should also be collected and investigated. In addition, criminologists
generally associate youth with more crime (Brown & Males, 2011).
The present study aims to investigate if ADHD, Low Empathy
symptomatology and social circumstances will predict criminal thinking in a general
population. The majority of literature refers to samples of those diagnosed with
ADHD or are currently incarcerated consequently limiting research to a particular

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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field. The same applies for psychopathy. With ADHD impacting 3-7% of the general
population and 1% of individuals diagnosed as a psychopath. This study aims to
strengthen the literature by examining demographics and particular emphasis on
ADHD and empathy in the general population to establish a further connection on
criminal thinking patterns. Overall, the literature supports that ADHD and low
empathy will predict criminal thinking. Therefore the hypothesis that regression
model as a whole with ADHD and empathy will predict criminal thinking.
Specifically more ADHD symptoms will predict more criminal thinking; and low
empathy will predict more criminal thinking. Demographics will be collected to
examine whether there is any influence on criminal thinking.

Methodology
Design
The study takes a backwards multiple regression approach. The criterion
variable is criminal thinking. The predictors investigated are empathy, ADHD and
demographics (occupation, marital status, age, ethnicity, gender, cautions and
convictions).
Participants
Participants (n=73) were selected through opportunity sampling with a mean
age of 27.44 (Age range 19 - 49) and a standard deviation of 13.61. Participants also
provided demographic information such as occupation, education, marital status,
ethnicity, convictions/warnings and gender.
Materials
Three self-report questionnaires were used in the study to measure the predictors on
criminal thinking; empathy, ADHD and PICTS.
Empathy Empathy Quotient
A 60 itemed questionnaire consisting of 20 distractor items taken from the Empathy
quotient (EQ) (Baron-Cohen & Wheelright, 2004). The EQ holds high test-retest

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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reliability (r = 0.835) and concurrent validity (Lawrence, Shaw, Baker, S, & David,
2004). Responses were recorded from strongly Agree to Definitely agree. Scores
were only given showing empathetic behaviour where 1 point represented mild
empathetic behaviour and 2 points if the respondent records strong empathetic
behaviour. Definitely agree responses scored 2 points and slightly agree
responses scored 1 point on the following items: 1, 6, 19, 22, 25, 26, 35, 36, 37, 38,
41, 42, 43, 44, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60. Definitely disagree responses scored 2
points and slightly disagree responses scored 1 point on the following items: 4, 8,
10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 27, 28, 29, 32, 34, 39, 46, 48, 49, 50 (see appendix a). No
points were awarded for distractor items. Questions such as It upsets me to see an
animal in pain were included.
ADHD - ASRS
A measure of ADHD was developed consisting of 18 items from the ASRS (Kessler,
et al., 2005). 2 items were removed due to typing errors. Adler, et al (2006) found
internal reliability and validity stating that both patient and rater-administered
versions of the scale scored strongly (Cronbach's 0.88, 0.89) making it a suitable
measure. Responses were recorded on a 5 point likert-type scales. The exact
descriptors for the scale consisted of 1, Never 2,Rarely 3, Sometimes 4 Often
5 Very Often. Questions such as How often do you have difficulty keeping your
attention when you are doing boring or repetitive work? were included (see
appendix A.1).
Criminal thinking - PICTS
A 64-itemed questionnaire investigating a criminal thinking has been highly
associated in patterns of criminal behaviour (Walters, 1995). Walters found PICTS to
be reliable with high test-retest reliability (r=. 52-.72). Responses were recorded on a
4 point likert scale ranging from 1, disagree to 4, strongly agree. Questions such as
The more I break the rules the more I thought there was no way I would ever be
caught. were included (see appendix A.2). There were no reversed scored items.
Procedure
The experiment took place in a quiet room as decided by the participant.
Participants were provided an information sheet, consent sheet. Upon consent, the

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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researcher then proceeded to hand the participants a demographic sheet, the PICTS,
ADHD and Empathy quotient for the participant to fill out on their own. The
estimated time took approximately 45 minutes and upon completion provided a
debrief sheet providing more information about the experiment.
Statistical analysis
There were no outliers identified using Cooks Distance. VIF values below 10
indicted that collinearity was not a problem (appendix B). In addition, the scatter plot
indicated that the data met the assumption of homoscedasticity (see appendix C) and
the P-Plot indicated that the residuals were normally distributed (appendix D). This
allowed the continuation for a backward multiple regression.
Results
A backward multiple regression was run to examine the effect of
demographics and particular traits on criminal behaviour. Predictors included, age,
gender, education, marital status, occupation, ethnicity, conviction, empathy, ADHD
and caution. 8 predictors were removed (see appendix E). A multiple regression was
then run again with the 4 remaining indicators. The descriptive of the remaining
factors can be shown in table 1.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Std.
Mean
Deviation
PICTS
1.7823
.31382
Empathy
1.0223
.31580
ADHD
2.5445
.69254
Age
27.44
13.610
Occupation
3.30
1.151

N
73
73
73
73
73

Results showed a significant effect with the empathy, ADHD, age, education,
empathy and occupation predictors F(4,69) = 7.067, p < 0.001 (see Appendix F).
These four predictor variables accounted for a total of 29.4% of the variance in
criminal thinking. The standardized regression coefficient (pearsons) for ADHD was

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955
= .247, t(68)= 2.42, p < .018. This indicates that for every unit of increase in ADHD
symptoms there is an increase of .259 in overall criminal thinking and is considered a
small effect. Empathy ( =-.409, t(68,) = -4.00, p < .001), age ( =-.242, t(68,) = 1.87, p = .066), and occupation ( =-.316, t(68,) = -2.434, p < .02), all scored
negatively indicating that a decrease for said predictors, results in an increase of
overall criminal thinking. While empathy is a medium effect, both age and occupation
have a small effect (see table 2).
Correlations
Pearson
PICTS
Correlation Empathy
ADHD
Age
Occupation

PICTS
-

Empathy
-.415
-

ADHD
.259
-.048
-

Age
-.054
.006
-.019
-

Occupation
-.148
-.022
.037
-.618
-

Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ADHD, empathy and
demographics on criminal thinking accounting for 29.4%. The results found that the
regression, empathy and ADHD predicted criminal thinking supporting the
hypothesis. Demographic factors such as age and occupation showed a negative
correlation. Despite the regression model predicting criminal thinking; education was
not contributing to the model, suggesting that education does not affect criminal
thinking. Consequently rejecting Farringtons suggestion of IQ, marriage and
ethnicity. However, this provides more insight than problem suggesting alternative
demographic insight into investigating economic disparities, poverty and crosscultural studies.
ADHD and empathy symptoms were a significant predictor of criminal
thinking, supporting the literature (Babinski, Hartsough, & Lambert, 1999; Young,
Moss, Sedgwick, Fridman, & Hodgkins, 2015; Young & Gudjonsson, 2006; Decety,
Skelly, & Kiehl, 2013; Braaten & Rosn, 2000). This is a provides further support to
the literature as a general population is used, allowing a mundane realism as many
people display ADHD/ Low empathy traits but this is not enough to be clinically

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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diagnosed as a disorder. The model can be useful to assess the level of criminality in
at risk young people with ADHD and be used as prevention in the future. However it
would be premature to place immediately implications, as a predictive validity has not
been established placing emphasis for longitudinal studies.
Alternative routes should investigate the comorbid traits such as substance
abuse, oppositional defiant disorder should be considered in contrast to ADHD and
empathy as shown in additional studies that there is a relationship between criminal
behaviour (Mordre, Groholt, Kjelsberg, Sandstad, & Myhre, 2011); However, there is
limited research on the impact of each individual influencing predictor.
In conclusion, the present study adds to the growing literature linking ADHD,
empathy, age and occupation and criminality. This provides further research to the
academic field by examining the general public and for potential future interventions.
Further investigations such as longitudinal studies for predictive validity and more
demographic factors for alternative sources (such as poverty and economic status in
geographical regions) of criminal thinking are recommended.

Citations

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(2006). Validity of Pilot Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) to Rate Adult ADHD
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Babinski, L. M., Hartsough, C. S., & Lambert, N. M. (1999). Childhood conduct problems,
hyperactivity-impulsivity, and inattention as predictors of adult criminal activity.
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Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: an investigation of
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Braaten, E., & Rosn, L. (2000). Self-regulation of affect in attention deficit-
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Brown, E., & Males, M. (2011). Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest
and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation. Justice Policy Journal , 8, 1-30.

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Decety , J., Skelly , L., & Kiehl, K. (2013). Brain Response to Empathy-Eliciting Scenarios
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Palmer, E., & Hollin, C. (2003). Using thePsychological inventory of Criminal Thinking
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Appendix
Appendix A. Empathy Quotient including distractor items and measured items

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13

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Very Often

Please answer the questions below, rating yourself on

each of the criteria shown using the scale on the right side
of the page. As you answer each question, place an X in the
box that best describes how you felt and conducted
yourself over the past 6 months.
Part A
1. How often do you have trouble wrapping up the final
details of a project, once the challenging parts have been
done?
2. How often do you have difficulty getting things in order
when you have to do a task that requires organization?
3.How often do you have problems remembering
appointments or obligations
4.When you have a task that requires a lot of thought, how
often do you avoid or delay getting started?
5.How often do you fidget or squirm with your hands or
feet when you have to sit down for a long time?
6.How often do you feel overly active and compelled to do
things, like you were driven by a motor?
Part B
7.How often do you make careless mistakes when you
have to work on a boring or difficult project?
How often do you have difficulty keeping your attention
when you are doing boring or repetitive work?
8.How often do you have difficulty keeping your attention
when you are doing boring or repetitive work?
9.How often are you distracted by activity or noise
around you?
10.How often do you leave your seat in meetings or in
other situations in which you are expected to stay seated?
11.How often do you feel restless or fidgety?
12.How often do you have difficulty unwinding and
relaxing when you have time to yourself?
13.How often do you find yourself talking too much when
you are in social situations?
14.When youre in a conversation, how often do you find
yourself finishing the sentences of the people you are
talking to, before they can finish it themselves?
15.How often do you have difficulty waiting your turn in
situations when turn taking is required
16. How often do you interrupt others when they are
busy?

Never

Appendix A.1 ADHD with errors included

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100070955
Appendix A.2 First page of PICTS questionnaire

The following items are designed to help us understand criminal thinking and behaviour. Please take the time to complete each of the 64 items on thi
inventory using the four-point scale defined below:


4
=
strongly agree

3
=
agree

2
=
uncertain

1
=
disagree

1.
I will allow nothing to get in the way of getting what I want
4
3
2
1
.............................






2.
I find myself blaming society and external circumstances for
4
3
2
1
the problems I have had in my life.






3.
Even though I may start out with the best of intentions I have
4
3
2
1
trouble staying on track......






4.
There is nothing I cant do if I try hard enough....
4
3
2
1






5.
When I am under pressure I have sometimes used alcohol or
4
3
2
1
drugs ..................






6.
I have found myself blaming people who I have taken
4
3
2
1
advantage of by saying things like they deserved what they
got or they should have known better.






7.
One of the first things I consider about another person is
4
3
2
1
whether they look strong or weak........






8.
The way I look at it, I have paid my dues and am therefore
4
3
2
1
justified in taking more than my share.....






9.
The more I break the rules the more I thought there was no
4
3
2
1
way I would ever be caught ....................






10.
I believe that breaking the law is no big deal as long as you
4
3
2
1
dont physically hurt someone .........






11.
I have helped out friends and family with money acquired
4
3
2
1
illegally .................






12.
I sometimes let my thoughts and ideas run wild, ignore the
4
3
2
1
problems and difficulties associated with my plans until it is
too late .........






13.
It is unfair how little I have when lawyers, businessmen and
4
3
2
1
politicians get away with all sorts of illegal and underhand
behaviour every day ................






14.
I often argue with others over relatively minor matters
4
3
2
1
.....................






15.
I can honestly say that the welfare of other people is
4
3
2
1
something that I take into account when taking advantage of
other people ...................









16.
When frustrated I find myself saying to hell with it and then
4
3
2
1
doing my something stupid .........






17.
Even when I break the rules I can convince myself that there
4
3
2
1
was no way that I will ever get caught ............






18.
I find myself taking shortcuts, even if I know these shortcuts
4
3
2
1

14
will create problems later ........






19.
When not in control of a situation I feel weak and helpless ......
4
3
2
1

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Appendix B . Collinearity and VIF statistics

Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
B
Std. Error
1 (Constant)
2.349
.242
Empathy
-.406
.101
ADHD
.112
.046
Age
-.006
.003
Occupation
-.086
.035
a. Dependent Variable: PICTSMEAN

Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
-.409
.247
-.242
-.316

Appendix C. Scatter plot of homoscedasticity

15

t
9.702
-4.004
2.422
-1.866
-2.434

Sig.
.000
.000
.018
.066
.018

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance VIF
.997
.996
.618
.617

1.003
1.004
1.617
1.620

Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

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Appendix D. Regression of Standardized Residual met normal assumptions.

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Appendix E. The predictors removed from the model using a backwards regression
Excluded Variablesa
Collinearity Statistics
Model

Beta In

Sig.

Partial Correlation

Tolerance

VIF

MaritalStatus

-.019b

-.084

.933

-.011

.201

4.984

MaritalStatus

.007c

.032

.974

.004

.218

4.587

-.404

.688

-.051

.899

1.113

.043

.966

.005

.218

4.586

-.032d

-.303

.763

-.038

.917

1.091

.078d

.704

.484

.088

.853

1.172

.034

.159

.874

.020

.224

4.465

-.035

-.327

.745

-.041

.918

1.090

.061e

.563

.576

.070

.883

1.133

-.086e

-.719

.475

-.089

.720

1.389

.051

.239

.812

.030

.227

4.410

-.033

-.316

.753

-.039

.918

1.089

.064f

.590

.557

.073

.884

1.131

-.073f

-.614

.541

-.076

.734

1.363

.728

.469

.090

.837

1.195

.141

.888

.017

.228

4.378

-.035g

-.326

.745

-.040

.918

1.089

.056g

.521

.604

.064

.887

1.128

-.072

-.607

.546

-.074

.734

1.363

Diagnosis

.084

.759

.451

.093

.838

1.194

Ethnicity

-.121g

-1.142

.258

-.139

.904

1.106

.034h

.157

.876

.019

.228

4.377

-.379

.706

-.046

.919

1.088

.062h

.566

.573

.069

.888

1.126

-.477

.635

-.058

.739

1.354

.120h

1.119

.267

.135

.899

1.113

-.976

.332

-.118

.913

1.095

.186h

1.507

.136

.181

.669

1.494

Caution
4

MaritalStatus
Caution
Conviction

MaritalStatus
Caution
Conviction
Gender

MaritalStatus
Caution
Conviction
Gender
Diagnosis

MaritalStatus
Caution
Conviction
Gender

MaritalStatus
Caution
Conviction
Gender
Diagnosis
Ethnicity
Education

-.044
.009

.080
.030

-.041

-.057

-.104

Minimum To

a. Dependent Variable: PICTSMEAN

b. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, Conviction, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Caution, Diagnosis, Ethnicity, Education, Gender, Occupation
c. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, Conviction, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Diagnosis, Ethnicity, Education, Gender, Occupation
d. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Diagnosis, Ethnicity, Education, Gender, Occupation
e. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Diagnosis, Ethnicity, Education, Occupation
f. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Ethnicity, Education, Occupation
g. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Education, Occupation
h. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Age, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Occupation

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Investigating the role of ADHD and Empathy on Criminal thinking

100070955

Appendix F. ANOVA result where empathy, ADHD, age, and occupation were tested
against PICTS
ANOVAa
Sum
of
Model
Squares
df
Mean Square F
Sig.
1
Regression 2.082
4
.521
7.067
.000b
Residual
5.009
68
.074
Total
7.091
72
a. Dependent Variable: PICTSMEAN
b. Predictors: (Constant), Occupation, EMPMEAN, ADHDMEANTOTAL, Age

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