Complex Analysis (Math 3312)

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2015-2014 GAJ@ @

Chapter 6
Residues and Poles

The Cauchy-Goursat theorem states that the integral around a simple closed contour C of a
function that is analytic within and on that contour C is zero. In this chapter, we will see how to
evaluate these integral when the function fails to be analytic at a finite number of points interior to
C.

68. Isolated Singular Points

Recall that a point z0 is called a singular point of a function f if f is not analytic at z0 but is analytic
at some point in every neighborhood of z0 .
Definition. A singular point of a function f is called an isolated singular point if there is a deleted
neighborhood 0 < |z z0 | <  of z0 throughout which f is analytic.
Example 1. The function f (z) =

z1
has three singular points z = 0, z = 1. These singular
z(z 2 1)

points are isolated.

Example 2. The function f (z) = Logz has a singular point at z = 0. However this singularity is
not isolated since every neighborhood of z = 0 contains points on the negative real axis where f fails
to be analytic.

69. Residues
Let f has an isolated singular point at z0 . Then there is a number R such that f is analytic in the
domain 0 < |z z0 | < R. Consequently f has a Laurent series representation in that domain
f (z) =

cn (z z0 )n ,

n=

Z
f (z)
1
where cn =
dz and C is any positively oriented simple closed contour around z0
2i C (z z0 )n+1
that lying in the domain 0 < |z z0 | < R. When n = 1, this expression for cn can be written as
Z
f (z)dz = 2ic1 .
C

Definition. (Residue of a function)

Let z0 be an isolated singular point of a function f and let f (z) =

cn (z z0 )n be the Laurent

n=

series representation of f in the domain 0 < |z z0 | < R. Then c1 is called the residue of f at z0
and it is denoted by Res f (z).
z=z0

The residue is a complex number, and tells us important information about the singularity of
f (z) at z = z0 .
Example. Let f (z) =

1
. Find Res f (z).
z=0
z(z 2)

Solution.

70. Cauchy Residue Theorem

Theorem 1. (Cauchys residue theorem)
Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour. If a function f is analytic inside and on C
except for a finite number of singular points zk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, inside C, then
Z
n
X
f (z)dz = 2i
Res f (z).
C

k=1

z=zk

Proof. Let Ck , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, be positively oriented circles |z z0 | = Rk that are interior to C and

no two of them have common points. Then, (by Theorem 7, Chapter 4),
Z
f (z)dz =
C

n Z
X
k=1

Ck

f (z)dz.

But

Z
f (z)dz = 2i Res f (z)
z=zk

Ck

and this completes the proof.

Z
z 2 e1/z dz, where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 1.
Example 1. Evaluate
C

Solution.

Z
Example 2. Evaluate
C

z+2
dz, where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 2.
z(z + 1)

Solution.

71. Residue at Infinity

Theorem 2. (Residue at infinity)
Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour. If a function f is analytic everywhere in the
finite plane except for a finite number of singular points inside C, then
Z
h 1  1 i
.
f (z)dz = 2i Res 2 f
z=0
z
z
C
Z
1
Example. Evaluate
dz, where C is the positively oriented circle |z| = 2.
2
C (z 1)(z + 1)
Solution.

Exercises (page 239): 1 6

72. The Three Types of Isolated Singular Points
In this section, we will classify the isolated singular point z = z0 of a function f according to the
1
X
part
cn (z z0 )n of the Laurent series representation of f in the domain 0 < |z z0 | < R.
n=

Definition. Let z0 be an isolated singular point of a function f and let f (z) =

cn (z z0 )n

n=

be the Laurent series representation of f in the domain 0 < |z z0 | < R. Then the portion
1
X
cn (z z0 )n , involving negative powers of z z0 , is called the principal part of f at z0 .
n=

Example. Find the principal part of f at z = 1 if f (z) =

1
.
(z 1)2 (z + 1)

Solution.

Definition. Let z0 be an isolated singular point of a function f and let f (z) =

cn (z z0 )n be

n=

the Laurent series representation of f in the domain 0 < |z z0 | < R.

(a) If cn = 0 for all n 1, then z0 is called a removable singular point.
(b) If there exists a negative integer m such that cm 6= 0 and cn = 0, for n < m, then z0 is called a
pole of order m.
(c) If an infinite number of the coefficients cn (n < 0) are nonzero, then z0 is called an essential
singular point.
5

cos z
Example 1. Find the isolated singular points of f (z) = 5 and determine whether they are poles,
z
removable, or essential singular points.
Solution.

Example 2. Find and classify the isolated singular points of f (z) =

Solution.

sin z 1
.
2z

1
Example 3. Find and classify the singular points of f (z) = sin .
z
Solution.

Remarks.
(a) A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.

(b) If a function f has a removable singular point at z0 , then the function F (z) =

f (z), z 6= z0
c0 ,
z = z0 .

is analytic in some neighborhood of z0 .

(c) In any neighborhood of an essential singular point, a function assume every finite value, with
one possible exception, an infinite number of times.
Example. Show that f (z) =
that it is analytic at z = 0.

cos z 1
has a removable singular point at z = 0 and redefine f (z) so
z

Solution.

Exercises (page 243): 1 5

7

73. Residues at Poles

If a function f has an isolated singular point z0 , then we use the Laurent series expansion of f in
a domain 0 < |z z0 | < R in order to identify z0 as a pole and to find the residue of f at z0 . The
following theorem provides an alternative method.
Theorem 3. An isolated singular point z0 of a function f is a pole of order m if and only if f (z)
can be written in the form
(z)
,
f (z) =
(z z0 )m
where (z) is analytic at z0 and (z0 ) 6= 0. Moreover
(m1) (z0 )
Res f (z) =
.
z=z0
(m 1)!
Proof. (:) Assume that f has a pole of order m at z0 . This implies that
f (z) =

cn (z z0 )n ,

0 < |z z0 | < R.

n=m


Let (z) =

(z z0 )m f (z), z 6= z0
Then is analytic at z0 and (z0 ) = cm 6= 0.
cm ,
z = z0 .

(:) Assume f (z) =

(z)
, where (z) is analytic at z0 and (z0 ) 6= 0. Then
(z z0 )m
(z) =

an (z z0 )n ,

|z z0 | < R.

n=0

This gives
f (z) =

an (z z0 )nm =

n=0

an+m (z z0 )n ,

0 < |z z0 | < R.

n=m

Thus, f has a pole of order m at z0 .

Now
Res f (z) = am1 =
z=z0

(m1) (z0 )
.
(m 1)!

ez
Example 1. Let f (z) = 2 . Show that f has a pole of order 2 at z = 0 and find the residue of f at
z
z = 0.
Solution.

z
. Find the singular points of f and show that they are poles.
+4
Determine the order of each pole and find the corresponding residue.
Example 2. Let f (z) =

z2

Solution.

sin z
. Find the singular points of f and show that they are poles.
(2z )3
Determine the order of each pole and find the corresponding residue.
Example 3. Let f (z) =

Solution.

Exercises (page 248): 1 7

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