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Atomic Structure
2.1 Particles in the atom
An atom basically consists of 3 subatomic particles, called the proton, the
neutron and the electron. Neutrons and protons are found in the nucleus of
the atom, whereas electrons are found orbiting this nucleus. Basically, the
periodic table is arranged in terms of increasing proton number, and the
number of protons in an atom determines which element it is. Heres a table
comparing these subatomic particles:
Sub atomic
particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Symbol
Relative mass
Relative charge
p
n
e
1
1
1/1836
+1
0
-1
Observation
The beam is deflected
upwards towards the
negative plate
Neutrons
No deflection
Electrons
Explanation
Since unlike charges
attract, the protons are
positively charged and so
are attracted to the
negatively charged plate,
hence the beam is
deflected upwards
As the neutrons have no
charge, they are
unaffected by electric
fields.
As unlike charges attract,
and like charges repel,
the beam of electrons is
x
y
where x is the nucleon number and y is the proton number, e.g. H-3, tritium,
will have a notation as follows:
3
1
Max. no of electrons
2
8
18
32
Subshells present
S
S,p
S,p,d
S,p,d
and the superscript numbers show the number of electrons in that particular
subshell.
The first ionisation energy (H1) of an element, is the energy needed to
remove 1 electron from each atom, in one mole of atoms of the element in
the gaseous state to form 1 mole of gaseous +1 ions.
The second ionisation energy of an element would be the amount of energy
needed to remove 1 electron from each +1 ion, in one mole of +1 ions in the
gaseous state, to form 1 mole of +2 ions in the gaseous state. This then
continues for the 3rd, 4th, 5th ionisation energies.
Many factors influence the ionisation energies of elements:
1. The size of the nuclear charge: As the no. of protons increases, so
does the total positive charge. Thus, the attractive force between the
nucleus and the electrons increases, so more energy is needed to
remove an electron, leading to a higher ionisation energy. Thus, as the
proton number increases, the ionisation energy also increases.
2. The distance of outer electrons from the nucleus: The attractive
force between the nucleus and the electrons decreases as the distance
between them increases. Thus, the further the outer electron shell is
from the nucleus, the lower the ionisation energy.
3. Shielding effect of inner electrons: As all electrons are negatively
charged, they repel each other. Full inner shells will prevent the outer
electrons from feeling the full force from the nucleus, i.e. the inner
shells shield the outer electrons from the nucleus. Thus, the more
inner full electron shells, the greater the shielding and hence, the
lower the ionisation energy.
Ionisation energies follow a trend across a period, and down a group. The
following table shows the trend, and explains from the elements H to Na:
Observation
There is a general increase in H1
across a period (from H to He and from
Li to Ne)
Explanation
This is because as you move across the
period, the positive charge increases,
but the electron that is removed is from
the same outer shell. Thus, only the
positive charge increases, but the
distance from the nucleus, and
shielding effect is relatively constant,
thus leading to an increasing ionisation
energy
As you move into another period, the
outer electron comes from a shell that
is further away from the nucleus, thus
the distance of the outer electrons from
the nucleus, and the shielding effect
both increase. This outweighs the slight
increase in positive charge, causing the
attractive force between the outer
electrons and the nucleus to decrease,
thus leading to a decrease in ionisation
energy.
Although B has one more proton than
between Be and B.
You can see marked changes in ionisation energy between the 3rd and 4th
electron, and the 11th and 12th electron. Thus it can be concluded that the
electronic configuration of Al is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1.
In the example above, it can be seen that, as the sudden increase in
ionisation energy occurs between the 3rd and 4th electrons, the outer shell
contains 3 electrons, and so, the element is in group III of the periodic
table. This method can also be applied to other elements.