Manual Emm 3108 - Revised - 150224

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia
LAB MANUAL FOR
EMM 3108: STRENGTH OF MATERIAL 1
EMM3108 Strength of Materials | 1

LAB REPORT MARKING SCHEME

No.
1
2
3
Item
Introduction
and
Theoretical
Background
Experimental
Objectives
Lab
Apparatus
Poor
1-2
Has
serious
trouble
identifying the related
topic
Purpose of lab not clearly
identified or understood
So many omissions that
performing the lab would
be difficult
Difficult to follow how lab
was performed. Steps go
off topic or are otherwise
distracting
Score
Average
3-4
Exhibits some vagueness
in
understanding.
Wanders off slightly from
the topic
Workable statement of
goal, some fuzziness
Vital items listed, maybe
one omission
Experimental
Procedure
Possible to do the lab,

although
some
assumptions might have
to be made. Might not be
numbered
All data is present, but
shown in a format that
may be confusing or
misleading
Calculations
are
essentially
correct,
although some parts
may
be
implied,
including
values
calculated from the
graph
Results,
Some data missing.
Analysis and
Data
shown
in
Calculation
disorganized or sloppy
manner
Work is poorly shown,
as if a rough draft.
Serious
calculation
errors affect results
Discussions
Seriously lacking list of

sources
and/or
no
calculation of error
List of sources of error is

incomplete. Calculation of
error is wrong
Conclusions
Has
serious
trouble
showing
link
from
Objective through to
Conclusion
Shows the person has not

lost sight of the labs
reason, but could focus
more on whats going on
Excellent
5
Clear
and
concise
without
being
too
lengthy
Clear
and
concise
statement of goal
Point form list of
required equipment
Step-by-step numbered
list that show how to do
the lab
Collected quantitative
data is well presented
in a table. Qualitative
data may be given if
necessary
Well laid out and
calculated
analysis
based on data. Graphs
(if needed) follow all
rules
and
have
appropriate
calculations showing
relationship between
calculated value and
physics concept
Several sources of error
are listed, and each is
well explained. Shows
calculation of error (if
appropriate)
Wraps up the lab, just
like the conclusion of an
essay for English

1 - TENSILE TEST
Introduction
Tensile test is one of the most widely used mechanical tests. Various properties of the material
that can be determined by tensile test are yield stress, upper and lower yield points, tensile
strength, elongation, and reduction in area.
This manual contains some fundamental theory for understanding the experiment, description of
the apparatus and experimental procedure for tensile test.
Objective
The objectives of this experiment are
1.
To develop an understanding of stressstrain curves.
2.
To determine the various mechanical properties of engineering material.
Theory
Stresses may be tensile, compressive or shear in nature. Figure 1
shows a metal bar in tension, i.e. the force F is stretching force
which thus increases the length of the bar and reduces its crosssection. The area used in calculations of stress is generally the
original area A0 that existed before the application of the forces, not
the area after the force has been applied. This stress is thus
referred to as the engineering stress :
= F / A0
[N/m2
or Pa]
l0
(1)
The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In

tension (or compression), the strain is the ratio of the change in
length to the original length. The term strain is defined as:
e t (%) = 100 ( l l 0 ) / l 0
(2)
Where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two

lengths it has no units. Strain is frequently expressed as a
percentage.
UTS
Stress
F: Fracture
A0
Fig. 1 Metal bar in tension
Results of such a tensile test can be

represented in the form of engineering
stressstrain curve. Figure 2 is typical of
ductile metals such as copper tested at room
temperature. The tensile strength, also
known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS), is
defined as the maximum stress which a
material can withstand. It is obtained by
dividing maximum load by original crosssectional area of tensile specimen.
UTS = F max / A 0 [N/m2 or Pa]
(3)
Strain
Fig. 2 Typical engineering stressstrain
behavior to fracture

Figure 3 and 4 show the two types of stressstrain curves. The

yield stress y is defined as the stress at which plastic deformation
(elongation) of the tensile specimen takes place at a constant
load (Figure 3). Such behavior is generally observed in carbon
steels.
Upper
yield
point
Some steels, especially non-ferrous alloys, do not show the

presence of sharp yield point (Figure 4). For such steels, proof
stress is reported instead of yield stress. Proof stress0.2 is that
stress at which some small amount of permanent deformation,
say equal to 0.2 percent strain, take place. In other words, it is
that stress which produces a permanent elongation of 0.2
percent in the tensile specimen on the removal load.
Stress
y
Lower
yield
point
At the beginning of the test, the force increases rapidly and

proportionately to strain: the stressstrain curve obeys Hookes
law
Strain
Fig. 3 Typical stressstrain
curve for mild steel
= Ee t [N/m2 or Pa]
(4)
The proportionality constant (the slope of the curve) is called the

elastic modulus or Youngs modulus E (Figure 5).
E = / e t [N/m2 or Pa]
Stress
Elastic Plastic
If the specimen is unloaded in this range, it will return to its

original length, i.e. all deformation is elastic.
Tensile test is carried out by gripping the ends of a suitably
prepared standardized specimen in a tensile testing machine,
and then applying a continually increasing uni-axial load until
such time as failure occurs. Before the test, the gauge length L0,
and the cross-sectional area A0 are measured to enable
calculations of percent elongation and percent area reduction to
be made. Figure 6 shows dimensions of a specimen for tensile
test.
0.002
(5)
Strain
Fig. 4 General stressstrain

curve for ductile materials
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to deform plastically

without fracture. The two most common methods of ductility
measurement are:
a. Percent elongation is determined by setting a gauge length on
a specimen prior to loading and after tensile failure measuring
the final distance of these gauge marks. Then a percent
elongation value is calculated as equation (2).
b. Percent area reduction is calculated by putting the two ends of the fractured specimen together
and measuring the diameter at the break. Calculate the area at the break at this point of fracture.
This final area is then compared with the original area of the specimen and a percent reduction
in area is then calculated.
Reduction in area (%) = 100 ( A 0 A ) / A 0
(6)

Unload
Stress
Radius r
Diameter d0
Cross-sectional area A0
Slope = modulus of
elasticity
Load
Gauge length L0
Parallel length LC
Strain
Fig. 5 Hookes law: Stress

proportional to strain
L 0 = 5.65 A0
Fig. 6 Standard tensile test specimen with circular cross section
Description of Universal Testing Machine

The Universal Tensile Testing Machine (Figure 7) is designed
to test the physical properties of wide range of materials and
structures. Testing of properties such as tensile strength,
compressive strength, fatigue resistance, crack growth
resistance, bend characteristics, etc. can be performed on
materials such as metals, ceramics, textiles, and virtually any
other material used in an industrial process.
A standard system in Universal Tensile Testing Machine
consists of a tower console and control panel, together with
a load frame and actuator, a hydraulic power supply and a
load cell as a load measurement device. These are all
interconnected with electrical cables at the rear panel of the
tower console. The machine system applies loads, using a
hydraulic actuator, to a specimen of the material under test.
The machine allows for the connection of a computer that can
be used to control and monitor a test automatically. The
computer can be log data resulting from a test and can be
used to generate random or pre-programmed waveforms.
Fig. 7 Universal Testing Machine
Specimen and Equipment

1.
Universal testing machine
2.
Vernier caliper
3.
Tensile specimen: steel / brass / copper / aluminium
Procedures
1. Refer to Figure 8, use Vernier caliper to measure the original diameter of the specimen. Take
measurements in at least three locations and average.
2. Calculate the value of gauge length, and make two marks on the parallel part of the specimen
to register the gauge length. Grip the specimen in the gripping heads of the machine.
3. Set the required parameters on the control panel.
4. Adjust the load recorder on the front panel controller to zero, to read load applied.

5. Press start button to start the

tensile test.
6. Monitor the sample and note when
constriction begins. From now on,
the force will no longer increase,
but instead, will tend to decrease
until fracture occurs.
7. Remove the tested specimen from
the gripping heads, and measure
dimensions of tested specimen. Fit
the broken parts together and
measure reduced diameter and
final gauge length (Figure 8).
Original
Gauge length
L0
Plastic
Deformation
Gauge length at failure L
Results
1.
2.
Original diameter d0
Show all the measurements of

specimen.
i.
Original diameter d0 [mm]
ii.
Original gauge length L0

[mm]
iii.
Final diameter d [mm]
iv.
Final gauge length L [mm]
Reduction in
diameter
Diameter at failure d
Fig. 8 Schematic of tensile test specimen for

before and after testing
Calculate the following.

i.
Original cross-sectional area A0 [mm2]
ii.
Final cross-sectional area A [mm2]
iii.
Percent elongation
iv.
Percent reduction in area
v.
Youngs modulus E [GPa]
3.
Plot the loaddisplacement graph for the tested specimen.
4.
Plot the stressstrain graph.
5.
On the stress-strain curve show the following points, and verify the value (i) to (iii).
i.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [MPa]
ii.
Yield stress y or Proof stress 0.2 [MPa]
iii.
Fracture stress f [MPa]
iv.
Elastic limit
v.
Proportional limit
vi.
Elastic and plastic deformation regions
vii.
Necking region
Discussion
1. Discuss on the shape of obtained stressstrain curve.
2. Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.

3. Discuss the difference between Engineering Stress and True Stress, and whether there is a
significant difference between these values at failure.
4. Explain the necking process, and discuss how the necking of the specimen relates to the shape
of the stressstrain curve.
5. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimen.
6. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result.
Conclusion
1. Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.
2. Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

2 - COMPRESSION TEST
Introduction
Maximum stress a material can sustain under crush loading. The compressive strength of a
material that fails by shattering fracture can be defined within fairly narrow limits as an
independent property. However, the compressive strength of materials that do not shatter in
compression must be defined as the amount of stress required to distort the material an arbitrary
amount. Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed pushing
forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for compression test.
Objective
1. To study and observe the techniques of the compression testing.
2. To determine the mechanical properties on three different sizes of the tested specimens.
Theory
The compression test is simply the opposite of the tension test
with respect to the direction of loading. It is often stated that
materials behave the same in tension and compression. That is
true for most ductile materials. However, there are some
materials that are very weak in tension and extremely strong in
compression.
Prior to the yield point tension and compression results are
similar. The major difference with the compression test
compared to the tensile test is that the specimen compresses or
the area increases after the yield point is reached. For some
ductile materials the specimen will compress until a flat slug is
reached. However brittle materials will fail suddenly after their
ultimate strength is exceeded. These brittle materials have much
greater compression strength than tensile strength. That is why
these materials are mostly tested in compression.
l0
A0
F
Fig.1 Metal bar in compression
When a force (or load) is applied to a material (Figure 1), it produces a stress in the material. The
stress acting on the material is the force F exerted per unit area A0:
= F / A 0 [N/m2 or Pa]
(1)
The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In compression (or tension), the strain
is the ratio of the change in length to the original length. The term strain is defined as:
e c (%) = 100 ( l l 0 ) / l 0
(2)
Where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. Strain
is frequently expressed as a percentage.
In compression testing the sample is squeezed while the load and the displacement are recorded.
Compression tests result in mechanical properties that include the compressive yield stress,
ultimate compressive stress (brittle materials), compressive modulus of elasticity, and proportional
limit.

Compressive yield stress is measured in a manner identical to that done for tensile testing.
Ultimate compressive strength max is the stress required to rupture a specimen. It is obtained by
dividing maximum compressive load Fmax by the original specimen cross sectional area A0.
max = F max / A 0 [N/m2 or Pa]
(3)
F
Short
compression
member
Ductile
material
Brittle
material
Fig. 2 Short member in compression testing

F
Compression members, such as columns, are

mainly subjected to axial forces. The failure
of a short compression member resulting
from the compression axial force looks like
in Figure 2.
However, when a compression member
becomes longer, the role of the geometry and
stiffness (Young's modulus) becomes more
and more important. For a long (slender)
column, buckling occurs way before the
normal stress reaches the strength of the
column material as shown in Figure 3. For
an intermediate length compression
member, kneeling occurs when some areas
yield before buckling, as shown in the Figure
4.
The failure of a compression member has to
do with the strength and stiffness of the
material and the geometry (slenderness
ratio) of the member. Whether a
compression member is considered short,
intermediate, or long depends on these
factors.
Long
compression
member
F
Buckling
Fig. 3 Long member in compression testing
In practice, for a given material, the

allowable stress in a compression member
depends on the slenderness ratio L/rand can
be divided into three regions: short,
intermediate, and long.
F
Short columns are dominated by the strength

limit of the material. Intermediate columns are
bounded by the inelastic limit of the member.
Finally, long columns are bounded by the elastic
limit (i.e. Euler's formula). These three regions
are depicted on the stress/slenderness graph
below (Figure 5).
The short/ intermediate/ long classification of
columns depends on both the geometry
(slenderness ratio) and the material properties
(Young's modulus and yield strength).
Intermediate
compression
member
F
Kneeling
(Inelastic buckling)
Fig. 4 Intermediate member in compression

testing

F/A
Inelastic stability limit
U
(Strength limit)
Long
Intermediate
Short
Eulers formula
(Elastic stability limit)
L/ r
Fig. 5 Relationship between compression

strength with slenderness ratio

The Universal Testing Machine (Figure 6) is designed
to test the physical properties of wide range of
materials and structures. Testing of properties such as
tensile strength, compressive strength, fatigue
resistance,
crack
growth
resistance,
bend
characteristics, etc. can be performed on materials
such as metals, ceramics, textiles, and virtually any
A standard system in Universal Testing Machine
consists of a tower console and control panel, together
with a load frame and actuator, a hydraulic power
supply and a load cell as a load measurement device.
These are all interconnected with electrical cables at
the rear panel of the tower console. The machine
system applies loads, using a hydraulic actuator, to a
specimen of the material under test.
The machine allows for the connection of a computer
that can be used to control and monitor a test
automatically. The computer can be log data resulting
from a test and can be used to generate random or preprogrammed waveforms.

1. Universal testing machine (UTM) Instron Series 8500
2. Vernier caliper
3. Compression specimen: wood
Procedures
1. Use Vernier caliper to measure the original size of the specimen.

2. Center the specimen between the compression test plates.

3. Set the required parameters on the control panel.
4. Adjust the load recorder on the front panel controller to zero, to read load applied.
5. Press start button to start the compression test.
6. Observe the specimen, as the load is gradually applied.
7. Record the maximum load and continue loading until complete failure.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat experiment with other specimens.
10. Observe and describe the type of failure for each specimen.
Precautions
i. Never operate the UTM when someones hands are between the grips.
ii. Ensure all lab participants are clear of equipment before beginning or resuming testing.
iii. Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails.
Results
1. Show all the measurements of specimen.
i) Original depth d [mm]
ii) Original width w [mm]
iii) Original length L [mm]
2. Calculate the original cross-sectional area A0 [mm2].
3. Plot the loaddisplacement graph for the tested specimen.
4. On the loaddisplacement curve show and verify the value for the following points.
i) Maximum load Fmax[N]
ii) Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure Ff [N]
5. Plot the compressive stresscompressive strain graph.
6. On the stress-strain curve show the following points, and verify the value (i) to (iii).
i) Yield stress y[MPa]
ii) Ultimate compressive strength max[MPa]
iii) Modulus of elasticity E [GPa]
iv) Proportional limit
Discussion
1. Discuss on the shape of obtained stressstrain curve.
3. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimen.
Conclusion

3 - HARDNESS TEST
Introduction
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. Hardness measurements are
widely used for the quality control of materials because they are quick and considered to be
nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations produced by the test are in low stress areas.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for hardness test.
Objective
1. To determine the hardness of various engineering materials using Rockwell hardness test.
2. To develop an understanding of suitable scale for hardness test specimens.
Theory
1. General
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. The
hardness of the metal is measured by loading an indenter into its surface. The indenter material
which is usually a ball, pyramid, or cone, is made of a material much harder than the material
being tested. For most standard hardness tests a known load is applied slowly by pressing the
indenter at 90 degrees into the metal surface being tested. After the indentation has been made,
the indenter is withdrawn from the surface. An empirical hardness number is then calculated or
read off a dial (or digital display), which is based on the cross-sectional area of depth of the
indentation.
The most common type of tests that widely used and adopted in engineering practices are the
Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell methods.
D
2. Brinell Hardness Test

With the Brinell test, a hardened steel ball or tungsten carbide ball
is pressed for a time of 10 to 15 seconds into the surface of
specimen by a standard load F [kgf] (Figure 1). After the load and
the ball have been removed, the diameter of the indentation d
[mm] is measured. The Brinell hardness numberHB, is obtained by
dividing the size of the load applied by the surface area of the
spherical indentation A [mm2].
D
[D
HB = F / A = F / Dh = F /
2
(D d ) (1)
Side view
d
Top view
d
Fig. 1 Shape of indentation in
Brinell hardness test

Where h [mm] is the depth of indentation, D [mm] is the

diameter of the ball. The Brinell test cannot be used with very
soft or very hard materials. This test is limited to materials with
hardnesses up to 450 HB with a hardened steel ball and 600 HB
with a tungsten carbide ball.
136
Side view
d
3. Vickers Hardness Test
Top view
The Vickers test involves a diamond indenter, in the form of a
square-based pyramid with an apex angle of 136, being pressed
Fig. 2 Shape of indentation
under load for 10 to 15 seconds into the surface of the specimen
in Vickers hardness test
under test. The result is a square-shaped indentation. After the
load and indenter are removed the diagonals of the indentation
d [mm] are measured. The Vickers hardness number HV is obtained by dividing the size of the load
F [kgf], applied by the surface area A [mm2], of the indentation (Figure 2). Thus the HV is given by
HV = F /(d 2 /sin68) = F /(d 2 /1.854) = 1 .854 F / d 2
(2)
Typically a load of 30 kg is used for steels and cast irons, 10 kg for copper alloys, 5 kg for pure
copper and aluminium alloys, 2.5 kg for pure aluminum and 1 kg for lead, tin and tin alloys. Up to
a hardness value of about 300 HV, the hardness value number given by the Vickers test is the
same as that given by the Brinell test.
4. Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell test differs from the Brinell and Vickers tests
in not obtaining a value for the hardness in terms of an
indentation but using the depth of indentation, this depth
being directly indicated by a pointer on a calibrated scale.
The test uses either a diamond cone or a hardened steel ball
as the indenter.
The procedure for applying load to specimen is illustrated in
Figure 3. A minor load of 10 kg is applied to press the
indenter into contact with the surface. A major (additional)
load is then applied and causes the indenter to penetrate
into the specimen. The major load is then removed and there
is some reduction in the depth of the indenter due to the
deformation of the specimen not being entirely plastic. The
difference in the final depth of the indenter and the initial
depth, before the major load was applied, is determined.
This is the permanent increase in penetration e due to the
major load. The Rockwell hardness number HR is then given
by.
HR = E e
(3)
Where is the arbitrary constant which is dependent on the type of indenter. For the diamond cone
indenter E is 100, for the steel ball 130. There are a number of Rockwell scales (Table 1), the
scales being determined by the indenter and the major load used. A variation of the Rockwell test
has to be used for thin sheet, this test being referred to as the Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test.
Similar loads are used and the depth of indentation which is correspondingly smaller is measured
with a more sensitive device. The number of Rockwell Superficial scales also is given in Table 1.
Table 1 Rockwell hardness and Rockwell Superficial hardness test scales

Total Load
[kgf]
Method
Rockwell
Superficial
Rockwell
15
30
45
60
100
150
Diamond
Cone
15N
30N
45N
A
D
C
1/16
15T
30T
45T
F
B
G
Indenter
Steel Ball
1/8
1/4
15H
15X
30H
30X
45H
45X
H
L
E
M
K
P
1/2
15Y
30Y
45Y
R
S
V
Description of Rockwell Hardness Tester

The Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine (Figure 4) is one of the more accurate ways to
determining hardness of metals. It conforms to ASTM E18, ISO 6508 and JIS Z 2245 standards,
while meeting and exceeding standard requirements for Rockwell testing as well as Rockwell
Superficial testing. The Superficial hardness test uses the same principle as a Rockwell hardness
test, but at small loads to determine the hardness of either thin samples or very soft specimens.
It can also be used to determine case and coating hardness.
The hardness testing machine consists of side panel with calibration switch and total load
sequence switch to select auto/manual measurement. The desired method of Rockwell or
Rockwell Superficial method can be selected from the selector ring. The selector knob is used to
fix the total load for the hardness testing. The specimen is mounted on the anvil, and the elevating
handle rotates to enable anvil shifts until tip of the indenter touches the test specimen. The
diamond and 3 steel ball indenters (Figure 5) are provided together as accessories with this
machine, as well as calibration blocks. The machine also consists of a digital indicator in front
panel which reduces test duration and increases ease of use (Figure 6). The hardness value is
displayed directly on the hardness indicator.
Side panel
Front panel
(a)
(b)
Selector
ring
Indenter
Anvil
Fig. 5 (a) Diamond and (b) Steel ball indenters
Selector
knob
Elevating
handle
Switch
start
Fig. 4 Mitutoyo ATK-600 Rockwell /

Rockwell Superficial Type Hardness
Testing Machine

Loading
navigator
Overloading
lamp
Loading
lamp
O
VE
R
PRELOAD
Upper limit setting lamp

Lower limit setting lamp
Offset setting lamp
Indenter selection lamp
Test a method setting lamp
Rockwell Superficial
Hardness test selection
lamp
Hardness
indicator
UPDOWN
switch
OK
NG
SELECT switch
HIGH
LOW
OFFSET
INDENTER
METHOD
METHOD
ROCKWELL
SUPERFICIAL
Rockwell Hardness
test selection lamp
LO
A
DI
N
G
OK/NG lamp
ROCKWELL
SELECT
TEST FORCE
PRE. TOTAL
3
(S)
10
(R)
15
30
45
60
100
150
Diamond
indenter lamp
DIA.
15N
30N
45N
A
D
C
BALL
1/16
15T
30T
45T
F
B
G
1/8
15H
30H
45H
H
E
K
1/4
15X
30X
45X
L
M
P
1/2
15Y
30Y
45Y
R
S
V
Ball
Indenter lamp
Scale table
Fig. 6 Front panel of ATK-600 hardness testing machine

1. Rockwell hardness tester Mitutoyo ATK-600
2. Ball and diamond indenters
3. Calibration block
4. Hardness specimens: steel, brass, aluminium
Procedures
1. Turn ON the power switch.
2. Set the total load sequence switch to the AUTO position in the side panel.
3. Set the minor load from selector ring to S (Rockwell Superficial) or R (Rockwell).
4. For selecting a desired indenter, refer to Table 1.
5. Fix the indenter.
6. Place the specimen on the anvil.
7. Set the total load value by turning the selector knob.
8. Preparation complete:
Loading navigator rapidly flashing (from outer to inner)
Indicator
100 (diamond indenter); 130 (ball indenter)
9. Apply the minor load by raising the anvil by rotating clockwise the elevating handle slowly
until the tip of the indenter touches the specimen.

10. During minor load application:

Loading navigator slowly flashing (from outer to inner)
11. When the hardness indicator displays as below. Stop the handle operation.
Indicator
620 to 640 (Rockwell Superficial); 360 to 370 (Rockwell)
12. After appropriate minor load is applied, minor load application is complete.
Loading navigator 4 LEDs light up
13. Press the START switch. The measurement process is automatically performed from step 14
17.
14. Presetting:
Loading navigator 4 LEDs light up
Loading lamp
lights up
Indicator
100 (diamond indenter); 130 (ball indenter)
15. During total load application:

Loading navigator flashing (from outer to inner)
Loading lamp
lights up
Indicator
rapid to slow count-down (duration time: 3 to 60 seconds)
16. During total load removal:

Loading navigator flashing (from inner to outer)
Loading lamp
lights up
Indicator
rapid count-up
17. Measurement complete:

Indicator
hardness value displayed
OK/NG lamps
OK lights up
18. Read and record the hardness value from the hardness indicator.
19. Turn the elevating handle in the reverse direction to lower the anvil and remove the
specimen.
20. Repeat step 3 to 19 for specimens of other methods and specimens.
21. Take three readings on each test specimen and method (Refer Table 2).
Precautions
i.
Ensure that both surfaces of the specimens are flat and positioned securely on the anvil.
ii. Rotate the elevating handle gently during elevation of the anvil. Otherwise due to abrupt
strike of the indenter tip with the specimen, the indenter may be destroyed.
iii. If the minor load application is in overload condition:
Loading navigator 4 LEDs light up; Indicator AAAA; Overloading lamp Lights up
Results
Show all the hardness measurements of the specimens in Table 2.

Table 2 Experimental results
Scale
Specimen
Reading
2
Average
Discussion
1.
Discuss on the obtained results for each tested specimens.
2.
Discuss on the suitable scale for each tested specimen.
3.
Compare and discuss on the hardness values of tested specimens with values from reference
sources or manufacturers data.
4.
Give a critical discussion on why hardness test needs to perform in engineering practice.
Conclusion
1.
Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.
2.
Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

4 - CREEP TEST
Introduction
The term of creep refers to the slow plastic deformation that occurs with prolonged loading
usually at elevated temperatures. Creep may occur under static tension, compression, bending,
torsion or shear stress. However, it has been mainly studied in tension under conditions of
variable advantage factor and load.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for creep test.
Objective
1. To develop an understanding of the stages involves in creep.
2. To quantify the rate of deformation of a specimen to stress at a constant temperature (creep
rate).
3. To determine a specimen properties when subjected to a prolonged tensile load.
Theory
Creep is defined as timedependent plastic deformation (elongation) of the metal at a constant
tensile load. The phenomenon is quite significant at elevated temperature, above about 0.4Tm (Tm:
melting temperature). Creep caused by a constant tensile load can be studied by measuring the
permanent extension, after various time intervals, of test-pieces maintained at a constant
temperature. When the creep strain is plotted against time, a curve is obtained such as the one
shown in Figure 1. After the initial instantaneous extension, it can be seen that the curve is made
up of three portions:
Primary
Tertiary
Secondary
Instantaneous deformation
Time
Primary creep: The deformation is accompanied

by strain hardening which quickly reduces the
rate of strain.
Secondary creep: The strain rate is
approximately constant. This steady state is
most important part of the curve and should
cover the entire estimated life of the component.
This stage is a result of balance between two
opposing phenomena, namely, strain hardening
and recovery.
Creep strain
Rupture
tr
Fig.1 Typical creep curve of strain versus

time at constant stress and elevated
temperature
Tertiary creep: The strain rate increases rapidly

due to local necking of the test-piece. The
effective stress therefore increases and finally
leads to fracture at tr.

T3>T2> T1
3> 2> 1
T3 or 3
Creep strain
In many cases the three parts of the curve are not

clearly distinguishable. To obtain a complete
picture of the creep properties of a material, it is
necessary to construct creep curves for a range of
stresses over a range of temperatures. Such curves
(Figure 2) usually show that, as the applied stress
decreased, the primary creep decreases,
secondary creep is prolonged, and the possible
extension during tertiary creep tends to increase.
Very low applied stress may mean that tertiary
creep does not occur even after lengthy service life.
T2 or 2
T1 or 1
T< 0.4Tm
Time
Fig.2 Influence of stress and
temperature T on creep behavior
Experiment 1: Creep Test with Variable Advantage Factor

Description of Creep Measurement Apparatus (SM6)
The SM6 Creep Measurement Apparatus, illustrated in Figure 3, uses a simple loading lever to
apply a steady load to the specimen. The ends of specimen are attached at specimen holders by
the retaining steel nuts. Load is applied to the specimen by placing weight hanger on the loading
lever. The loading lever has a rest pin to lock the loading lever in the rest position. The specimen
extension is measured by a dial test indicator (DTI).
X
Pinch
nut
Specimen
holders
Dial test
indicator
Retaining
steel nuts
Specimen
Supported
pin
Loading lever
Rest pin
Weight
hanger
XX direction
X
Front view
Fig. 3 SM6 Creep Apparatus

Specimen and Equipments

1.
2.
3.
Creep measurement apparatus SM6

Vernier caliper
Stopwatch
4.
3 pieces of Plumbum (Figure 4)
Procedures
1.
Measure and record the original gauge length,

thickness and width of the gauge length of the
specimen.
2.
Gently raise the loading lever arm and pin in the rest
position.
3.
Remove retaining nuts from the specimen holders.
4.
Fit the top of the specimen in the specimen holder by using retaining nuts.
5.
Repeat step 4 for the bottom side of the specimen.
6.
Tight the specimen by adjusting the pinch nut at top of theapparatus.
7.
Place the tip of dial test indicator (DTI) on the supported pin.
8.
Remove the rest pin and gently lower the lever arm to take up any free movement.
9.
Raise the weight hanger to the load position.
Fig. 4 Creep test specimens
10. Adjust the DTI to zero.

11. Start the experiment with gently release the weight hanger and start the stopwatch.
12. Record the extension readings from the DTI every 5 or 10 seconds until fracture occurs.
13. Fit the broken parts together and measure the final gauge length.
Results
1.
Show all the values and measurements of specimens.

i)
Specimen number
ii)
Load m [kg]
iii) Advantage factor L

iv) Specimen thickness h [mm]
v)
Specimen width of the gauge lengthd [mm]
vi) Initial gauge length l0 [mm]

vii) Final gauge length l [mm]
viii) Actual applied force on the specimens F [N], where F = (mL + 2.5) x 9.81
2.
Record the values of elongation, and calculate the strain in Table 1.

Time [s]
5
10
15
20
25
30
.
.
.
tF (Fracture time)
3.
Elongation [mm]
Strain
Plot the straincreep time graphs for the tested specimens.
Discussion
1.
2.
3.
Discuss on the shape of obtained creep rate curves.

Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.
Summarize the occurred errors, and discuss the factors that can be affected to the
experimental results.
Conclusion
Experiment 2: Creep Test with Variable Load

Description of Creep Measurement Apparatus
(SM106)
The SM106 Creep Measurement Apparatus, illustrated in
Figure 5. The specimen is attached at one end to the lever
mechanism by a steel pin and fixed at the other end to
the bearing block by another steel pin. Loads are applied
to the lever arm by placing weights on the weight hanger,
which is pinned to the lever arm.
The lever arm has a advantage factor L of 8. The mass of
the arm is 0.367 kg, the weight hanger mass is 0.16 kg,
and the pins used for pinning the weight hanger and
Fig. 5 SM106 Creep Apparatus
specimen are 0.04 kg each. The load on the specimen can
be found by taking moments about the pivot bearing as
illustrated in Figure 6. If the mass m [kg] is added to the weight hanger then the tensile pull on
the specimen F [N] is:
F = (2 .84 + 8 m ) g
(1)
whereg [m/s2] is the acceleration due to gravity. (Note: The mass m does not include the mass of
the hanger; this is included in the constant 2.84)
The specimen extension is measured by a dial test indicator (DTI). A tube fixed to the bearing
block is the housing for the DTI and a nylon pinch screw is used to restrain the DTI under steady
load conditions.

410
147
Pivot
Centre of gravity
42
336
Weight of beam
Tensile pull on
specimen (F)
Weight
hanger
+
support pin + load (m)
Fig. 6 Details of the lever arm

1. Creep measurement apparatus SM106
2. Vernier caliper
3. Stopwatch
4. 3 pieces of Plumbum (Figure 4)
Procedures
1. Gently raise the loading lever arm and pin in the rest position.
2. Remove the thumbnut retaining the grooved plate on the lever arm and slacken the nylon
pinch screw retaining the Dial Test Indicator (DTI) in the tube.
3. Using both hands, gently lift the DTI and grooved plate clear of the apparatus.
4. Separate the plate from the DTI and stow the safe place.
5. Remove the specimen retaining pins from the lever arm and bearing block.
Note: When fitting the specimen between the lever arm and bearing block, care must be taken not
to bend the specimen.
6. Measure and record the the original gauge length, thickness and width of the gauge length of
the specimen.
7. Fit the top of the specimen into the lever arm and replace the specimen retaining pin.
8. Fit the bottom of the specimen into the bearing block and replace the retaining pin (it may be
necessary to remove the rest pin to allow some movement of the lever arm; if this is done, then
replace the rest pin when the specimen has been fitted).
9. Refit the DTI and grooved plate but do not tighten up the nylon pinch screw.
10. Remove the rest pin and gently lower the arm to take up any free movement.
11. Zero the DTI and turn the nylon pinch screw until it is finger tight.
Note: It cannot be over-emphasized that the nylon pinch screw should only be tight enough to hold
the DTI in position under steady load condition. Ensure that the DTI travel limits are not exceeded
when the specimen break (i.e. when hanger contact base of apparatus) to avoid damaging the DTI.
12. Refit the rest pin.
13. Record he ambient temperature and reset the stopwatch to zero ready to start the test.

14. Load the weight hanger with the required load, remove the rest pin and gently lower the lever
arm to take up any slack.
15. Raise the hanger to the load position and refit the pin.
16. Gently release the load and start the stopwatch.
17. Record the extension reading from the DTI every 15 seconds for the primary stage of creep.
When the extension rate slow down, then record readings every minute. As the test
approaches the tertiary stage record readings every 15 seconds until fracture occurs or the
hanger bottoms.
Results
1. Show all the values and measurements of specimens.
i) Specimen number
ii) Load m [kg]
iii) Advantage factor L
iv) Specimen thickness h [mm]
v) Specimen width of the gauge lengthd [mm]
vi) Initial gauge length l0 [mm]
vii) Final gauge length l [mm]
viii)
Tensile pull on the specimens F [N], where F = (2.84 + 8m) x 9.81
2. Record the values of elongation, and calculate the strain in Table 2.
3. Plot the straincreep time graphs for the tested specimens. From the graph, determine the
primary, secondary and tertiary creep section areas.
Table 2 Experimental results of creep test with variable loads
Every 15 sec
Every 1 min
Every 15 sec
Time [min]
0.25
0.50
.
.
.
2.50
2.75
3.00
4.00
.
.
.
11.00
11.50
12.00
12.25
12.50
.
.
.
.
tF (Fracture time)
Elongation [mm]
Strain

Discussion
1. Discuss on the shape of obtained creep rate curves.
3. Summarize the occurred errors, and discuss the factors that can be affected to the
Conclusion

5 - IMPACT TEST
Introduction
Impact test measures the strength of a material under dynamic loading. Often in actual service,
most of the structural components are subjected to dynamic loading. Impact test is designed to
simulate the response of a material to a high rate of loading and involve a specimen being struck
a sudden blow.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for impact test.
Objective
1. To develop an understanding of fracture toughness.
2. To investigate the notched bar impact work and strength of various engineering materials.
3. To investigate the influence of the notch shape on the notched bar impact work.
Theory
Striking edge
1. General
Toughness is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy and deform plastically before fracturing. Since
the amount of plastic deformation that occurs before
fracture is a measure of the ductility of the material,
and because the stress needed to cause fracture is
measure of its strength, it follows that toughness is
associated with both the ductility and strength of the
material.
Unlike other testing applications, impact test involves
the sudden and dynamic application of the load.
For this purpose, in general, a pendulum is
made to swing from a fixed height and strike the
standard impact specimen. There are two most
common methods for the measurement of
impact strength, the Izod and Charpy tests.
Impact
Specimen
Side view
Fig. 1 Configurations
for Izod test
Specimen
In Izod test, a pendulum strikes the specimen

which is fixed in vertical position (Figure 1). The
notch faces the pendulum. The Izod specimen
may have either square or round cross-section.
The specimen has a V-notch. The depth of notch
is 2 mm and included angle 45.
In Charpy test, the specimen is fixed in
horizontal position as shown in Figure 2. The
pendulum strikes the impact specimen on the
unnotched face. Charpy impact specimen,
square in cross-section, has V-notch or U-notch.
Because the Charpy impact specimen does not
have to be clamped in position (as is the case in
Striking edge
Impact
Top view
Fig. 2 Configurations
for Charpy test

the Izod test), it is much easier to test specimens at temperature other than room temperature
using this method. Consequently the Charpy test has now largely displaced the Izod test. The
Charpy impact test can be used to assess the relative toughness of different materials. It is used
as a tool for materials selection in design. It may also be used for quality control, to ensure that
the material being produced reaches a minimum specified toughness level.
2. Principles of Measurement
In an impact test a specially prepared
notched specimen is fractured by a single
blow from a pendulum striker and energy
required being a measure of resistance to
impact.
The impact test involves a pendulum
(Figure 3) swinging down from a specified
height h0 to hit the specimen and fracture it.
The height h to which the pendulum rises
after striking and breaking the specimen is
a measurement of the energy used in the
breaking.
If no energy were used, the pendulum
would swing to the same height h0 it started
from, i.e. the potential energy mgh0 at the
top of the pendulum swing before and after
the collision would be the same.
Starting
position
Pointer
Pendulum
End of
swing
Specimen
Anvil
h0
Fig. 3 Schematic of an impact test
The greater the energy used in the breaking, the greater the loss of energy and so the lower the
height to which the pendulum rises. If the pendulum swings up to a height h after breaking the
specimen, then the energy used to break it is
E = mgh 0 mgh [Nm or J]
(1)
This energy value called impact toughness or impact value.
Description of Pendulum Impact Tester

1. General
The WP400 Pendulum Impact Tester complies with DIN 50115 (German Industrial Standard). It
serves for carrying out the notched bar impact test and can be used for assessment of fracture
behaviour of various engineering materials. However, the notched bar impact test cannot be used
to calculate material strength parameters. The tester consists of the following basic parts (Figure
4). The pendulum impact tester is secured to a solid base plate. It provides the necessary stability.
A safety factor is the protective ring which surrounds the pendulum area. The brake allows the
pendulum to swing out quickly and is released with the brake lever. The impact work that was
necessary to fracture the specimen can be read directly from the indicator unit.
2. Technical Application (Notched Bar Impact Test)
Friction is a main factor that can be affected to the experiment. The friction loss is shown on the
indicator unit when the pendulum is allowed to swing through in the absence of a specimen. The
average friction loss ARm must be determined before starting the experiment. The value of ARm is
calculated as
A Rm = i =1 A Ri / n [Nm or J]
n
(2)

After fracturing the notched specimen, the notched bar impact workAkabg is read off from the
indicator unit. In order to obtain the effective notched bar impact work Ak, the friction loss ARm
must be subtracted from the read off value.
Ak = Akabg ARm [Nm or J]
(3)
The impact value ak is calculated by dividing the value of effective notched bar impact work Ak, by
the unnotched cross-section area of the specimen S0.
(4)
a k = A k / S 0 [Nm/cm2 or J/cm2]
Hand release
Pendulum striker
Indicator unit
gunt
Slave pointer
Ratchet for
fastening
pendulum
5
5
10
10
15
N
m 25
15
20
Specimen
Safety ring
Brake
Back support
Hand release
and braking
Frame foot
Fig. 4 G.U.N.T. WP400 Pendulum Impact Tester

1. Pendulum impact tester G.U.N.T. WP400
2. Vernier caliper
3. Impact specimens: mild steel (V- and U-notch),
carbon steel (V- and U-notch)
Procedures
1. Measure the thickness of the specimen. Also,
measure the dimensions of the unnotched
length (Figure 5).
2. Raise the pendulum to the left until it indicates
the maximum energy range on the upper
indicator unit.
S0
h
l: Unnotched length
h: Thickness
S0: Unnotched crosssection area
Fig. 5 Standard impact test

specimen with V-notch

3. Place the specimen horizontally across supports

with the notch away from the pendulum (Figure 6).
Make sure that it is placed center with respect to
pendulum.
Stopper
Impact
direction
4. Release the pendulum by pushing up on the hand

release.
5. The pendulum will drop and striking the specimen,
with a swing through dependent on the amount of
energy absorbed by the test specimen.
Notch
6. The indicator will move and stop when peak swing

through is registered, providing a direct reading of
the energy absorbed by the specimen.
Specimen
Fig. 6 Specimen placements
for impact test
7. Read the indicated value from the indicator unit and

record.
8. Apply the brake until the pendulum has returned to its stable hanging vertical position.
9. Remove the specimen from the testing area and observe the failure surface.
10. Repeat the test for specimens of other material and notch.
Results
1. Show all the measurements of specimens.
i)
Thickness h [mm]
ii) Unnotched length l [mm]

2. Record the values of ARm and Akabg, and calculate the S0, Ak and ak as shown in Table 1.
Material
Notch type
S0 [mm2]
ARi [J]
Mild steel / Carbon steel

V-notch
i=1
i=2
U-notch
i=3
i=1
i=2
i=3
ARm [J]
Akabg [J]
Ak [J]
ak [J/cm2]
Discussion
1. Compare and discuss on the impact work values for each specimen with the theory.
2. Discuss on the fracture surface of the tested specimens.
Conclusion

6 - UNIAXIAL STRESS SYSTEM

Introduction
Tensile test is one of the most widely used mechanical tests. Various properties of the material
that can be determined by tensile test are yield stress, upper and lower yield points, tensile
strength, elongation, and reduction in area.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for tensile test.
Objective
1. To apply equilibrium condition for uniaxial component.
2. To apply compatibility condition for uniaxial systems in compound specimen.
3. To determine E for metallic materials.
Theory
Stresses may be tensile, compressive or shear in nature. Figure 1
shows a metal bar in tension, i.e. the force F is stretching force
which thus increases the length of the bar and reduces its crosssection. The area used in calculations of stress is generally the
original area A0 that existed before the application of the forces, not
the area after the force has been applied. This stress is thus referred
to as the engineering stress :

l0
(1)
The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In

tension (or compression), the strain is the ratio of the change in
length to the original length. The term strain is defined as:
% 100 /
(2)
A0
F
Fig. 1 Metal bar in tension
Where , the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. Strain
is frequently expressed as a percentage.
Uniaxial
A) Uniaxial specimen

Length before
Length after
Fig. 2 Uniaxial pull-out specimen

,
!

"#
$%, &

()
Fig. 3 Slope 2 4
(3)

.

& "#
() "#

() "#

From a graph of versus , gradient

()
(4)
()

"#
"#

(4a)
Equation (4a) is used to calculate () .

B) Uniaxial System Compound specimen
Fig. 4 Compound specimen

C) Equilibrium
Fig. 5 Equilibrium of compound

specimen
) ) , -. -.
(5)
) $% /

) 0 !$%/ 1 /

-. $% /7$%$7
-. 0 !$%/ 1 /7$%$7
D) Compatibility
Extension in Steel = Extension in Aluminum
) -.
) -.

&) &-.
()
)
-.
, (-.
&)
&-.
)
-.
&)
()
(-.
(6)
Put in (5)
&) () ) , &-. (-. -.
(7)

() ) , (-. -.

( , (-. -.
) )
() ) , (-. -.
Fig. 6 Force (F) vs extension graph
From a graph of versus , gradient

(-.
2 () )
-.
2

5( , (-. -. 6
) )
(8)
(9)
() ) , (-. -.

(10)
Equation (10) is used to calculate -.


The Universal Tensile Testing Machine (Figure 7) is designed
to test the physical properties of wide range of materials and
structures. Testing of properties such as tensile strength,
compressive strength, fatigue resistance, crack growth
resistance, bend characteristics, etc. can be performed on
materials such as metals, ceramics, textiles, and virtually any
A standard system in Universal Tensile Testing Machine
consists of a tower console and control panel, together with
a load frame and power supply and a load cell as a load
measurement device. These are all interconnected with
electrical cables at the rear panel of the tower console. The
machine system applies loads, using a screw, to a specimen
of the material under test.
The machine allows for the connection of a computer that can
be used to control and monitor a test automatically. The
computer can be log data resulting from a test and can be
used to generate random or pre-programmed waveforms.

1.
Universal testing machine
2.
Vernier caliper
3.
Tensile specimen: Rectangular steel bar and rectangular compound steel and aluminum bar
Procedures
1.
Perform a tensile test on rectangular steel bar up to 5kN. Plot a graph of load
versus change in length.
2.
From the graph calculate the value of () using equation (4a).
3.
Perform a tensile test on rectangular compound bar up to 5kN. Plot a load-change in

length graph.
4.
From the graph calculate the value of (-. .
Results
1.
Tabulate the result for the following items.

i.
Steel bar specimen

i. Original Steel-uniaxial gauge length [mm]
ii. Thickness of Steel-uniaxial [mm]
iii. Width of Steel-uniaxial [mm]
ii.
Compound bar specimens

i. Original Steel-compound gauge length [mm]
ii. Thickness of Steel-compound [mm]
iii. Width of Steel-compound [mm]

iv. Original Aluminum-compound gauge length [mm]

v. Thickness of Aluminum-compound [mm]
vi. Width of Aluminum-compound [mm]
2.
Calculate the following.

i.
Steel bar cross-sectional area ) [mm2]
ii.
Compound bar cross-sectional area ) [mm2]
iii.
Compound bar cross-sectional area -. [mm2]
3.
Plot the loaddisplacement graph for Steel bar and Compound bar of tested specimen.
4.
Plot the stressstrain graph for Steel bar and Compound bar of tested specimen.
5.
Calculate:
i.
Youngs modulus E for Steel bar [GPa]
ii.
Youngs modulus E for Aluminum bar [GPa]
Discussion
1.
Discuss on the shape of obtained load-change in length curve for both Steel bar and
Compound bar.
2.
3.
Discuss the difference between Equilibrium and Compatibility, and their application.
4.
Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimen.
5.
Discuss on the factors that contribute to error in the experimental result.
Conclusion
1.
2.

7A - BEAM TEST
(SUPPORTS REACTION OF BEAM)
Introduction
A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in bending (flexure). Beams generally
carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads. Beams are
characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their material.
Beams carry their loading to other elements or supports. In order to be able to analyze a structure
it is necessary to be clear about the forces that can be resisted at each support.
the apparatus and experimental procedure to examine the supports reaction of the beam.
Objective
The objectives of this experiment are:
1. To identify the supports reaction in simply-supported and overhanging beams.
2. To develop an understanding of beam apparatus, and to determine its sensitivity and accuracy.
Theory
1. General
A beam is a member which has the primary function of
resisting transverse loading. Beam is one of the simplest
structures in design but one of the most complexes to
analyze in terms of the external and internal forces acting
on it. The complexity of its behavior under load depends
on how it is supported - at one or both ends - and how its
ends are attached to the supports. Three basic beam
types are the simply-supported, overhanging, and
cantilever beams.
A beam supported by a support at the ends and having
one span is called a simply-supported beam (Figure 1). A
support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but
will not produce a couple. If either or both ends of the
beam project beyond the supports, it is called
overhanging beam (Figure 2). A cantilever beam is one in
which one ends is built into a wall or other support so that
the built-in end can neither move transversely nor rotate
(Figure 3).
2. Types of Load
Pinned
Roller
Fig. 1 Simply-supported beam with

two symmetric concentrated loads and
supported by pinned and roller
supports
Pinned
Pinned
Fig. 2 Overhanging beam with

concentrated and distributed loads,
and supported by pinned supports

A beam is normally horizontal, the loads being vertical, other cases which occur being locked
upon as exceptions. The two types of loads for beams are
concentrated and distributed loads.
W
i. A concentrated load W [N] is one which is
considered to act at a point, although in practice
it must really be distributed over a small area
(Figures 1, 2 and 3).
ii. A distributed load w [N/m] is one which is spread
in some manner over the length of the beam. The
rate of loading may be uniform, or may vary from
point to point along the beam (Figure 2).
Fixed-end
Fig. 3 Cantilever beam with a
concentrated load and supported by
fixed-end support
3. Types of Support
The deformations and stresses which result in a beam owing to a particular load (concentrated
load) or group of loads (distributed load) are dependent on the manner in which the beam is
supported. The three basic types of supports for beams are roller, pinned and fixed-end.
i. A roller support is one which exerts a reactive force having a known line of action (Figure
1).
ii. A pinned support in one which allows the beam freedom to rotate but prevents it from any
linear movement (Figures 1 and 2).
iii. A fixed-end support is one which prevents the beam from translating or rotating at the
point of support (Figure 3).
4. Supports Reaction of the Simply-Supported Beam with Concentrated Loads
Referring to the loading in Figure 4, the left-hand support reaction R1 is first required and the
reactions can be found from the equations of force and moment equilibrium.
R1 + R 2 = W1 + W 2
(1)
R 1 l = W 1 ( 21 l + a ) + W 2 ( 12 l b ) =
1
2
l (W 1 + W 2 ) + W 1 a W 2 b
(2)
Therefore
R1 =
1
2
(W 1 + W 2 ) + W 1 (a l ) W 2 (b l )
(3)
Substitute (3) to (1).

R2 =
1
2
(W 1 + W 2 ) W 1 (a l ) + W 2 (b l )
(4)
W1
W2
a
R1
l/2
l/2
R2
Fig. 4 Supports reaction of the simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

5. Supports Reaction of the Overhanging Beam with Concentrated and Distributed Loads
Referring to the loading in Figure 5, the left-hand support reaction R1 is first required and the
reactions can be found from the equations of force and moment equilibrium.
R 1 + R 2 = wl + W
R 1 (l +
1
2
l ) + Wl = wl
(5)
( 12 l
1
2
l)
(6)
Therefore
R1 =
2
3
(wl
(7)
Substitute (7) to (5).

R2 =
1
3
(wl
5W
(8)
l
R1
l/ 2
l
R2
Fig. 5 Supports reaction of the overhanging beam with concentrated and distributed loads
Description of Beam Apparatus

The SM104 Beam Apparatus (Figure 6) has many features which extend the range of experiments
to cover virtually all coursework requirements relating to the bending of beams. The basic unit
provides facilities for supporting beams on simple, built in and sinking supports; applying point
loads, and measuring support reactions and beam deflections.
The main frame of the apparatus consists of an upper cross member carrying graduated scales
and two lower members bolted to tee-legs to form a rigid assembly. The load cells and cantilever
support pillar slide along the lower members and can be clamped firmly in any position. The load
cells are direct readings and each is fitted with a hardened steel knife edge which can be adjusted
by a thumb nut to set the initial level or to simulate a sinking support. A lead screw in the base of
each load cell can be screwed upwards to support the knife edge and thus convert it to a rigid
support when required.
The cantilever support consists of a rigid pillar with a sturdy clamping arrangement to hold the
beams when built-in end conditions are required. Weight hangers and a set of cast iron weights
are supplied for applying static loads. All beam deflections are measured by dial gauge mounted
on magnetic carriers which slide along the upper cross member. The dial gauge carriers, load cells
and weight hangers are all fitted with cursors which register on the scale located on the upper
cross member, thus ensuring easy, accurate positioning.

Dial gauge
Beam
Load cell
Cantilever
support
Weights
Weight
hanger
Spring
balance
Fig. 6 SM104 Beam Apparatus

1. Beam apparatus SM104
2. Vernier caliper
3. Load cells
4. Dial gauges
5. Weight hangers
6. Weights: 5 N, 10 N
7. Steel blocks
8. Beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminium
Experiment 1: Supports Reaction of the Simply-Supported Beam with Concentrated Loads

Procedures
1.
Measure the thickness and width of the beam.
2.
Measure the length of the beam and mark it at mid-span and at 1/4-span points.
3.
Set up load cells 1/4-span to the left and right of the mid-span reading, and lock the knife
edge.
4.
Place the beam in position with 1/4-span overhang at either end.
5.
Position two weight hangers equidistant from the mid-point of the beam.
6.
Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross-member so that the ball end rests on the
center-line of the beam immediately above the left-hand support.
7.
Check that the stem is vertical and the bottom O-ring has been moved down the stem.
8.
Adjust the dial gauge to zero read and then lock the bezel in position.
9.
Move the dial gauge to a position above the right-hand support, check that the beam is
parallel to the cross-member, then adjust the height of the knife edge so that the dial gauge
reads zero.
10. Remove the dial gauge and unlock both knife edges. Adjust the load cell indicators to read
zero.
11. Apply loads to the weight hangers in a systematic manner, tap the beam very gently and take
readings of the load cells.

12. Process the results and plot graphs from the experimental results.
L
W1
l
4
W2
l
4
Load cell
R1
L/4
R2
L/4
L/4
L/4
l
Fig. 7Experimental set up for supports reaction
of
the
simply-supported
beam
with
concentrated loads
Results
1. Show all the measurements of beam.
i.
Beam length L [mm]
ii.
Beam width b [mm]
iii.
Beam thickness h [mm]
iv.
Beam working length l [mm]
2. Record the values of R1 and R2, and calculate the R1+R2, and % in Table 1.
3. Plot the graphs.
i.
R1 and R2 against W1, when W2 = 0.
ii.
R1 and R2 against W2, when W1 = 0.
iii.
R1 and R2 against W1 = W2 = 5 N, 10 N, 30 N.
Discussion
1. Discuss on the verification of equations (3) and (4).
2. Discuss on the obtained graphs from the experiment.
3. Calculate the theoretical values of R1 and R2, by using equations (3) and (4). Plot the graph of
theoretical values of R1 and R2. Compare and discuss the theoretical and experimental graphs.

Table 1 Experimental results of simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

W1 [N]
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
W2 [N]
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
5
10
15
20
25
30
R1 [N]
R2 [N]
R1+R2 [N]
[N]
* = (R1+R2) (W1+W2)
% = 100/ (W1+W2)
Conclusion
Experiment 2: Supports Reaction of the Overhanging Beam with Concentrated and

Distributed Loads
Procedures
1.
Measure the thickness and width of the beam. Arrange the beam as shown in Figure 8.
2.
Set up load cells 1/4-span to the left and 1/8-span to the right of the mid-span reading, and
lock the knife edge.
3.
Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross-member so that the ball end rests on the
center-line of the beam immediately above the left-hand support.
4.
Check that the stem is vertical and the bottom O-ring has been moved down the stem.
5.
Adjust the dial gauge to zero read and then lock the bezel in position.
6.
Move the dial gauge to a position above the right-hand support, check that the beam is
parallel to the cross-member, then adjust the height of the knife edge so that the dial gauge
reads zero.
7.
Remove the dial gauge and unlock both knife edges. Adjust the load cell indicators to read
zero.
8.
Position a weight hanger 1/8-span to the left from the end point of the beam.

9.
Apply loads to the weight hanger and steel block in a systematic manner, and take readings
of the load cells.
10. Process the results and plot graphs from the experimental results.
L
W
Load cell
R1
L/ 4
R2
L/ 4
L/8
L/ 4
L/8
Fig. 8 Experimental set up for supports reaction of the

overhanging beam with concentrated and distributed loads
Results
i.
Beam length L [mm]
ii.
Beam width b [mm]
iii.
2. Record the values of R1 and R2, and calculate the R1+R2, and % in Table 1.
3. Plot the graphs.
i.
R1 and R2 against w, when W = 10 N.
ii.
R1 and R2 against W, when w = 10 N.
iii.
R1 and R2 against w = W = 10 N, 15 N, 20 N.
Discussion
1. Discuss on the verification of equations (7) and (8).
2. Discuss on the obtained graphs from the experiment.
3. Calculate the theoretical values of R1 and R2, by using equations (7) and (8). Plot the graph of
theoretical values of R1 and R2. Compare and discuss the theoretical and experimental graphs.

Table 2 Experimental results of overhangingbeam with concentrated and distributed loads

w [N/m]
10
10
10
15
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
20
W [N]
0
5
10
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
20
R1 [N]
R2 [N]
R1+R2 [N]
[N]
* = (R1+R2) (w+W)
% = 100/ (w+W)
Conclusion

7B - BEAM TEST
(DEFLECTION OF A CANTILEVER)
Introduction
A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in bending (flexure). Beams generally
carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads. Beams are
characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their material.
Beams carry their loading to other elements or supports. In order to be able to analyze a structure
it is necessary to be clear about the forces that can be resisted at each support.
the apparatus and experimental procedure to examine the supports reaction of the beam.
Objective
1. To identify the supports reaction in simply-supported and overhanging beams.
2. To develop an understanding of beam apparatus, and to determine its sensitivity and accuracy.
Theory
1. General
A beam is a member which has the primary function of
resisting transverse loading. Beam is one of the simplest
structures in design but one of the most complexes to
analyze in terms of the external and internal forces
acting on it. The complexity of its behavior under load
depends on how it is supported - at one or both ends and how its ends are attached to the supports. Three
basic beam types are the simply-supported, overhanging,
and cantilever beams.
A beam supported by a support at the ends and having
one span is called a simply-supported beam (Figure 1). A
support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but
will not produce a couple. If either or both ends of the
beam project beyond the supports, it is called
overhanging beam (Figure 2). A cantilever beam is one
in which one ends is built into a wall or other support so
that the built-in end can neither move transversely nor
rotate (Figure 3).
2. Types of Load
A beam is normally horizontal, the loads being vertical,
other cases which occur being locked upon as
exceptions. The two types of loads for beams are
concentrated and distributed loads.
i) A concentrated load W [N] is one which is considered
to act at a point, although in practice it must really be
distributed over a small area (Figures 1, 2 and 3).
Pinned
Roller
Fig. 1 Simply-supported beam with

two symmetric concentrated loads and
supported by pinned and roller
supports
W
w
Pinned
Pinned
Fig. 2 Overhanging beam with

concentrated and distributed loads,
and supported by pinned supports
W
Fixed-end
Fig. 3 Cantilever beam with a
concentrated load and supported by
fixed-end support

ii) A distributed load w [N/m] is one which is spread in some manner over the length of the beam.
The rate of loading may be uniform, or may vary from point to point along the beam (Figure
2).
3. Types of Support
The deformations and stresses which result in a beam owing to a particular load (concentrated
load) or group of loads (distributed load) are dependent on the manner in which the beam is
supported. The three basic types of supports for beams are roller, pinned and fixed-end.
i) A roller support is one which exerts a reactive force having a known line of action (Figure
1).
ii) A pinned support in one which allows the beam freedom to rotate but prevents it from any
linear movement (Figures 1 and 2).
iii) A fixed-end support is one which prevents the beam from translating or rotating at the
point of support (Figure 3).
4. Deflection of Cantilever
The deflection under the load for a cantilever loaded at the free end is given by
z=
WL3
3EI
(1)
If EI and L are maintained constant then:

z = k 1 .W
(2)
Where k 1 is constant
Similarly if EI and W are maintained constant:
z = k2.L3
Likewise z =
(3)
k3
k
and z = 4 if E and I respectively are made the variables.
E
I
Description of Beam Apparatus

The SM104 Beam Apparatus (Figure 6) has many features which extend the range of experiments
to cover virtually all coursework requirements relating to the bending of beams. The basic unit
provides facilities for supporting beams on simple, built in and sinking supports; applying point
loads, and measuring support reactions and beam deflections.
The main frame of the apparatus consists of an upper cross member carrying graduated scales
and two lower members bolted to tee-legs to form a rigid assembly. The load cells and cantilever
support pillar slide along the lower members and can be clamped firmly in any position. The load
cells are direct readings and each is fitted with a hardened steel knife edge which can be adjusted
by a thumb nut to set the initial level or to simulate a sinking support. A lead screw in the base of
each load cell can be screwed upwards to support the knife edge and thus convert it to a rigid
support when required.
The cantilever support consists of a rigid pillar with a sturdy clamping arrangement to hold the
beams when built-in end conditions are required. Weight hangers and a set of cast iron weights

are supplied for applying static loads. All beam deflections are measured by dial gauge mounted
on magnetic carriers which slide along the upper cross member. The dial gauge carriers, load
cells and weight hangers are all fitted with cursors which register on the scale located on the
upper cross member, thus ensuring easy, accurate positioning.
Dial gauge
Beam
Load cell
Cantilever
support
Weights
Weight
hanger
Spring
balance
Fig. 6 SM104 Beam Apparatus

1. Beam apparatus SM104
2. Cantilever support
3. Vernier caliper
4. Load cells
5. Dial gauges
6. Steel blocks
7. Beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminum
Procedures
1. Set up a load cell at a convenient position near to one side of the frame.
2. Set up the clamp to give a cantilever of convenient length.
3. Pass one end of the beam through the clamp and rest the other end on the load cell. (It is
convenient to lock the knife edge during assembly). Tighten the clamp and tie up the free
end of the beam using a short piece of string.
4. Place the dial gauge near to the clamp and set the zero. Move the dial gauge to the free end
of the cantilever, unlock the knife edge and adjust it so that the dial gauge returns to zero.
Set the pointer of the load cell to zero.
5. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a convenient reading on the load cell. Record the
load and the dial gauge reading.
6. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a number of load increments recording loads and
dial gauge readings.
7. Return the knife edge to its initial position; lock the knife edge; slacken the clamp and move
it to a new position (this is more convenient than moving the load cell).
8. Repeat the experiment for several lengths of cantilever.
9. Use the Aluminum, Brass and Steel beams 6 mm thick to varying E value.

10.
Use the steel beams 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6 mm thick to vary I.
Dial Gauge
(z)
W
Load cell
Cantilever
support
Results
i.
Beam width b [mm]
ii.
2. Record the values of z according to the following table.

L (mm)
200
300
400
500
600
W (N)
z (mm)
z (mm)
z (mm)
z (mm)
z (mm)
2
4
6
8
10
3.
Plot graphs
i. z against W to verify equation (2) is correct, with k1 for each length being given by
gradient of the graph.
ii. z against L3 verifies that equation (3) is correct, with k2 for each load being given by
the respective gradient of the graph.
4.
Verify the accuracy of the results, by comparing two graphs with equations (1) and (2).
Conclusion

8 - TORSION TEST
Introduction
Torsion is the one of the common engineering modes of deformation, in which a solid or tubular
member is subjected to torque about its longitudinal axis resulting in twisting deformation.
Torsion test is a usual method of obtaining a relationship between shear stress and shear strain
for a material.
the apparatus and experimental procedure for torsion test.
Objective
1.
To develop the relationship between torque T and shear stress with angle of twist .
2.
To determine the modulus of rigidity G.
3.
To determine the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit and at failure.
Theory
1. General
As the specimen is twisted further into the plastic region,

a greater proportion of the cross-section yields until
there is a plastic zone through to the centre of the bar. A
typical torquetwist diagram (Figure 1) is very similar to
a loadextension diagram from a tensile test. Work
hardening occurs at a gradually decreasing rate as
straining proceeds. However, there is no drop in the curve
as in tension tests as necking does not occur. It is found
that ductile materials, especially metals, can absorb very
high values of shear strain (200%) before failure occurs.
Yield
Torque
The torsion test differs from a tensile test in that the

former has a stress gradient across the cross-section of
the specimen. Thus at the limit of the elastic range,
yielding will first occur in the outermost fibres whilst the
core is still elastic. In a tensile test, yielding occurs
relatively evenly throughout the bar.
Slope = GJ/L
(Torsional rigidity)
Angle of twist
Fig. 1 Torquetwist diagram
2. Stress, Strain and Angle of Twist

Consider a solid circular shaft of radius r and length L,
subjected to a torque T [Nm] at one end, the other end
being fixed (Figure 2). Under the action of this torque, a
radial line at the free end of the shaft twists through an
angle [rad], point A moves to B, and AB subtends an
angle at the fixed end. This is then the angle of
distortion of the shaft, i.e. shear strain.
B
A
T
r
L
Arc AB = r = L
= r / L
(1)
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of

torsional deformation

But = /G, where [N/m2] is the shear stress and G [N/m2] is the modulus of rigidity.
By substitution and rearranging
/ r = G / L
(2)
The torque can be equated to the sum of the moments of the tangential stresses on the elements
2rr.
T = (2rdr )r = (G / L ) (2rdr )r 2 = (G / L ) J
(3)
whereJ [m4] is called the polar second moment of area (= r4/2).

Combining (2) and (3) produces the so-called simple theory of torsion, and gives the fundamental
relationship between shear stress, torque and geometry.
T / J = / r = G / L
(4)
Showing that, for a given torque, the shear stress is proportional to the radius.
The shear stresses which are developed in a shaft subjected to
pure torsion are indicated as
= (G / L )r
(5)
Now from the definition of the modulus rigidity G, = G . It

therefore follows that the two equations may be combined to
relate the shear stress and strain in the shaft to the angle of
twist per unit length, thus
= (G / L )r = G
max
max
(6)
This equation indicates that the shear stress and shear strain
vary linearly with radius and have their maximum value at the
outside radius (Figure 3).
Fig.3 Maximum shear stress
Description of Torsion Testing Machine

Figure 4 shows the Norwood torsion testing machine. There is one input and one output for this
machine. The input is the twist applied to the specimen. The output of this machine is the applied
torsional load. The machine consists mainly of loading device with protractor scale for twisting
angle measurement, and torque-measurement unit with a digital torque meter. The torque value
is displayed directly in Nm on the digital display. The specimen (Figure 5) is mounted between
the loading device and the torque-measurement unit into hexagon sockets. All components are
mounted on a tailstock unit. The tailstock unit slides to enable test specimens to be changed and
accommodate specimens of different lengths. It also consists of a hand-wheel on the loading
device twists specimen and the hexagon sockets for gripping the test specimen at each end. The
left-hand socket connects with the torque-measurement unit and the right-hand socket connects
with the loading device.

Hexagon sockets
Test specimen
Loading device
Digital
torque
meter
Protractor scale
Hand-wheel
Torquemeasurement unit
Tailstock unit
Fig. 4Norwood 50Nm Torsion Testing Machine

1.
Torsion testing machine Norwood 50

Nm
2.
Vernier caliper
3.
Torsion specimens:
aluminium
Fig. 5 Torsion test specimen

steel,
brass,
Procedures
1.
Measure the initial length and initial gauge length diameter of the specimen.
2.
Mount the specimen between the loading device and the torque-measurement unit into the
straining hexagon sockets.
3.
Turn the hand-wheel as required to align the specimen.
4.
Slide the tailstock unit so that the specimen is fully into the hexagon sockets.
5.
Ensure that there is no preload on the specimen.
6.
Zero the pointer on the zero degree point on the protractor scale.
7.
Adjust the digital torque meter reads zero.
8.
Turn the hand-wheel clockwise slowly to load the specimen. Turn it only for a defined angle
increment.
9.
Read the torque value from the digital torque meter and notice it together with the indicated
angle of twist.
10. Continue the process of steps 8 and 9 until fracture occurs.

11. Repeat the experiment for other specimens.
Results
1. Show all the measurements of specimen.
i)
Initial gauge length diameter d0 [mm]
ii) Initial length L0 [mm]

iii) Final gauge length diameter d [mm]

iv) Final length L [mm]

2. Record the values of torque in Table 1.
Angle of Twist []
10
20
30
40
50
60
.
.
.
F (Fracture angle)
Angle of Twist [rad]
Torque T [Nm]
3. Plot the torque T versus angle of twist graph for the tested specimen. From the graph,
calculate the modulus of rigidity G, and determine the slope of the elastic part.
4. Calculate the shear stress at the proportionality.
5. Plot the shear stress against angle of twist graph.
6. Plot the shear stress against shear strain graph. Tabulate the following values and show
them on the curves
i)
Proportional limit shear stress in torsion
ii) Shear modulus of elasticity

iii) Ultimate shear stress
Discussion
1.
Discuss on the obtained graphs.
2.
3.
Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimens in shear.
4.
Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result.
Conclusion
1.
2.

9 - THIN CYLINDER
STRAIN ON THE WALL OF A THIN CYLINDER
Introduction
This experiment gives students an opportunity to experiment
with a cylinder that has a diameter/thickness ratio of more than 10,
making it thin-walled. The cylinder will undergo pressure loading that
will introduce hoop and longitudinal stresses on the surface of the
material.
The fact that the cylinder is thin-walled allows for the
assumption that the hoop and longitudinal stresses are constant
throughout the wall thickness
or area.
Two
different
conditions of pressure loading
will be tested: open end and
close end. The open end
condition can be seen as
studying a portion of a long
pipeline, while closed end
conditions can be imagined as
looking at an enclosed gas tank
that holds a certain amount of
pressure.
P
Applied Pressure P
Pressure at the
end of the wall
Stress in the cylinder wall
Using this computerized thin

cylinder experiment we will introduce varying amounts of pressure into the cylinder and utilizing
strain gauge readings on the surface of the cylinder to determine Youngs modulus (E), Poissons
ratio, , and to study the strain Mohrs circles of the two different end conditions.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to study the distribution of strains on the wall of a thin cylinder
with open and close end condition when subject to applied internal pressure.
Theory
Stress and strain in thin cylinder is calculated based on the membrane theory of thin cylindrical
shell.
Axial Equilibrium
Axial force at the end of the cylinder = pr2
[1]
Axial stress in the cylinder wall
= x
Total axial force in the cylinder wall
= 2xrt
For equilibrium
= pr2
x
[2]
= pr/2t [3]
Circumferential Equilibrium
Internal pressure
Circumferential stress
Consider an element of the shell making a small angle d
Radial force on this element is
pr2

Longitudinal stress, x
(x + y) (E/1-2)
(70 x 109/0.91) (x x 10-6 + y)
x
Fig. 5.1 Description of TQR Thin Cylinder Apparatus
Description of TQR Thin Cylinder Apparatus
The apparatus consist of a thin aluminum
having diameter of 75mm and thickness of 3.18mm.
The cylinder filled with oil and pressure is applied
using hydraulic pump.
A line valve is located at the side of the pump
and stop valve located in front of the cylinder. The stop
valve is to stop the oil from flowing back the cylinder
while taking reading. By stopping the valve, the
pressure can be maintained at a constant value while
reading is taken and must be open when the cylinder
is being pressurized and when the pressure is being
released from the cylinder.
Fig. 5.2 TQR Thin Cylinder

Apparatus
The line valve must be closed to pressure the cylinder and open to release the pressure from the
cylinder. The pressure is applied to the cylinder using the pump handle.
A pressure gauge is to indicate the magnitude of pressure applied to the cylinder.
Six strain gauges are provided to measure the resulting strain. Two gauges are to measure the
strain in circumferential direction (Hoop Strain). One gauge to measure the axial strain along the
cylinder and one gauge each to measure strain at approximately 30, 40 and 60 degrees.
All gauges are connected to six channels of the data logging system as Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Data logging channel

Strain gauges
direction
Channel
No.
The excitation voltage for the gauges is set at 1 volt

to avoid heating of the gauges during the
experimental run.
A piston is available inside the cylinder to induce

close and open end condition.
Axial
3
30 degree
45 degree
Hoop 1
Hoop 2

1.
TQR Thin Cylinder Apparatus
2.
A data logging system
Procedures
1.
Switch on the data acquisition system.
2.
Draw the piston out of the cylinder by turning the handle at the end of the cylinder to produce
an open end condition.
3.
Release all the pressure in the cylinder by opening the valve at the hand pump to allow the
hydraulic oil to flow from the cylinder to the pump reservoir. If the pressure gauge indicates
there is still pressure inside in the cylinder open the screw cap at the top of the pump
reservoir to allow trapped air escape.
4.
When the pressure gauge reading in zero, close the screw cap and the line valve at the hand
pump.
5.
Connect the wire from the apparatus to the data acquisition unit.
6.
Check the communication between the computer and data acquisition, the 8000 Utility. Do
not change any parameter on the utility menu.
7.
Start WinView CP32 software and change the sampling rate from 10 second to 2 second.
8.
Click the Start button and click Overwrite button to record the initial strain readings of all the
gauges.
9.
After 30 seconds click the Stop button. 15 readings will be recorded for each channel.
10. Close the Line Valve and open the Stop Valve.
11. Using the hand pump apply internal pressure to the cylinder until the pressure gauge
indicates 15 bar.
12. Shut the Stop Valve to hold the pressure.
13. Click the Start button and click Append button to record the resulting strain reading due to
applied pressure.
14. Open the Stop Valve and increase the pressure in the cylinder.
15. Repeat step 10 to 14 until the pressure reached 35 bar.

16. Repeat another set of readings.
17. Open the Line Valve and valve at the hand pump to release the internal pressure at the end
of the experiment.
Results
1.
Record the value of strain for Free End Condition and Fix End Condition in Table 5.1 and
Table 5.2 respectively. Noted that all strain values in Microstrain.
2.
Calculation of stress from the strain reading:

a.
Youngs Modulus = 70 GPa
b.
Poisons Ratio = 0.3
c.
Thickness of cylinder wall, t = 3.18 mm
d.
Cylinder diameter = 75 mm
Table 5.2 Experimental results for Free End Condition

Strain reading for Free End Condition
Internal Pressure
P [Bar]
30
45
60
90
5
10
15
20
25
30
35

Table 5.3 Experimental results for Fix End Condition

Strain reading for Free End Condition
Internal Pressure
P [Bar]
30
45
60
90
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
3. Use Mohr Strain Circle method to obtain value of strain at 30, 45 and 60. Each angle and
pressure will require one circle to be drawn.
4. Plot the graph of strain x against y.
a. Draw the best fitting curve to pass through the plotted points.
b. From the plot determine the Poissons Ratio for the material.
5. Plot the graph y against Pressure P.
a. Draw the best fitting curve through the plotted points.
b. From the plotted determine the slope and hence the E value for the cylinder material.
Discussion
Compare and discuss the theoretical and experimental value.
Conclusion
1.
Define the relationship between the variables in this experiment.
2.
Make comparison between the value of Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus obtain from
the experiment and that normally assumed in practice.
3.

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Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

LAB MANUAL FOR

EMM 3108: STRENGTH OF MATERIAL 1

EMM3108 Strength of Materials | 1

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

LAB REPORT MARKING SCHEME

Possible to do the lab,

Seriously lacking list of

List of sources of error is

Shows the person has not

EMM3108 Strength of Materials | 2

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

To develop an understanding of stressstrain curves.

To determine the various mechanical properties of engineering material.

The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In

Where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two

Results of such a tensile test can be

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Figure 3 and 4 show the two types of stressstrain curves. The

Some steels, especially non-ferrous alloys, do not show the

At the beginning of the test, the force increases rapidly and

The proportionality constant (the slope of the curve) is called the

If the specimen is unloaded in this range, it will return to its

Fig. 4 General stressstrain

Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to deform plastically

EMM3108 Strength of Materials | 4

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Fig. 5 Hookes law: Stress

Fig. 6 Standard tensile test specimen with circular cross section

Description of Universal Testing Machine

Fig. 7 Universal Testing Machine

Specimen and Equipment

Universal testing machine

Tensile specimen: steel / brass / copper / aluminium

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

5. Press start button to start the

Gauge length at failure L

Show all the measurements of

Original diameter d0 [mm]

Original gauge length L0

Final diameter d [mm]

Final gauge length L [mm]

Fig. 8 Schematic of tensile test specimen for

Calculate the following.

Original cross-sectional area A0 [mm2]

Final cross-sectional area A [mm2]

Percent reduction in area

Youngs modulus E [GPa]

Plot the loaddisplacement graph for the tested specimen.

Plot the stressstrain graph.

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [MPa]

Yield stress y or Proof stress 0.2 [MPa]

Fracture stress f [MPa]

Elastic and plastic deformation regions

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

EMM3108 Strength of Materials | 7

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Fig. 2 Short member in compression testing

Compression members, such as columns, are

Fig. 3 Long member in compression testing

In practice, for a given material, the

Short columns are dominated by the strength