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1785/0120120328
Abstract
We present two regional, lithospheric cross sections that illustrate eastward- and southeastward-dipping, subducted slabs to depths of 315 km beneath the
surface of Colombia in northwestern South America. These cross-sectional interpretations are based on relocated earthquake hypocentral solutions, models supported on
gravity and magnetic regional data, and coda-Q (Qc ) tomography. The method of
tomographic imaging based on spatial inversion of the coda wave has advantages
of providing information on the lateral variations of the anelastic properties and thermal structure of the lithospheric system. Mapping of earthquake-defined Benioff
zones combined with tomographic imaging reveals the presence of an 240 km long
eastwest-striking slab tear, named here the Caldas tear. The proposed Caldas tear
separates a zone of shallow, 2030-dipping, southeastward subduction in the area
of Colombia adjacent to Panama and the Caribbean Sea, which is not associated with
subduction-related volcanism, from an area of steeper, 3040-dipping, slab adjacent
to the eastern Pacific Ocean that is associated with an active northsouth chain of
active arc volcanoes. We propose that the Caldas slab tear separating these two distinct
subducted slabs originally formed as the southern boundary of the Panama indenter,
an extinct island arc that began subducting beneath northwestern South America about
12 Ma. The area south of the Panama indenter is Miocene oceanic crust of the Nazca
plate, which subducts eastward beneath northwestern South America at normal angles
and melts to form a northsouth-trending active volcanic arc. In addition to the formation of the Caldas tear, we propose that impedance of the thicker crustal area of the
Panama arc-indenter over the past 12 Ma may have led to down-dip break-off of
previously subducted oceanic crust that is marked by an extremely concentrated
and active earthquake swarm of intermediate-depth earthquakes beneath east-central
Colombia.
2025
2026
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic map of northwestern South America and Panama showing plate boundaries, neotectonic fault systems, and selective distribution of hypocentral solutions of 30;000 earthquakes extracted from the entire catalog of the CNSN (102;000 events) during
19932012 with these criteria: mL 0:5; GAP 200; rms 0:5; error in latitude 10:0 km; error in longitude 10:0 km; and error in depth
10:0 km. Color scale indicates depth of earthquakes. The north and south profiles symbolize the tomographic sections presented in this
study. SMM, Santa Marta massif; CB, Choco block; WC, Western Cordillera; CC, Central Cordillera; EC, Eastern Cordillera; PR, Perija Range;
GB, Guajira basin; LB, Llanos foreland basin; MMVB, Middle Magdalena Valley basin; RFZ, Romeral fault zone; SMBF, Santa Marta
Bucaramanga fault; PF, Palestina fault; CF, Cimitarra fault; MGF, MulatoGetudo fault; HF, Honda fault; SFS, Salinas fault system; GF,
Garrapatas fault; LFS, Llanos fault system; IF, Ibague fault; SR, Sandra ridge; BN, Bucaramanga nest; CN, Cauca nest; MN, Murindo nest;
PIVC, PaipaIza volcanic complex; RSDV, Romeral and San Diego volcanoes. Yellow stars correspond to (1) the Tauramena earthquake (19
January 1995, Mw 6.5); (2) the Armenia earthquake (25 January 1999, M w 6.2); and (3) the Quetame earthquake (24 May 2008, mL 5:7).
Sections AA0 and BB0 correspond to tomographic profiles presented in Figures 5 and 6. (b) Crustal isochron pattern of the Sandra ridge; pinkcolored line, Caldas tear zone; arrows, station velocity GPS vectors relative to stable South America (after Calais and Mann, 2009). CHEP and
BOGO are GPS stations used as reference to estimate the onset of the Panama-arc and South American plate collision. Other GPS stations in
the Panama-arc collision area are MANZ, RION, BUCM, MONT, and CART. Faded blue arrow enclosing 102 azimuth of the approximately
240 km long, right-lateral offset of intermediate to deep events associated with the Caldas tear.
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
1995). Previous tectonic interpretations of the origin of the
Bucaramanga nest vary from a zone of two slabs in contact
(van der Hilst and Mann, 1994), two slabs overlapping
(Taboada et al., 2000), or a single slab undergoing extreme
bending (Corts and Angelier, 2005) all occurring in the
boundary area of the subducted northern (Bucaramanga)
and southern (Cauca) subduction zones (Fig. 1a). The Cauca
intermediate-depth earthquake nest (CN) is located 400 km
southwest of the Bucaramanga nest on the trend of our proposed Caldas tear and has been previously interpreted
by Corts and Angelier (2005) as a bend in the slab in this
area (Fig. 1a). There is no clear consensus among seismologists for the tectonic interpretation of the two concentrated
Colombian intermediate earthquake nests (Frohlich, 2006;
Zarifi, 2006).
The Caldas tear defines the northern limit of the active
volcanic front of the northern Andes that has formed as a
consequence of the steeper subduction of oceanic slab of
normal thickness of the Nazca plate (Fig. 1a). Moreover,
associated with active and inactive volcanoes, the eastwest
projected surface trace of the Caldas tear localizes an east
west alignment of some unusual volcanic rocks including
adakites (Borrero et al., 2009; Fig. 1a). Other volcanic rocks
in the vicinity of the eastwest-trending Caldas tear include
the Plio-Pleistocene Paipa-Iza volcanic complex in the
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the Romeral and San
Diego volcanoes (Pardo et al., 2005). The presence of these
eastwest aligned volcanic rocks along with locally elevated
geothermal gradient values (Vargas et al., 2009) suggests that
the Caldas tear may penetrate the upper crust as a fault zone
and provide a conduit for the upward rise of magmas and
hydrothermal fluids produced by melting of the slabs on either side of the Caldas tear (Fig. 2). Furthermore, recent,
shallow-focus, strong motion events such as the Tauramena
earthquake (19 January 1995; M w 6.5, h 25 10 km),
the Quindio earthquake (25 January 1999; M w 6.2,
h 18:6 km), and the Quetame earthquake (24 May 2008;
mL 5.7; h superficial) are all in alignment with the surface
trace of the Caldas tear.
Previous tomographic studies using both local and
regional earthquakes of varying resolution have produced
differing tectonic interpretations for slabs in this area (van
der Hilst and Mann, 1994; Taboada et al., 2000; Vargas
et al., 2007). In this paper, we present the results of an integrated geophysics and geologic study that improves the 3D
imaging of the interactions between the eastward-moving
Panama indenter and its collisional area in northwestern
South America.
2027
2gjSj
e
t2
t
Qc
(1)
2028
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
2029
Table 1
Estimated Values of Coda-Wave Attenuation (Q1
c ) at Various Frequencies
3
Q1
c 10
Coefficient of Correlation
rms
Signal/Noise
Frequency
Waveforms
Analyzed
Min
MeanStd
Max
Min
MeanStd
Max
Min
MeanStd
Max
Min
MeanStd
Max
2
8
12
16
9338
5421
4441
3741
1.7
0.8
0.6
0.5
7.12.7
1.80.7
1.20.4
0.90.3
47.6
20.4
1.2
9.4
0.97
0.96
0.94
0.95
0.670.11
0.600.08
0.590.08
0.580.07
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.07
0.18
0.15
0.17
0.240.07
0.320.06
0.350.06
0.350.09
1.79
2.67
1.89
4.13
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
16.247.5
11.025.6
9.721.1
9.018.1
985.5
842.6
600.9
315.7
Also presented are extreme values, averages, standard deviations, and quality parameters. Q1
c values at 2 Hz were used to estimate tomograms because of
the high availability of observations regarding other frequencies, best values of correlation coefficients, rms, and signal-to-noise ratio. A power law equation
1
3 0:970:06 .
for all Q1
c observations suggested a high-frequency dependence of the attenuation in this region: Qc f 13:2 0:6 10 f
(2)
2030
(a)
(b)
=-0.67
1600
=0.11
3000
1200
3500
2000
1500
Frequency
1400
4000
2500
1000
800
600
2500
2000
1500
400
1000
500
200
500
10
20
30
40
0
-1
50
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-0.5
Coefficient of correlation
=87.7
=65.6
3500
3000
3000
2500
2500
2000
1500
1500
1000
500
500
0
50
100
150
Depth (km)
200
250
=0.7
2000
1000
0
Epicentral distance
=3.1
3500
Frequency
Frequency
4000
=96.0
3000
1000
=155.0
4500
3500
Frequency
Frequency
4000
Figure 3.
(a) Example of waveform used for estimating the Qc values. Upper trace represents the original record of an earthquake
recorded by a short-period seismological station of the CNSN. Middle trace represents the filtered record in frequency band 13
(2 1) Hz. Lower trace represents the decay envelope of the coda wave in a window of 20 s, starting from 2 t s. Qc value was obtained
as the slope of the least-squares fit of Lnt2 P; t versus t (dashed line with arrowheads), for t > t , where t represents the S-wave
travel time (Haskov et al., 1989). (b) Histograms for Q1
c values and their correlation coefficients, as well as distributions for the epicentral
distances, focal depths, and local magnitudes of all events analyzed.
1
1 V Block-1
1 V Block-1
Qav Q1 V TOTAL
Q1 V TOTAL
1 V Block-n
;
Qn V TOTAL
where
(3)
(4)
y
1
1
V Block-i
xi
ai
:
V TOTAL
Qav
Qi
4.49
6.58
9.17
2.68
7.72
4.63
0.94
9.94
1.22
1.57
5.01
5.20
0.94
1.21
1.23
2.54
6.19
4.01
2.84
5.57
8.24
0.24
2.33
3.71
4.86
4.9
5.89
8.88
6.23
4.59
75.40
73.18
79.84
75.44
72.79
73.73
77.89
73.44
77.25
76.95
74.2
74.04
77.83
77.42
77.35
72.63
75.53
77.34
75.95
74.87
73.32
78.45
76.4
74.89
74.33
75.35
73.08
70.63
77.41
75.32
Station
ANIL
BAR
BCIP
BET
BRI
CHI
CLIM
COD
CPAS
CRU
CTAB
CTAU
CUM
GCAL
GCUF
GUA
HEL
MAL
MARA
NOR
OCA
OTAV
PCON
PRA
ROSC
RREF
RUS
SDV
SOL
TOL
2300
1864
61
540
1427
3140
4232
108
2620
2761
3500
3868
3420
2353
3800
217
2815
75
2207
536
1264
3492
4294
468
3020
4743
3697
1620
38
2577
Altitude
(masl)
248
754
5
66
46
724
17
104
8
330
2
5
234
8
56
11
216
391
78
596
3304
26
120
313
149
205
150
64
850
258
Waveforms
Analyzed
2.9
1.7
5.5
2.9
2.9
2.7
2.5
3.4
5.1
2.5
5.6
4.3
3.0
7.9
3.7
3.6
3.0
2.4
3.0
2.5
2.0
4.3
2.0
2.5
2.9
2.5
2.6
2.8
3.1
2.5
Min
6.81.6
6.12.5
6.92.0
6.63.0
6.03.5
6.83.0
7.05.0
7.33.1
8.84.6
6.72.9
8.18.2
8.06.7
7.03.2
10.31.8
7.42.7
6.22.9
6.12.1
6.20.0
5.92.4
5.92.1
6.02.3
7.62.1
6.63.2
6.12.7
5.92.4
6.12.3
6.02.7
5.82.0
7.33.1
6.32.6
MeanStd
3
Q1
c 10
Max
17.2
32.3
12.2
14.9
47.6
20.0
12.0
18.2
15.9
16.1
14.5
28.6
22.7
13.5
18.2
10.2
19.6
15.9
18.2
20.4
21.7
13.9
16.9
19.6
33.3
12.7
20.4
12.5
25.6
20.0
12.1
11.8
104.7
16.7
13.1
11
31.7
19.3
16.6
17.6
132.4
52.8
12.9
14.6
22.0
20.3
21.0
14.9
17.9
16.3
16.4
23.6
12.5
17.6
17.9
113.7
17.5
114.5
17.2
19.8
Min
89.3 51.5
71.219.2
126.415.7
68.156.3
81.636.7
89.453.3
78.935.5
47.348.7
14.110.2
79.260.2
1330.85
96.231.2
82.757.9
22.821.12
52.340.1
174.485.5
110.240.9
65.137.5
87.665.2
113.435.5
102.823.1
70.225.7
72.452.8
101.161.3
88.247.6
118.148.8
72.639.9
176.323.7
64.639.8
100.456.1
MeanStd
tc
Max
231
227
146
246
150
263
132
180
38.4
339
134
119.1
384
69.4
152
227
190
323
259
297
287
147
289
259
204
220
240
262
305
248
0.94
0.94
0.86
0.91
0.97
0.97
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.95
0.86
0.9
0.97
0.91
0.93
0.86
0.96
0.95
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.88
0.96
0.95
0.95
0.92
0.94
0.90
0.97
0.95
Min
0.670.11
0.670.11
0.690.10
0.680.11
0.660.13
0.690.11
0.690.11
0.700.12
0.720.12
0.690.11
0.700.22
0.730.12
0.690.12
0.830.05
0.700.11
0.670.11
0.650.10
0.670.11
0.650.11
0.660.11
0.660.11
0.730.12
0.670.11
0.670.11
0.660.12
0.650.10
0.660.11
0.650.11
0.710.11
0.670.11
MeanStd
0.50
0.50
0.59
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.53
0.50
0.56
0.50
0.55
0.6
0.50
0.74
0.50
0.51
0.50
0.50
0.51
0.50
0.50
0.53
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
Max
Coefficients of Correlation
26.7
26.6
200.7
46.7
24.7
24.5
73.0
33.8
29.1
30.8
249.2
109.9
22.6
25.6
38.5
53.0
36.8
43.6
31.3
28.5
28.7
58.8
39.4
30.8
31.3
41.5
30.6
217.9
30.1
34.7
Min
166.390.2
142.033.7
238.727.5
136.898.5
159.665.8
173.593.8
155.562.1
100.285.3
42.217.8
156.0105.3
250.21.48
185.954.5
162.3101.3
57.437.0
108.170.5
322.7149.7
210.071.5
131.465.7
170.8114.1
215.862.1
197.440.4
140.344.9
144.192.4
194.5107.4
171.883.3
224.185.4
144.569.7
326.041.4
130.669.6
193.198.2
MeanStd
Epicentral Distances
Max
413.6
414.6
272.8
448.0
280.2
477.6
247.6
332.2
84.7
610.4
251.3
225.9
690.0
139.0
283.5
415.3
350.2
582.4
469.9
537.4
520.3
274.1
522.6
470.1
373.6
402.7
437.9
476.5
551.1
451.9
The stations detected 7645 earthquakes (19932012) that were used for estimating 9338 Q1
c values in frequency band 13 (2 1) Hz and coda-wave time window (W) of 20 s. tc values and relatively
large epicentral distances allowed us to estimate the coda-wave tomography regionally.
Latitude
()
Longitude
()
Table 2
Seismological Stations of the CNSN Used in this Study
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
2031
2032
(5)
R AT A 2 I1 AT A:
(6)
and
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
available geophysical data for proper interpretation of the
tomograms along these sections.
Integrating Earthquake Data with Regional
Seismic-Reflection Lines
Hypocentral solutions of the CNSN (rms < 0:3 s;
GAP < 200; stations 6; error in latitude 10:0 km; error in
2033
Figure 4. Resolution, reliability, and results of the spatial inversion of attenuation based on a geometry of 32 32 8 blocks with
dimensions of 60 km latitude 50 km longitude 40 km thickness. Coda-wave tomograms were estimated with 9338 Q1
c observations associated with 7645 regional earthquakes (mL 6:7; 19932012) in the frequency band 13 (2 1) Hz. (a) Hit count of ellipsoidal shells, suggesting that the 3D inversion of Q1
c may solve large areas of Colombia, eastern Panama, western Venezuela, and northern
Ecuador. (b) Synthetic model that represents two large domains of attenuation (e.g., a zone with flat subduction in the north and normal
subduction in the south, limited by a slab tear). The contrasts of attenuation incorporated into the model to evaluate the effectiveness of the
1
method were Q1
c 1=200 and Qc 1=70. (c) Chessboard with smaller and regular distribution of attenuation contrasts. As in the previous
1 1=70. (d) 3D inversion of the synthetic model
case, the contrasts of attenuation incorporated into the model were Q1
c 1=200 and Qc
presented in (b) suggesting that the distribution of the available data may allow detection of large structures with significant contrasts of
attenuation as much as 270 km depth. (e) 3D inversion of the chessboard model presented in (c) suggesting that the distribution of the
available data may permit detection of smaller bodies (e.g., 100 km 100 km 60 km) with significant contrasts of attenuation, mainly in
Colombia, and as much as 180 km depth. (f) Results of the tomographic inversion with the available data. (g) Maps of the RDE at different
depths. Higher RDE values (e.g., 0:5) indicate zones efficiently solved. However, these higher RDE values were limited by the geographical
concentration of Q1
c values, indicating that the method is useful for areas where a large stacking of attenuation observations is present.
Tomographic solution of the attenuation efficiently images large areas of the crust and upper mantle of northwestern South America including
Colombia, eastern Panama, and western Venezuela with sampling depths reaching > 315 km. High-attenuation anomalies suggest that Bucaramanga and Cauca seismic nests may be related to asthenospheric emplacements.
(Continued)
2034
Figure 4.
Continued.
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
Figure 4.
Continued.
2035
2036
Figure 5. Section crossing the northern Panama-arc indenter and its down-dip Bucaramanga nest (Fig. 1a, AA0 ). (a) Geologic and geothermal observations; (b) gravity and magnetic data; (c) interpreted tomographic section. Green dots with vertical bars that represent vertical
errors, hypocentral solutions in a 60 km wide corridor. Plotted events have the following selection criteria: rms < 0:3 s; GAP 200; stations
6; error in latitude 10:0 km; error in longitude 10:0 km; error in depth 5:0 km. Some representative focal mechanisms (beach balls)
have been also plotted.
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
2037
Figure 6. Coda-wave-attenuation section crossing the southern part of the Panama indenter and the Cauca nest (Fig. 1b, BB0 ). (a) Geologic and geothermal observations; (b) gravity and magnetic data; (c) interpreted section. Green dots with vertical bars that represent vertical
errors, hypocentral solutions in a 60 km wide corridor. Plotted events have the following selection criteria: rms < 0:3 s; GAP 200; stations
6; error in latitude 10:0 km; error in longitude 10:0 km; error in depth 5:0 km.
2038
Figure 7. (a) Deep seismic profile nearly parallels the tomographic section AA0 (see inset map). Seismic image was assembled with three
segments of the Trans-Andean Seismic Line acquired by the National Hydrocarbons Agency of Colombia (ANH; Vargas et al., 2010). (b) An
interpretation of the seismic line. Black lines, suggested sedimentary basins and deeper reflections; blue lines, faults and main tectonic
features (e.g., the Romeral fault zone in bold line); yellow line, suggested detachment surface associated with the Caribbean plate subduction.
Red dots with vertical bars that represent vertical errors, hypocenter solutions in a 60 km wide corridor. Plotted events have the following
selection criteria: rms < 0:3 s; GAP 200; stations 6; error in latitude 10:0 km; error in longitude 10:0 km; error in depth 5:0 km.
Depthtime relation has been estimated by using several oil wells in the area (Vargas et al., 2010).
To support our interpretation, we have presented a total
of eight variables along the profiles: hypocenter solutions,
focal mechanisms, coda-wave attenuation, gravity, magnetic
and geothermal anomalies, and geologic and topographic
data derived from seismic-reflection profiles. The two sec-
Table 3
Physical Properties Expressed in SI for the Materials Used in Gravity and Magnetic Models
Unit
Density (kg=m3 )
3
3:30 10
2:78 103
2:31 103
3:15 103
2:07 103 2:35 103
1:68 103 2:00 103
1:03 103
Susceptibility
1
Magnetization (A=m)
1:26 10 1:38 10
1:26 105
3:21 102 4:90 102
1:26 101
1:26 105
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
Longitude ()
(a)
2039
-72.8
-73
-73.2
y(x) = a x + b
a = -0.00529
b = 17.428
R = 0.36776
-73.4
(b)
7.4
Latitude ()
1994
7.2
7
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
y(x) = a x + b
a = -0.006479
b = -60.081
R = 0.32692
6.8
6.6
Depth (km)
(c)
1994
1996
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
y(x) = a x + b
a = 0.23732
b = -621.43
R = 0.11894
-180
-200
-220
1994
1996
Time (year)
Figure 8.
Temporal evolution of the hypocentral parameters of the Bucaramanga nest. Earthquake information provided by the CNSN
from 1993 to 2012. Events of the Bucaramanga nest were selected around the point 73.1 W, 6.9 N. Parameters of selection were
radii 0:2; 0 rms 0:2 s; 120 h 160 km; GAP 200; (a) error in longitude 10:0 km; (b) error in latitude 10:0 km; (c) error
in depth 10:0 km. Error bars have been associated with each event. Dashed polygon, the linear trend of occurrences estimated by leastsquares means.
2040
Longitude()
(a) -75.5
-76
-76.5
-77
Latitude()
(b)
y(x) = a (x - b)
a = 0.021514
b = 5553.5
R = 0.40882
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
5.5
5
4.5
y(x) = a x + b
a = 0.0085141
b = -12.525
R = 0.12753
(c)
Depth(km)
3.5
-50
-100
1994
y(x) = a x + b
a = 1.0488
b = -2211.1
R = 0.19102
-150
-200
1994
Time (year)
Figure 9. Temporal evolution of the hypocentral parameters of the Cauca nest. Earthquake information provided by the CNSN from 1993
to 2012. The Cauca nest events were selected around the point 76.3 W, 4.5 N. Parameters of selection were Radii 0:5; 0 rms 0:3 s;
h 60 km; GAP 200; (a) error in longitude 10:0 km; (b) error in latitude 10:0 km; (c) error in depth 10:0 km. Error bars have been
associated with each event. Dashed polygon, the linear trend of trend of occurrences estimated by least-squares means.
of events. Although lineal regression of the temporal series of
events is of low confidence, this unidirectional, westward
displacement of events may be caused by down-dip and
southwestward propagation of tearing of the subducted
Caribbean slab.
Southern Tomographic Transect Crossing the Nazca
Plate and the Cauca Nest
The Nazca oceanic slab has been modeled with an
1522 km deep crustal thickness and a constant dip angle
of 3040 to a depth > 150 km beneath the active volcanic
line (Figs. 1a and 6). The volcanic line is underlain by
high-attenuation anomalies indicative of a normal melting
range for the subducted oceanic slab (Figs. 2, 4c, 6). Highattenuation anomalies and the presence of shallow to intermediate seismicity around the Romeral fault zone suggest
this major strike-slip provides another major upward conduit
for the release of upper mantle heat. A large low-attenuation
anomaly corresponds to the low geothermal gradient observed between the Colombian trench along the Pacific margin and the Central Cordillera. The low geothermal gradient
coincides with thick volcanic and sedimentary material accreted to western Colombia, mainly in the Western Cordillera
and the Baudo Range. The accretion of this area may have
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
toward the east (Trenkamp et al., 2002; e.g., BOGO versus
MZAL, RION, BUCM, MONT, and CART GPS stations). Assuming the BOGO station as the reference point south of the
Caldas tear, and the CHEP station as the reference point on the
Panama indenter, we estimate 24 mm=year of active rightlateral displacement across the Caldas tear. The hypothesis
of lateral homogeneity of the crust, constant displacement rate,
and a seismic offset along Caldas tear of 240 km, would
suggest an 10:0 Ma initiation of the Panama arcColombia
collision (240 km=24 mm=year). Geologic field observations in the Panama-arc (Coates et al., 2004) suggest that the
age for the initiation of the Panama arc collision with northern
South America occurred between 12.8 and 7.1 Ma, which is
consistent with our estimated 10:0 Ma initiation of the tear
propagation. In addition, because the origin of the eastwest
Sandra ridge occurs between 9 and 12 Ma (Defant et al., 1992;
Lonsdale, 2005), and this structure is collinear with the Caldas
tear, we propose that the right-lateral lineament defined by the
Caldas tear and the Sandra ridge, constitutes a major area of
lithospheric weakness along the southern flank of the Panama
arc-indenter. Although there is no evidence for recent activity
of the Sandra ridge due to lack of near-bottom instrumentation
in the Pacific offshore of Colombia and Panama, recent earthquakes and the adakite magmatism along the Caldas tear may
indicate that this lineament localizes upper crustal fault conduits that allowed the upward migration of magmatic fluids
and are associated with elevated geothermal anomalies. Offset
of intermediate- to deep-seismicity that defines the Caldas tear
is also coincident with inactive volcanoes of adakite composition and geothermal anomalies (Fig. 2). The adakites of the
Ruiz volcanic complex with ages ranging from 0.970.05 and
1.80.6 Ma (Borrero et al., 2009) and the PaipaIza volcanic
complex dated 1.92.5 Ma (Pardo et al., 2005) are a likely
consequence of magmatism related to this progressive
slab tear. Low ratio 87 Sr=87 Sr (0.705) and the presence of
xenoliths of metamorphic rocks in this last volcanic complex
(J. M. Jaramillo, personal comm., 2012) support the proposed
break-off interpretation south of the Bucaramanga nest and
east of the Caldas tear.
Surficial evidence of this lithospheric tear are restricted
to presence of mineral deposits, hydrocarbon occurrences,
and some geomorphological anomalies. High-grade mineral
deposits of platinum, gold, and copper exploited in the mining areas called Condoto (Tistl, 1994), Marmato (Ordoez,
2001), Quinchia (INGEOMINAS, 1999), La Colosa (GilRodriguez, 2010), and Cerro de Cobre (McLaughlin and
Arce, 1970) are near, or collinear with, the Caldas tear and
exhibit ages ranging between 6 and 20 Ma (see blue hexagons on map in Fig. 10a). In addition, significant changes in
distribution and trend of oil and gas seeps, as well as the
hydrocarbon fields on both sides of the Caldas tear, suggest
that this structure may also affect the geometry of several
sedimentary basins (e.g., Llanos foreland, Eastern Cordillera,
Middle Magdalena Valley). But likely the most prominent
geomorphological evidence is coming from hydraulic behavior of the main rivers that cross the south-to-north-flowing
2041
2042
Figure 10.
Surficial evidences of the Caldas tear related to mineral deposits, hydrocarbon occurrences, and geomorphological anomalies.
(a) Blue hexagons, map of distribution of high-grade mineral deposits of platinum, gold, and copper: (1) Condoto, (2) Marmato, (3) Quinchia,
(4) La Colosa, and (5) Cerro de Cobre. Black dots, oil and gas seepages. Purple circles are giant hydrocarbon fields. Blue stars are other oil
and gas fields. These hydrocarbon occurrences suggest that the Caldas tear also is affecting the geometrical configuration of several sedimentary basins. White stars, hydraulic anomalies of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers on the Caldas tear (rapids on the Supia and the Honda).
White circle and square are places upstream the rivers where there are broad valleys (Bolivar and Guamo). (b) Rapids of the Cauca River near
Supia town that overlies the Caldas tear. (c) Rapids of the Magdalena River near Honda town that overlies the Caldas tear. (d) Broad valley
observed upstream of the Cauca River near Bolivar town. Similar landscape is observed in Guamo town where the valley width of the
Magdalena River reaches > 40 km wide.
consequently the northern region of indentation has conditions that favor flat subduction. In the east, the Caribbean
plate suddenly changes its subduction angle and produces
a break off of the slab around the location of the Bucaramanga nest. South of the Caldas tear, the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the South American plate with a steeper
angle and a faster rate. The Cauca nest is a combined product
of eastward decoupling of plates along the Caldas tear and
flexure during the subduction process.
A corollary of our model for the Panama indenter and
the formation of the Caldas tear is the eastward indentation of
geologic features. Inspection of the Map of Quaternary faults
and folds of Colombia (Paris et al., 2000) suggests that some
Tearing and Breaking Off of Subducted Slabs as the Result of Collision of the Panama Arc-Indenter
2043
Figure 11.
(a) Seismic surface estimated by interpolation and filtering of 68;000 local earthquakes (h 10:0 km). Blue lines, shore line
of northwest South America. Bold black lines, limits of the convergent margins. Bold red lines, the southern border of the Panama indenter
that includes the Sandra ridge and the Caldas tear. Bucaramanga nest is related to a break-off process that is propagating toward the southwest. Triangles, red (active) and green (inactive) volcanoes. Orange dashed lines, wireframe model suggested for indicating the subduction
geometry of the Caribbean plate. (b) Schematic 3D model suggesting flat subduction on the northern side of the weakness zone formed by the
Sandra ridge and the Caldas tear. Caribbean plate suddenly changes its subduction angle and promotes a break off of the slab around the
location of the Bucaramanga nest. South of the weakness zone, the Nazca plate subducts beneath the South American plate with a steeper
angle and faster displacement. Probably the Cauca nest is the combined product of eastward decoupling of plates along the Caldas tear as well
as flexion and discrete movements of the plate during subduction. The Murind earthquake nest located in proximity to the Panamanian and
Colombian border, may be response to convergent accommodation between the Panama arc-indenter and the Caribbean plate.
Conclusions
The eastward-directed collision of the buoyant Panama
arc-indenter with northwestern South America produces
a distinctive V-shaped pattern of crustal deformation and
2044
Acknowledgments
This work was partially funded by the industry sponsors of the CBTH
project of the University of Houston and by fellowship support from the
University of Texas at Austin. Earthquake, gravity, magnetic, seismic,
and geothermal data were kindly provided by Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, INGEOMINAS, and the following
research projects: 1233-333-18664, Contract 201-2006 (COLCIENCIAS);
1233-487-25728, Contract 589-2009 (COLCIENCIAS); CGL2005-04541C03-02 and CGL2008-00869/BTE (UPC, MICCIN, FEDER). We also thank
the Associate Editor Heather DeShon, and two anonymous reviewers for their
helpful reviews of this paper.
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Department of Geosciences
Universidad Nacional de ColombiaSede Bogot
Carrera 45 No 26-85Edificio Manuel Ancizar
Bogot D.C.Colombia, 111321
cavargasj@unal.edu.co
(C.A.V.)