Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1) Characterization
Observation
Measurement
Research problem
2) Hypothesis and Theory
Previous research and Prediction
3) Testing hypotheses and Drawing conclusions
Problem Formulation
i) Statement of the problem in a General way
Broad general way
ii) Understanding the Nature of the problem
Understand its origin and nature clearly
iii) Surveying the available Literature
Relevant theories/literature
iv) Developing the ideas through Discussions
Experience survey
v) Rephrasing the research problem
Development of working proposition
Hypothesis
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H1: Male students have more positive attitude towards research than female
students.
H2: Male students perform better than female students in research courses.
OR
H1: Female students have more positive attitude towards research than male
students.
H2: Female students perform better than male students in research courses
EXAMPLE 3
Rephrasing the Research Problem: Example
1. Why is productivity in China (or Japan) so much higher than in Pakistan? (Broad
general way)
2. What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Chinas
manufacturing industries during the decade 2001 to 2010 relative to Pakistans
manufacturing industries? (Specific)
3. To what extent did labour productivity in 2001 to 2010 in China exceed that of
Pakistan in respect of 20 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were
responsible for the productivity differentials between the two countries by
industries? (Rethinking & Rephrasing)
Research Problem
Description of a difficulty that needs to be solved
Issue(s)
Idea(s)
Curiosity
Selection of a Research Topic/Problem
a) Identify a general problem area
b) Narrow down the general problem area to specific
Characteristics:
i) Researchable
a) To investigate through the collection of data
b) No reward/punishment
ii) Theoretical and practical significance
iii) Interest
iv) Skills
v) Available resources
Sources: Theory/Literature, Experiences
Statement of the Problem
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i) Well-written statement-variable(s)/relationship
ii) Research plan/Design
Variable
Concept/Construct ?
Conceptualization ?
Operationalization ?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of the study is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a research
work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists.
i) Variables of the study
ii) A general representation of relationship between things/variables in a given phenomenon
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is the researchers idea on how the research problem will have to be explored.
i) Operationalization of the theory
ii) Direction (model-previous study/modification)
Variable:
A dimension along which individual attributes (e.g. people, events, and objects)
can vary (i.e. data can be collected and measured)
Any observation that can take on different values
Attribute: a specific value on a variable
An independent variable is any variable that is being manipulated.
A dependent variable is any variable that is being measured.
Levels of Measurement
Objects Events People
Assigning discrete categories called Categorical Measurement
Identifying the attributes on numerical scale called Metric Measurement
Categorical Measurement
a) Nominal:
Homogeneous, Mutually exclusive and exhaustive, Dichotomous/Binary
b) Ordinal
Rank ordered along some dimension, relative position
Metric Measurement
a) Interval
Same distance apart, has an arbitrary zero
b) Ratio
Same as interval except it has an absolute zero point
Types of Data
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Subjective
Opinions, Preferences,
Personal Considerations
Deductive
Previous known fact
General to Specific
Waterfall: Theory Hypothesis
Observations Confirmation
Inductive
based on format/pattern
Specific to General
Hill climbing: Observations
Tentative Hypothesis Pattern
Theory
Transferability
to apply the results of research in
one context to another similar
context
Words
Non-Numerical data, Mainly verbal
data
Generalizability
The results of research can be
applied to the population at large.
Numbers
Numerical data
Correlational Research
To identify/discover/predict the relationship between two or more variables.
Correlational studies as a means of looking for relations between variables when experiment cant
be done.
A statistical relationship between two or more things
An act which produces an effect
Correlation and Causation
Correlation is a first step to determine causation.
If there is no association between two variables then there is no causal connection.
Correlation does not prove causation.
Directionality problem
X<>Y
Third variable problem
Z
X<>Y
How to do?
1) Correlation Analysis
Karl Pearson Correlation
Spearman Rank Correlation
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Experimental Research
Collecting evidence to show the effect of one or more variable(s) upon other if a researcher
/experimenter manipulates the independent variable(s)
Main steps of Experimental research
1) Random selection
2) Random assignment to different levels of
independent variable(s)
3) Manipulate the levels of independent variable(s)
4) Control the Extraneous variable(s)
Descriptive study
It involves gathering data that describes events and then organizes, tabulates and describes the data.
1) Measure of central tendency
2) Measure of statistical variability
3) Measure of distribution shape
Categorical Data Pie chart or Bar chart
Metric Data Histogram or line graphs
b. Telephone Interview
III. Questionnaires
a. Paper-Pencil-Questionnaire
b. Web based Questionnaire
Hand-delivering
Structured/Unstructured
Interview vs. Schedules
Enumerators
By Mail
Gathering Data in one place
IV. Focus Group Discussion
a. 5-10 informant
V. Projective Techniques
a. Visual/Verbal Stimulus
b. Hypothetical Questions
Questionnaire Design:
Elements
o Determine the questions to be asked
o Question Sequence/ Layout
o Question Type/wording
Sequence/Layout
o Brief Introductory Statement
o Font, Bold, etc.
o Easier Question at the Beginning
Argue/Logic
Question types
o Open-Ended Vs Close-Ended
o Single Vs Multiple
o Ranking Vs Rating
Open-Ended Vs Close Ended
Q1: What do you think about two candidates in this election?
Q2: Who will you vote for this election?
Single Vs Multiple
Q1: Which of the following means do you use to travel to
university?
Car
Bike , Bus
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Survey Research
What is a Survey?
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought
to have desired information.
A method of primary data collection based on communication with a representative sample of
individuals (called respondents).
Tool for obtaining information from a sample of individuals
1) Type of Information
Attributes (Gender, Age, Ethnicity etc...)
Behaviours and Experiences
How do people act?
Knowledge questions
Attitudes and opinions/ Expectations
What do people believe and how do they feel about things?
Whats going to happen?
2) Type of Data
Nominal, ordinal, Interval and Ratio
3) Type of Response
Open-ended
Closed questions
Dichotomous questions
Multiple-choice
Rank/priority
Likert scales (level of agreement)
Basic process
o Problem statement/Research question(s)
Research aims
o Population and sample
o Collecting Replies
o Questionnaire Design
o Pilot Survey
o Main Survey
o Analyze the Data
Classification of surveys
Descriptive surveys vs. Analytic surveys
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Cross-sectional surveys vs. Longitudinal surveys:
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False
True
Reliability:
Consistency of measurement across time and judges
The degree of stability exhibited when a measurement is repeated under identical conditions.
The degree of stability exhibited when a measurement
is repeated under identical conditions. Realible
Measure # 1
Yes
Measure # 1
No
Measure # 2
Yes
Agree
Measure # 2
No
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
1) Narrative Research
Narrative research is research that is concerned with stories.
The study of how different humans experience the world around them, and it
uses a methodology that allows people to tell the stories of their storied lives.
(Stephen E. Brock)
How much do you sacrifice to your children in order to be successful?
Types: Biography study, Autobiography and Life history etc
2) Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl)
The study of experience (as it is lived).
It is matter of studying every day experience from the point of view of the
subject (participant).
Identification of shared experience
Universal (General) nature of an experience
Locate essence
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Phenomenological Methodology
a) Epoche/Bracketing
Natural attitude
Independent existence (Neither for nor against)
Describe/ dont explain
b) Horizonalization (or Horizontalization)
Attempt to understand an experience
Every statement has equal value.
c) Delimited Horizon
Irrelevant to the topic
Non-Repetitive
Non-Overlapping
d) Clustering the Horizons into Themes
3) Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Par is a collaborative process between researchers and participants.
Critical dialogue
Shared responsibility
Improvement/Development
Cycle1
Study and Plan
Cycle2
Take Action
Take Action
Reflect
Cycle3
Reflect
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