Beware! Persuasion Can Warp Your Mind.

Propaganda Techniques
1. Assertion: Assertion is commonly used in advertising and modern propaganda. An
assertion is an enthusiastic or energetic statement presented as a fact, although it is not
necessarily true. They often imply that the statement requires no explanation or back up,
but that it should merely be accepted without question. Examples of assertion, although
somewhat scarce in wartime propaganda, can be found often in modern advertising
propaganda. Any time an advertiser states that their product is the best without providing
evidence for this, they are using an assertion. The subject, ideally, should simply agree to
the statement without searching for additional information or reasoning. Assertions,
although usually simple to spot, are often dangerous forms of propaganda because they
often include falsehoods or lies.
2. Card Stacking: Card stacking, or selective omission, is one of the seven techniques
identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It involves only presenting
information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it.
Card stacking is used in almost all forms of propaganda, and is extremely effective in
convincing the public. Although the majority of information presented by the card
stacking approach is true, it is dangerous because it omits important information. The
best way to deal with card stacking is to get more information. This term comes from
stacking a deck of cards in your favor. Card stacking is used to slant a message. Key
words or unfavorable statistics may be omitted in an ad or commercial, leading to a
series of half-truths. Keep in mind that an advertiser is under no obligation "to give the
truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth."
3. Glittering Generalities: Glittering generalities was one of the seven main propaganda
techniques identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. It also occurs very
often in politics and political propaganda. Glittering generalities are words that have
different positive meaning for individual subjects, but are linked to highly valued
concepts. In other words, this technique uses important-sounding "glad words" that have
little or no real meaning. These words are used in general statements that cannot be
proved or disproved. Words like "good," "honest," "fair," and "best" are examples of "glad"
words. When these words are used, they demand approval without thinking, simply
because such an important concept is involved. For example, when a person is asked to
do something in "defense of democracy" they are more likely to agree. The concept of
democracy has a positive connotation to them because it is linked to a concept that they
value. Words often used as glittering generalities are honor, glory, love of country, and
especially in the United States, freedom. When coming across with glittering generalities,
we should especially consider the merits of the idea itself when separated from specific
words.
4. Lesser of Two Evils: The "lesser of two evils" technique tries to convince us of an idea or
proposal by presenting it as the least offensive option. This technique is often
implemented during wartime to convince people of the need for sacrifices or to justify
difficult decisions. This technique is often accompanied by adding blame on an enemy
country or political group. One idea or proposal is often depicted as one of the only
options or paths. When confronted with this technique, the subject should consider the
value of any proposal independently of those it is being compared with.

5. Name Calling: Name calling occurs often in politics and wartime scenarios, but very
seldom in advertising. It is another of the seven main techniques designated by the
Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry
a negative connotation (attaching a negative label to a person or a thing) when describing
an enemy. The propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling
the target something that the public dislikes. Often, name calling is employed using
sarcasm and ridicule, and shows up often in political cartoons or writings. When
examining name calling propaganda, we should attempt to separate our feelings about
the name and our feelings about the actual idea or proposal. People engage in this type
of behavior when they are trying to avoid supporting their own opinion with facts. Rather
than explain what they believe in, they prefer to try to tear their opponent down.
6. Pinpointing the Enemy: Pinpointing the enemy is used extremely often during wartime,
and also in political campaigns and debates. This is an attempt to simplify a complex
situation by presenting one specific group or person as the enemy. Although there may
be other factors involved the subject is urged to simply view the situation in terms of
clear-cut right and wrong. When coming in contact with this technique, the subject should
attempt to consider all other factors tied into the situation. As with almost all propaganda
techniques, the subject should attempt to find more information on the topic. An
informed person is much less susceptible to this sort of propaganda.
7. Plain Folks: This technique uses a folksy approach to convince us to support someone or
something. The plain folks propaganda technique was another of the seven main
techniques identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. The plain folks
device is an attempt by the propagandist to convince the public that his views reflect
those of the common person and that they are also working for the benefit of the
common person. These ads depict people with ordinary looks doing ordinary activities.
The propagandist will often attempt to use the accent of a specific audience as well as
using specific idioms or jokes. Also, the propagandist, especially during speeches, may
attempt to increase the illusion through imperfect pronunciation, stuttering, and a more
limited vocabulary. Errors such as these help add to the impression of sincerity and
spontaneity. This technique is usually most effective when used with glittering
generalities, in an attempt to convince the public that the propagandist views about
highly valued ideas are similar to their own and therefore more valid. When confronted by
this type of propaganda, the subject should consider the proposals and ideas separately
from the personality of the presenter.
8. Simplification (Stereotyping): Simplification is extremely similar to pinpointing the
enemy, in that it often reduces a complex situation to a clear-cut choice involving good
and evil. This technique is often useful in swaying uneducated audiences. When faced
with simplification, it is often useful to examine other factors and pieces of the proposal
or idea, and, as with all other forms of propaganda, it is essential to get more
information.
9. Testimonials: Testimonials are another of the seven main forms of propaganda identified
by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. Testimonials are quotations or endorsements, in
or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or respectable person with a
product or item. Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer technique, in that
an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another item. Testimonials are
often used in advertising and political campaigns. When coming across testimonials, the

subject should consider the merits of the item or proposal independently of the person of
organization giving the testimonial. This technique is easy to understand. It is when "big
name" personalities are used to endorse a product. Whenever you see someone famous
endorsing a product, ask yourself how much that person knows about the product, and
what he or she stands to gain by promoting it.
10. Transfer: Transfer is another of the seven main propaganda terms first used by the
Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Transfer is often used in politics and during
wartime. It is an attempt to make the subject view a certain item in the same way as they
view another item, to link the two in the subjects mind. Although this technique is often
used to transfer negative feelings for one object to another, it can also be used in positive
ways. By linking an item to something the subject respects or enjoys, positive feelings
can be generated for it. For example, using the American flag as a backdrop for a political
event makes the implication that the event is patriotic in the best interest of the U.S.
However, in politics, transfer is most often used to transfer blame or bad feelings from
one politician to another of his friends or party members, or even to the party itself.
When confronted with propaganda using the transfer technique, we should question the
merits or problems of the proposal or idea independently of convictions about other
objects or proposals.
11. False Analogy: In this technique, two things that may or may not really be similar are
portrayed as being similar. When examining the comparison, you must ask yourself how
similar the items are. In most false analogies, there is simply not enough evidence
available to support the comparison.
12. Bandwagon: The "bandwagon" approach encourages you to think that because everyone
else is doing something, you should do it too, or you'll be left out. The technique
embodies a "keeping up with the Joneses" philosophy.
13. Either/or fallacy: This technique is also called "black-and-white thinking" because only
two choices are given. You are either for something or against it; there is no middle
ground or shades of gray. It is used to polarize issues, and negates all attempts to find a
common ground.
14. Faulty Cause and Effect: This technique suggests that because B follows A, A must cause
B. Remember, just because two events or two sets of data are related does not necessarily
mean that one caused the other to happen. It is important to evaluate data carefully
before jumping to a wrong conclusion.
Errors of Faulty Logic
1. Contradiction: Information is presented that is in direct opposition to other information
within the same argument. Example: If someone stated that schools were overstaffed,
then later argued for the necessity of more counselors, that person would be guilty of
contradiction.
2. Accident: Someone fails to recognize (or conceals the fact) that an argument is based on
an exception to the rule. Example: By using selected scholar-athletes as the norm, one
could argue that larger sports programs in schools were vital to improving academic
performance of all students.
3. False Cause: A temporal order of events is confused with causality; or, someone
oversimplifies a complex causal network. Example: Stating that poor performance in
schools is caused by poverty; poverty certainly contributes to poor academic performance
but it is not the only factor.

4. Begging the Question: A person makes a claim then argues for it by advancing grounds
whose meaning is simply equivalent to that of the original claim. This is also called
"circular reasoning." Example: Someone argues that schools should continue to have
textbooks read from cover to cover because, otherwise, students would not be welleducated. When asked to define what "well-educated" means, the person says, "knowing
what is in the textbooks."
5. Evading the Issue: Someone sidesteps and issue by changing the topic. Example: When
asked to say whether or not the presence of homosexuals in the army could be a
disruptive force, a speaker presents examples of homosexuals winning combat medals
for bravery.
6. Arguing from Ignorance: Someone argues that a claim is justified simply because its
opposite cannot be proven. Example: A person argues that voucher programs will not
harm schools, since no one has ever proven that vouchers have harmed schools.
7. Composition and Division: Composition involves an assertion about a whole that is true
of its parts. Division is the opposite: an assertion about all of the parts that is true about
the whole. Example: When a school system holds up its above-average scores and claims
that its students are superior, it is committing the fallacy of division. Overall scores may
be higher but that does not prove all students are performing at that level. Likewise,
when the military points to the promiscuous behavior of some homosexuals, it is
committing the fallacy of composition: the behavior of some cannot serve as proof of-the
behavior of all homosexuals.
Errors of Attack
1. Poisoning the Well: A person is so committed to a position that he/she explains away
absolutely everything others offer in opposition. Example: Almost every proponent and
opponent on the ban on gays in the military commits this error.
2. Ad Hominem: A person rejects a claim on the basis of derogatory facts (real or alleged)
about the person making the claim. Example: Someone rejects President Clinton's reasons
for lifting the ban on gays in the military because of Mr. Clinton's draft record.
3. Appealing to Force: Someone uses threats to establish the validity of the claim.
Example: Opponents of year-round school threaten to keep their children out of school
during the summer months.
Errors of Weak Reference
1. Appeal to Authority: Authority is evoked as the last word on an issue. Example:
Someone uses the Bible as the basis for his arguments against specific school reform
issues.
2. Appeal to the People: Someone attempts to justify a claim on the basis of popularity.
Example: Opponents of year-round school claim that students would hate it.
3. Appeal to Emotion: An emotion-laden "sob" story is used as proof for a claim. Example:
A politician uses a sad story of a child being killed in a drive-by shooting to gain support
for a year-round school measure.
Bibliography
1. The Science of Modern Propaganda. http://www.propaganda101.com/ Last Visited: August, 2001.
2. Lee, Alfred McLung; Lee, Elizabeth Bryan. Propaganda Analysis. http://carmen.artsci.washington.edu/ (subdirectory). Last Visited:
August, 2001.
3. Dorje, Carl. Propaganda Techniques. http://serendipity.magnet.ch/more/propagan.html Last Visited: August, 2001.
4. http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/404.htm