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QUICK REFERENCE
Important Terms
antinode
a point of constructive interference and maximum reinforcement in a standing
wave
beat
variations in the loudness of sounds due to the slight difference in frequency of
interfering waves
closed pipe resonator
a pipe closed at one end and a sound source at the other, causing the sound to
resonate
constructive interference
addition of two or more waves which are in phase, resulting in a wave of
increased amplitude
destructive interference
addition of two or more waves which are out of phase resulting in a wave of
decreased amplitude
diffraction
the spreading of a wave beyond the edge of a barrier or through an opening
harmonics
the combination of several simultaneous frequencies that produce a distinct
standing wave pattern
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in phase
term applied to two or more waves whose crests and troughs arrive at a place at
the same time in such a way as to produce constructive interference
interference of waves
displacements of two or more waves in the same medium at the same time
producing either larger or smaller waves
node
the point of no displacement in a standing wave
out of phase
term applied to two or more waves for which the crest of one wave arrives at a
point at the same time as the trough of a second wave arrives, producing
destructive interference
overtone
a resonance condition (standing wave) which is above the fundamental
principle of superposition
the displacement due to two or more interfering waves is equal to the sum of the
displacement of the individual waves
standing wave
wave with stationary nodes produced by two identical waves traveling in opposite
directions in the same medium at the same time
f n n
f n n
D
v
n 1,2,3,4,... (vibrating string and open tube)
2L
v
n 1,3,5,... (closed tube)
4L
where
= the angle of spread of a wave after passing through a single slit opening
= wavelength
fn = the nth frequency in a series of resonant frequencies
v = speed of the wave
L = length
D = width of an opening through which a wave will diffract
189
190
17.3 Diffraction
As a wave passes through an opening, the middle of the wave is unhindered, but the
outside edges drag on the sides of the opening, momentarily slowing those points on the
wave down. Thus, the sides of the wave lag behind the center of the wave, and a circular
wave pattern is produced as the wave exits the opening. The bending of a wave through
an opening or around a barrier is called diffraction.
Waves
Intensity
1st min
Central max
1st min
Notice that if the wavelength is small compared to the size of the opening, the diffraction
angle is small, and we may not notice much diffraction, that is, the wave will pass
through the opening unhindered.
Example 1
Sound is passed through a tall narrow doorway (width D = 1.0 m) in a wall on a stage in
an auditorium. A singer stands behind the doorway and sings a high-C pitch (f = 512 Hz).
(a) What is the wavelength of the high-C pitch?
191
Your friend really enjoys listening to this particular singer, but you do not. Your friend
sits directly in from of the doorway at a distance L = 15 m.
Intensity
Waves
y
D
How far (y) away from your friend should you sit in order to hear the least intense sound
waves from the singer?
Solution
v
343 m / s
y
, and sin . So,
D
L
L
D
L 0.67 m 15 m
y
10 m
D
1.0 m
Another type of standing wave is produced when waves are passed through two openings,
called a double-slit, and an interference pattern results. The semi-circular wave patterns
which emerge from the slits interfere with each other, creating nodes and antinodes. We
will return to double-slit diffraction patterns in chapter 27.
192
If we continue to send regular waves down the rope and they continue to reflect off the
wall, the incident and reflected waves will reinforce each other in some places and cancel
each other in other places. The result is a series of antinodes (loops) where constructive
interference is occurring, and nodes (points of no displacement between the loops) where
destructive interference is occurring, and we call the pattern produced a standing wave.
L
The pattern above, called a harmonic or overtone, shows three antinodes (loops), and
occupies
3
of a wavelength.
2
Example 2
A string is attached to a vibrating machine which has a frequency of 120 Hz. The other
end of the string is passed over a pulley of negligible mass and friction and is attached to
a weight hanger which holds a mass m = 0.5 kg.
FT
, where FT is the tension in the string and is the linear density of the string. If
the linear density of this string is 0.05 kg/m, determine the speed of the wave in the
string.
193
(b) v
FT
5N
100 m / s
0.05 kg / m
100 m / s
1st Harmonic
Fundamental Overtone
2nd Harmonic
1st Overtone
A standing wave pattern is set up in the open pipe, having a series of nodes and
antinodes. Note that there is an antinode at either end of the pipe. When a standing sound
wave fits inside the pipe this way, we hear a louder pitch than when the sound does not fit
inside the pipe. We say that the sound is resonating inside the pipe.
Note that in the first harmonic of the open pipe, of a wavelength just fits inside the
length of the pipe. In the 2nd harmonic, one full wavelength just fits inside the pipe.
194
1st Harmonic
Fundamental Overtone
3rd Harmonic
1st Overtone
5th Harmonic
2nd Overtone
A closed pipe is one in which one end of the pipe (bottom) is closed and the other end is
open (top). If we send a sound wave into the pipe and let it reflect off of the closed end, it
will return to the top of the pipe, as shown in the figures above. This results in an
antinode at the top open end of the pipe, and a node at the bottom closed end. Again,
when a standing sound wave fits inside the pipe this way, we hear a louder pitch
(resonance) than when the sound does not fit inside the pipe.
Note that in the 1st harmonic of the closed pipe, of a wavelength just fits inside the
length of the pipe, wavelength for the 3rd harmonic, and 5/4 of a wavelength for the 5th
harmonic. The harmonics are named after each quarter-wavelength that fits in the pipe as
the sound resonates.
If we know the frequency of the sound waves and the length of the pipe, we can find their
wavelength and then their speed by v = f. The relationships among all these quantities in
a resonating pipe are illustrated in the review questions that follow.
195
(A)
P
(A)
(B)
(B)
P
(C)
P
(C)
(D)
P
(D)
(E)
(E)
196
4. Diffraction
(A) is the bending of a wave when it
changes media
(B) is the reflection of a wave off of a
barrier
(C) is the combining of two identical
waves moving in the same medium
(D) is the bending of a wave around an
obstacle or through an opening
(E) only produces constructive
interference
8.
1st Harmonic
Fundamental Overtone
1.5 m
197
2nd Harmonic
1st Overtone
A sound wave resonates inside an open pipe filled with air at room temperature, as shown
above. The length of the pipe is 33 cm.
(a) Determine the wavelength of the resonating sound wave.
(b) Determine the frequency of the tuning fork.
(c) Determine the next higher frequency that will resonate in a pipe of this length.
1st Harmonic
Fundamental Overtone
(d) If the open pipe is replaced with a pipe which is closed at one end, what would have
to be the length of the closed pipe for the original tuning fork to resonate at its
fundamental frequency?
198
199
v 343 m / s
1029 Hz
0.33m
(c) 3 points
The next higher frequency would correspond
to two wavelengths in the pipe. Thus, L = 2,
and = L = 16.5 cm. The speed of sound
is 343 m/s, so the next higher frequency is
f
343 m / s
v
2058 Hz
0.165 m
1
1
33 cm 8.25 cm
4
4
200