Alauddin Thesis 1996 PERFORMANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A BIOMASS GASIFIER System PDF

PERFORMANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A BIOMASS GASIFIER
SYSTEM
A Thesis submitted to the University of Wales, College of Cardiff

for the degree of
Doctor of philosophy
by
Zainal Alimuddin Zainal Alauddin
B.Sc.(Leeds), MSc.(UMIST)
Division of Mechanical Engineering and Energy Studies

School of Engineering
University of Wales, College of Cardiff
Cardiff,
February 1996
DECLARATION
This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not
being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree
(candidate)
Signed
Date
STATEMENT 1
This thesis is the result of my own investigation, except where otherwise stated.
Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A
bibliography is appended.
Signed
AiktvAil
Date ,Ig )- .
(candidate)
ea
STATEMENT 2
I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and
for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside
organisations
Signed
Date 2i 2 . 91.0
(candidate)
IN THE NAME OF THE GOD, THE MOST GRACIOUS AND THE MOST
MERCIFUL
DEDICATED TO MY LATE FATHER

ZAINAL ALAUDDIN
TO MY DEAREST MOTHER
HAJJAH FATIMAH SHAM
TO MY LOVING WIFE
NOR'IN
AND TO MY CHILDREN
SIT! MARYAM
SIT! SARAH
ZAINAL ARIFUDDIN
SITI ASIYAH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
iv
LIST OF TABLES
ix
NOMENCLATURE
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xiii
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 BIOMASS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
1.3 BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS
1.31 Direct combustion process
1.32 Biological conversion process
1.33 Thermochemical conversion process
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH
AND THESIS OUTLINE
2 BIOMASS GASIFICATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
15
2.2 TYPES OF GASIFICATION PROCESS
16
2.21 Pyrolysis gasification
17
2.22 Air gasification
17
2.23 Oxygen gasification
17
2.24 Hydrogasification
18
2.25 Steam gasification
18
2.3 CHEMISTRY OF GASIFICATION
18
2.31 Global gasification reaction
18
2.32 Thermochemical phase reactions
20
2.33 Air-fuel ratio for theoretical gasification process
24
2.34 Equivalent ratio
25
2.4 PARAMETERS GOVERNING BIOMASS GASIFICATION

2.41 Fuel specification
26
27
2.411 Size and shape
27
2.412 Heating value
28
2.413 Moisture content
29
2.414 Ash content
30
2.415 Proximate and Ultimate analysis
30
2.416 Fuel value index
32
2.42 Gasifier specification
32
2.43 Product specification
34
3. BIOMASS GASIFIER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
37
3.2 TYPE OF GASIFIERS
37
3.21 Fixed-bed gasifiers
37
3.211 Updraft gasifiers
38
3.212 Downdraft gasifiers
38
3.213 Crossdraft gasifiers
39
3.214 Suspension gasifiers
40
3.22 Fluidised-bed gasifiers
40
3.3 APPLICATION OF GASIFIERS
41
3.31 Power gasifiers
41
3.32 Heat gasifiers
42
3.4 REVIEW OF GASIFIER DESIGNS
42
3.41 Buck Rogers commercial downdraft gasifier
43
3.42 Research of Groeneveld and Van Swaaij
44
3.43 Design of Hoi,WK
45
3.44 Combustor and gasifier-combustor design
46
3.45 Stratified downdraft gasifier
48
3.46 Ferrocement open core gasifier
49
4.
3.47 ND-900 gasifier
50
3.48 Multi-stage reactors for the thermal gasification of wood
51
3.49 The Cemagref process
52
3.5 CONCLUDING REMARK
53
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF GASIFIER

4.1 INTRODUCTION
68
4.2 TYPES OF MODELS
69
4.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON MATHEMATICAL
70
MODELLING OF GASIFIERS
4.4 MODELLING OF THE GASIFIER-THE EQUILIBRIUM
72
MODEL
5.
EXPERIMENTAL RIG AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
78
5.2 DESIGN OF A UWCC GASIFIER
78
5.21 Salient features of the UWCC gasifier
78
5.22 The cone structure
79
5.23 Air supply into the gasifier
80
5.24 Feeding system
81
5.25 Ash removing system
82
5.26 Gas extraction and swirl burner/furnace system
82
5.3 GAS ANALYSIS
84
5.31 Gas sampling train
84
5.32 Gas chromatography
85
5.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
87
AND DATA ACQUISITION

5.5 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE OF THE GASIFIER
88
5.51 Set-up and running
88
5.52 Gas sampling
90
5.53 Problems encountered while running the gasifier
90
5.6 PROCEDURE FOR USING GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
93
6.
5.61 Start-up procedure
93
5.62 Calibration procedure
94
5.63 Calculation procedure
96
5.64 Problems encountered while using the gas chromatograph
96
POWER PRODUCTION AND ELECTRICITY GENERATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
112
6.2 GAS COOLING AND CLEANING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
113
6.21 Filter
114
6.22 Cyclone
115
6.23 Multitube cooler
115
6.231 Thermal balance for multitube cooler
116
6.24 Box and spiral inclined condensers
118
6.25 Oil bath filter
118
119
6.3 ENGINE
6.31 The use of producer gas in reciprocating engines
119
6.32 General problems associated with using
120
producer gas in engines

6.33 Theoretical air-fuel ratio
7.
121
6.331 Air-fuel ratio for natural gas
121
6.332 Air-fuel ratio for wood gas
122
6.34 Specification and description
123
6.35 Air-fuel mixture
124
6.36 Procedure for operating the engine
124
6.37 Combustion characteristics of wood gas in engines
126
6.38 Experiences obtained in running the DCSI gas engines
127
6.39 Generator and electrical load
129
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE PROFILES INSIDE
THE GASIFIER
144
145
7.21 Effect on different biomass material
148
7.22 Effect of different air supply
150
7.23 Effect of bridging inside the gasifier
151
7.24 Temperature profile at the neck of the cone.
152
7.25 Effect of reloading
153
7.26 Effect of increasing the number of air supply nozzles and
154
the size of the reduction zone

7.3 PERFORMANCE OF THE BIOMASS GASIFIER
155
7.31 Gas composition
157
7.32 Calorific value
159
7.33 Output wood gas flow rate
159
7.34 Thermal output and the cold gas efficiency
160
7.35 Mass conversion efficiency
161
161
7.37 Quality of wood gas for different biomass materials
162
7.38 Quality of wood gas during reloading and long running
162
7.39 Effect on the reduction zone size and the increase
164
in the number of the air supply nozzle

7.40 Emission from the gasifier
7.4 PERFORMANCE OF THE GAS CLEAN UP SYSTEM
164
166
7.41 Vertical filter and the cyclone
164
167
7.43 Box condenser
168
7.44 Spiral condenser
168
7.45 Water vapour condensed in the cooling system
168
7.46 Tar and particulates content in the wood gas
169
7.5 PERFORMANCE OF THE ENGINE/ELECTRICAL LOAD
171
7.51 Tar and particulates in the engine
171
7.52 Emission of oxides of nitrogen from the engine
173
7.53 Air fuel ratio
173
7.54 Efficiency of the engine / generator system
174
7.55 Overall efficiency and the consumption of the
175
biomass gasifier system

7.6 ENTHALPY BALANCE OF THE GASIFIER
176
7.61 Total enthalpy input into the gasifier
176
7.62 Total enthalpy output from the gasifier
177
7.63 Cold gas efficiency and power output of the gasifier
178
7.64 Mass balance for the gasifier
178
7.7 MODELLING OF THE GAS COMPOSITION
180
IN THE GASIFIER
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE

WORK
8.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GASIFIER
222
8.2 PERFORMANCE OF THE COOLING
224
AND CLEANING SYSTEM

8.3 PERFORMANCE OF THE ENGINE,
224
GENERATOR AND ELECTRICAL LOAD

8.4 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE WORK
225
8.41 Gasifier
225
8.42 Cooling and cleaning system
226
8.43 Engine and generator
227
8.5 FURTHER WORK ON BIOMASS GASIFICATION
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A COMPUTER PROGRAMME TO DETERMINE THE GAS
COMPOSITION INSIDE THE GASIFIER BASED ON
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
B SPECIFICATIONS AND DESCRIPTION OF GAS
CHROMATOGRAPH
C COMPUTER PROGRAMME TO DETERMINE
THE TEMPERATURE DROP ALONG THE
227
228
MULTITUBE COOLER
D
SUMMARY OF THE RUNS CONDUCTED ON THE BIOMASS

GASIFIER SYSTEM
DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR SELECTED RUNS
F GAS CHROMATOGRAPH OUTPUT FOR RUNS 43 AND 45

G
GAS ANALYSIS CALCULATIONS FOR SELECTED RUN
PERFORMANCE TABLE FOR SELECTED RUNS
J PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DROPS IN THE COOLING

SYSTEM / FLOW RATE OF AIR AND WOOD GAS
INTO THE ENGINE
K
ENTHALPY AND MASS BALANCE FOR THE GASIFIER
i
ABSTRACT
The utilisation of biomass is a very important source of energy in many parts of the
world, especially for areas remote from supplies of high quality fossil fuels such as
Natural Gas, LPG, Gas Oil, etc. For small installations producing less than 1.5 MW
thermal, coal is not a popular fuel owing to its high sulphur content (typically 0.5 to
2 % ) and the resulting necessity for expensive removal of SO 2 from the stack.
Biomass gasification treats the solid feed material in a reactor such that virtually all
33
of it is converted into fuel gas of typically 3-5 MJ/Nm (Natural Gas is 34 MJ/Nm )
with most of the energy being available from H2 and CO. After cleaning, this gas can
be used to run small reciprocating engines, boilers, process heaters, etc.
There are however many problems with such unit of producing a uniform flow of gas
of near constant calorific value. This varies primarily from the batch feed system,
whereby material is added based on time and use. This gives rise to a very low cost
system, but produces the above mentioned problems.
The study is thus involved in evolving an air blown downdraft gasifier and
characterising the process and determining the output, viz., gas calorific value and
the flow rate. Application of the producer gas on a 20 kW reciprocating engine was
studied with an attached electrical generator producing 12 kWe. Particular attention
was taken on the cooling and cleaning system to provide the condition and quality of
producer gas for such application.
The performance and characteristics of the gasifier in terms of the gas composition,
the calorific value, the cold gas and the mass conversion efficiencies were found to
be comparable to other workers. Unique measurements are reported concerning
dynamic temperature and gas compositions through an operating cycle, and
conclusions drawn as to how stable and consistent operation can be achieved.
Calorific values in the range of 5-6 MJ/m 3 with an average cold gas and mass
conversion efficiencies of 72% and 84% were obtained respectively for the gasifier.
ii
The gasified products contained tar of 0.09% of the feedstock. This amount being
typical for a gasifier operating on the downdraft mode.
The performance and characteristics of the cooling and cleaning system were
identified and found to be effective in condensing the water vapour in the gasified
product, this being typically 8-10% of the feedstock. The amount of tar trapped in
the cooling and cleaning system, especially the oil bath filter, was about 78% of the
total evolved. The particulates trapped in the cyclone was 0.0125% of the total feed.
The exit temperature from the cooling system was about 40C and the pressure drop
in the system was 3.5 kPa.
The overall efficiency of the biomass gasifier/engine system was 11.15% which was
low compared to results obtained by other researchers (15-20%) due to improper
matching of the engine/generator system and limitations of the electrical power
absorbing device (convector heaters). The average consumption of the biomass
material was 1.98 kg/kWh which was slightly higher than those obtained by other
researchers (0.8-1 kg/kWh).
The thesis has identified many of the major problems in generating electricity via a
reciprocating engine/biomass gasifier system and made conclusions as to how
progress towards commercial long life systems can be achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise to God who has made it possible for me to undertake this research work.
I am grateful to my supervisor, Professor Nick Syred for his invaluable guidance and
advice during this research work and from whom I have learned enormously. It has
been a great pleasure for me to work under the supervision of an experience person
widely respected in the field of combustion. I hope this relationship will not end
here.
I would like to thank Dr. Tony Griffiths and Dr. Tim O'Dorherty for their advice
during the research work and to Mrs. Diana Price and Mrs Gill Phillips for their help
in many clerical matters.
I would like to express my special thanks to the technical staff who have been
immensely helpful in getting the research done. Especially Mr. Phil Lewis, Mr. Alan
Griffiths, Mr. Malcomb Seaborn, Mr. Paul Malpas, Mr. Mike Arentsen, and the rest
of the technical staff whom I have regarded as friends and will constantly be in my
memories.
I would also like to thank the Universiti Sains Malaysia and the Public Services
Department Malaysia for their financial support for my studies.
Last but by no mean the least, I sincerely thank my wife, Nor'in, for her patience,
understanding and encouragement during the tense period of the study and to my
children for bringing much joy and happiness constantly. Finally I would like to
thank my mother for her constant prayer.
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Various forms of energy used in the developed and

underdeveloped countries of the world
Figure 1.1a
Contribution of biomass to the world energy use
Figure 1.1b
Contribution of biomass to the energy use in the developed

countries
Figure 1.1c
Contribution of biomass to the energy use in the developing

countries
Figure 1.2
Global energy distribution and the world's population in the

developed and underdeveloped countries
Figure 1.2a
Global energy distribution of 6862 Mtoe
Figure 1.2b
Population distribution in the world
Figure 2.1
Types of gasification process
Figure 2.2a
Picture showing the different size and shapes of furniture

wood used in the present study
Figure 2.2b
Picture showing wood chips used in the present study
Figure 3.1
Type of fixed bed gasifiers
Figure 3.1a
Updraft gasifier
Figure 3.1b
Downdraft gasifier
Figure 3.1c
Crossdraft gasifier
Figure 3.2
Fluidised bed gasifier
Figure 3.3
Schematic diagram of types of gasifier application in power

and heat generation
Figure 3.4
Buck Rogers gasifier
Figure 3.5
Groeneveld downdraft gasifier with a central tuyere air supply
Figure 3.6
Gasifier design of Hoi W. K (1989)
Figure 3.7
Stickwood combustor-Lyndale International Inc.
Figure 3.8
Stockwood combustion for heating water- Dumont Industries
Figure 3.9
Inclined wood chip updraft gasifier for boiler retrofitting-
Forest Fuel
Figure 3.10
Updraft gasifier and close-coupled cyclonic combustor- Payne
Figure 3.11
Stratified downdraft gasifier
Figure 3.12
Rice husk open core gasifier
Figure 3.13
ND updraft gasifier
Figure 3.14
Two stage throatless downdraft gasifier
Figure 3.15
Cemagraf gasifier
Figure 4.1
Flow chart to solve the equations for gas composition of the

producer gas
Figure 5.1
Picture and design of the UWCC gasifier
Figure 5.1a
Picture of the UWCC Gasifier
Figure 5.1b
Detail drawing of the gasifier
Figure 5.1c
Assembly drawing of the gasifier
Figure 5.2
Cone assembly
Figure 5.3
Design and pictures of the air supply nozzles used in the study
Figure 5.3a
Air supply nozzle drawing
Figure 5.3b
Air supply with 4 nozzles
Figure 5.3c
Air supply with 8 nozzles
Figure 5.4
Alternative air supply plenum fitted to the cone
Figure 5.5
Hopper and loading chamber assembly
Figure 5.6
Swirl burner showing the ejector and the gasifier
Figure 5.7
Gas sampling train
Figure 5.8
Picture of gas chromatograph
Figure 5.9
Position of the thermocouples in the gasifier and temperature

data acquisition system
Figure 5.10
Position of another thermocouple at the neck of the cone
Figure 6.1
Schematic diagram of a cooling and cleaning system
Figure 6.2a
Picture showing a filter (on the left) and a cyclone
Figure 6.2b
Schematic diagram of the cyclone
Figure 6.3
Picture showing a multitube condenser
Figure 6.4
Design of multitube condenser
Figure 6.5
Elemental volume of the condenser tube
vi
Figure 6.6
Computer flow chart for determining the temperature drop

along a cooler
Figure 6.7
Temperature of the wood gas against the distance along the

condenser tube
Figure 6.8
Schematic diagram of a box condenser
Figure 6.9
Picture of a spiral condenser with an auger
Figure 6.10
Schematic diagram of an oil bath air filter
Figure 6.11
Picture of the Lister engine
Figure 6.12
Schematic diagram of the system showing the relevant valves

used for regulating the wood gas, air and the natural gas
Figure 6.13
Picture of the heaters connected to the generator
Figure 6.14
Schematic diagram of the electrical circuit to vary the

electrical load on the heaters
Figure 7.1
Dynamic temperature profiles for run 39 using 30 kg of

furniture wood with an air supply of 450 litres/min
Figure 7.2
Dynamic temperature profiles showing the effect of using

larger pieces of furniture wood on the combustion zone
temperature profile wood (run 3)
Figure 7.3
High reduction temperature profiles of about 850C with using

furniture wood and an air supply of 500 litres/min (run 51)
Figure 7.4
Effect of moisture content on drying time
Figure 7.5
Dynamic temperature profiles using 20kg wood chips with an

air supply of 400 litres/min (run 10)
Figure 7.6
Dynamic temperature profiles using 20 kg of furniture wood

with an air supply of 400 litres/min (run 29)
Figure 7.7
Temperature profiles with an inlet air flow rate of 400

litres/min and 20 kg of wood chips (run 12)
Figure 7.8

litres/min and 20 kg of wood chips (run 13)
Figure 7.9

litres/min and 20 kg of wood chips(run 15)
Figure 7.10
vii
litres/min and 20 kg of wood chips(run 16)
Figure 7.11
Temperature profile of the combustion zone showing bridging

occurring at two places during the run with 30 kg of wood
chips and an air supply of 600 litres/min
Figure 7.12
Temperature profiles with additional thermocouple at the neck

of the cone to measure a second reduction zone temperature
(run 31)
Figure 7.13
Temperature profiles with reloading of wood chips after 55

minutes from start-up (run17)
Figure 7.14
Temperature profiles with reloading of furniture wood after

105 minutes from start-up (43)
Figure 7.15
High reduction zone temperature profiles with modified air

supply nozzles at 75 mm above the neck of the cone, using 27
kg of furniture wood and an air supply of 450 litres/min (run
50)
Figure 7.16
Temperature profiles for the modified air supply nozzles (8

nozzles) and increased reduction zone size using 24 kg wood
chips with an supply of 400 litres/min with an increased ( run
56)
Figure 7.17
Temperature profiles for the modified air supply nozzles (8

nozzles) and increased reduction zone size using 29 kg of
furniture wood with an supply of 400 litres/min with an
increased ( run 57)
Figure 7.18
NO and NOx emission from the gasifier (run 46)
Figure 7.19
N20 emission from the gasifier (run 46)
Figure 7.20
NO and NOx emission from the engine (run 46)
Figure 7.21
Diagram of energy balance for the gasifier
Figure 7.22
Effect of moisture content on gas composition using an

equilibrium model for a reduction zone temperature of 800C
Figure 7.23
Effect of moisture content on the calorific value (reduction

zone 800C)
viii
Figure 7.24
Effect of wood gas concentration on the reduction zone

temperature
Figure 7.25
Effect of calorific value of the wood gas on the reduction

zone temperature
Figure E.1-E28
Temperature profiles of selected runs with comments
Figure F.1-F.36
Gas chromatograph output for runs 43 and 45
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1
Earth-based world power sources and possible practical

expectations.
Table 1.2
Renewable energy sources in the UK
Table 3.1
Summary of the type of gasifiers with their advantages and

disadvantages
Table 5.1
Retention times of various component gases of the producer gas
Table 5.2
Typical composition of the producer gas
Table 5.3
Calorific value of component gases in the producer gas
Table 6.1
Amount of air required per mole of the wood gas
Table 6.2
Amount of air required per kg of the wood gas
Table 6.3
Specification of the engine used in the experiment
Table 6.4
Specification of the generator used in the experiment
Table 7.1
Average gas compositions for selected runs
Table 7.2
Average performance of the gasifier for selected runs
Table 7.2a
Comparison of calorific values and cold gas efficiency with other

worker
Table 7.2b
Comparison of gas compositions and calorific value for different

biomass materials
Table 7.3
Flow rate of wood gas from the gasifier
Table 7.4
Performance table for run 43
Table 7.5
Table 7.6
Table 7.7
Table 7.8
Water vapour condensation in the cooling system for selected runs
Table 7.9
Pressure and temperature drop in the cooling system
Table 7.10
Water content in the wood gas for selected runs
Table 7.11
Amount of tar collected for selected runs
Table 7.12
Amount of particulate collected in the cyclone for selected runs
Table 7.13
Flow rate of wood gas and air into the engine
Table 7.14
Overall performance of the biomass gasifier system
x
Table 7.15
Relevant information for run 43
Table 7.16
Summary of the energy balance of the gasifier
Table 7.17
Summary of the mass balance of the gasifier
Table 7.18
Effect of moisture content on gas composition using the

equilibrium model for reduction zone temperature of 800C
Table 7.19
Comparison of computer predicted values and the experimental

value of run 43
Table D.1
Summary of the runs conducted on the biomass gasifier system
Table G.1-C13
Gas analysis calculations for selected run
Table H.1-H.19
Performance table for selected runs
Table J.1-J.7
Pressure and temperature drops in the cooling system / flow rate of

air and wood gas into the engine
xi
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols
Definition
Units
hp
Heat of pyrolysis
kJ
Ts
Surface temperature of biomass
All
Heat of formation
kJ/mole
Equilibrium constant
Tigasification
Gasification temperature
Pressure
kPa
A/F
Air fuel ratio
FVI
Fuel wood value index
HHV
High heating value
MJ/m3 or MJ/kg
LHV
Low heating value
MJ/m3 or MJ/kg
Mass of water per kilogram of feed
MC
Moisture content
Latent heat of vaporisation
kJ/kg
Mineral content
TR
Turndown ratio
Cold gas efficiency
Molar concentration of gasified product
Molar concentration of water in the
biomass
m
Molar concentration of air
Hf
Heat of formation
kJ/kmole
VP
Pressure drop in the packed bed
kPa
Dp
Mean particle diameter of biomass
material
11 Viscosity of air
kg/ms
Void fraction in the packed bed
Velocity of air
Permeability
m/s
m2
C 2
Initial resistance factor
-1
xii
aP/ax
Pressure drop per unit length
kPa/m
Height of air nozzle above the throat
Dt
Diameter of the throat
Swirl number (nDiDo/4AT)
Di
Diameter of swirl burner inlet
Do
Diameter of swirl burner outlet
AT
Cross section of tangential air supply
III
mg
c P
Mass flow rate of gasified product
kg/s
Specific heat capacity
kJ/kg K
Tmg
Mean temperature of gasified product
Tm,,
Mean temperature of wall
hi
Convective heat transfer coefficient
kJ/rnK
Thermal conductivity of gasified product
kJ/m2K
Ax
Elemental length
lIl
Nu
Nusselt number (hiL i /k)
Re
Reynolds number (ud/v)
Pr
Prandtl
Stefan Boltzmann constant
Emmissity
Gr
Grashof number (g.13.AT.L1/v2)
Reciprocal of mean temperature
K-1
Fw
Mass flow rate of water vapour in air
kg/s
Universal gas constant
kJ/kmole K
AT
Temperature difference
L 1 Length
W/m2K-4
111
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
UWCC
The University of Wales, College of Cardiff
toe
Tonne of oil equivalent
Mtoe
Million of tonne of oil equivalent
rdf
Refuse derived fuel
DCSI
Diesel converted spark ignition
TDC
Top dead centre
BTDC
Bottom top dead centre
Chapter 1 General Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
There is an increasing awareness of energy conservation and the concern over the
depletion of fossil fuels in the near future. Present energy resources such as coal, oil
and gas are being used at an accelerating rate with fear of depletion in the next
century, although coal might be an exception. Apart from this fear there is also an
increasing awareness about environmental pollution and ways of minimising the
effect.
In 1992 the United Nations conference on global environment was held in Rio de
Janeiro to the discuss the issue on energy and the environment. Price (1995) reported
that within the near future about 50 years, the use of fossil fuels as well as nuclear
fission will be in decline. It was estimated that oil will reach its maximum rate of
consumption in 1990s, natural gas in 2020 and uranium for nuclear fission by 2060.
This would probably mean that the average unit costs of fuels are likely to rise
significantly and new sources of energy will probably be needed if the present
quality of life is to be sustained.
As an alternative, other sources of energy are being considered and intensive

research and developments are being conducted to ensure their viability. There are
nine general sources of energy on Earth. They are: solar, biomass, wind, wave,
hydro, tidal, geothermal, nuclear and fossil. Each of the above has its advantages and
disadvantages. Table 1.1 shows the approximate amount of energy available in the
world and the limitations associated with it.
Sources of energy such as solar, biomass, wind, wave, hydro, tidal and geothermal
are generally called renewable sources of energy because they are not depleted in

time. One of the most promising renewable sources of energy is the energy from
biomass.
1.2 BIOMASS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
Biomass has been used as a source of energy for thousands of years. It is defined as
an organic substance or any material derived from growing organisms such as
agricultural residues, manure, wood and bark mill residues, logging residues, noncommercial trees in the forest and organic fraction of the municipal solid wastes.
There are three major options for using energy from biomass. These are:
a) The use of waste material not competed for by other uses.
b) Large scale growing of energy crops including the development of short rotation
forestry plantations. The contributions from these are much more speculative, but the
upper limit can be established from land areas that could be made available for crop
growing.
c)Integration of biomass production at a smaller scale with industrial and urban

waste disposal.
Although one could argue that fossil fuels are essentially geological biomass that
have perished and metamorphosed to form coal and oil, the type that is of concern is
the present organic materials. Biomass waste has one major advantage over the other
renewables that is if not used as a source of energy or recycled material, it itself
becomes a pollutant.
With the knowledge of the various forms of energy currently being employed in the
world it is important to see where and how biomass energy, or for that matter any
renewable energy, can complement the fossil fuel in matching the world demand for
energy. Figures 1.1 shows various forms of energy being used in developed and
developing countries of the world (Hall, 1992). The figure 1.1a shows that

biomass energy contribute only about 5% of the energy need of the world compared
to fossil fuels being about 80%. Figures 1.1b and 1.1c show that the amount of
biomass used as a form of energy in the developing countries far exceeds the
developed the countries by a factor of about 10. This is obvious because of the
intense industrialisation in the developed countries. Furthermore most of the biomass
material are found in the developing countries in Africa and Asia whose main
sources of revenue are agriculture, timber logging, animal rearing, etc. where
biomass is the main by product. The first impression is that biomass energy would be
most viable form of energy in the developing countries. However in recent years the
developed countries in Europe in particular have promoted the importance of
biomass energy. Hence biomass energy not only is essential in the developing
countries but has also aroused great interest in Europe. Among the European
countries, Sweden has continued to invest in the biomass energy program as a
renewable energy source. The difficulties faced during the Second World War has
always been a constant reminder to the Swedes and should also be for most countries
in the world whose prime dependence is on imported fossil fuel.
The knowledge of the present world energy utilisation in relation to the world's
population is essential if the potential of biomass energy production is to be realised
and this is shown in figure 1.2 (Williams, A 1995). Figures 1.2a and 1.2b show that
most of the energy produced in the world is consumed in the developed countries
which amounts to about 22 % of the world's population (Williams, A 1995). It is
assumed that the energy use per capita in the developed world is about an average of
about 5 toe and that for the developing countries is about 1 toe. Hence the price of
energy is very high in the developed countries. The use of alternative forms of
energy would be a solution to the growing demand of energy in the developed
countries and help limit the dependence on fossil fuel.
It is however appropriate at this juncture to emphasise conservation of energy.

Energy conserved is the energy available for other uses. Energy is widely wasted in
the world. It is therefore, imperative to educate people to be more energy conscious
and to treat conservation of energy as important as finding an alternative form of

energy. Many countries have already started programs to recycle waste materials.
Similarly the utilisation of waste material to form fuel sources is most welcome and
appreciated. Biomass materials constitute the greatest proportion of waste materials.
Biomass material does not only arise from wastes. Energy plantations have been a
subject of study by many researchers to form a continuous supply of energy. Suitable
crops that grow rapidly have been tested such as the Willow trees that are being used
and tested in the United Kingdom. Other similar fast growing crops are also being
studied such as the Euphorbia Characias (Ferreira, 1994). In the Netherlands, Poplar
and Miscanthus are the two most promising types of specifically grown biomass for
energy generation (Stassen, 1994). Miscanthus and other species such as Sorghum
are C4- crops characterised by high rates of carbon assimilation. Sims (1994)
comments that the greatest potential source of biomass fuels in New Zealand comes
from energy plantations of a specie known as Pinus radiata. Controversy over the use
of land for energy or for food has always been the issue which most of the time goes
in favour of the food growers. Furthermore the ever increasing population of the
world and the ever increasing number of mouths to feed is a fact that does not go
unnoticed.
It is unwise to say that biomass is "the energy" of the future, but rather to say that
biomass as an energy form together with other forms of renewable energy such solar,
wind, tidal, hydro, wave, etc. will compliment fossil fuels and subsequently be the
main forms of energy when the foreseeable depletion of fossil fuel becomes
imminent. In 1992 the Renewable Energy Advisory Board has made an estimation of
potential contributions of renewable energies by 2025 (Price, 1995). Table 1.2 shows
that the contribution of biomass as a renewable energy source has a very high
potential.
1.3 BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS
To obtain useful energy out of the biomass material it is necessary to convert it from
its present solid form into easily combustible material such as char, oil or gas.

However biomass materials in their solid natural form have been used for thousands
of years. Biomass material can be converted into useful energy through three
conversion processes. These are:
1. Direct combustion
2. Biological conversion
3. Thermochemical conversion
1.31 Direct combustion process
Direct combustion processes can be used for heating, cooking and for the production
of steam that is then used to generate electricity. In fact open fire cooking and
heating have been use for thousands of years since man discovered the benefits of
fire. The main fuels for this application are wood, wood waste after logging, straw,
etc. which are burned in stoves or open fires. Direct combustion is still a major
source of energy in the developing countries. There are estimated to be 1.8 billion
rural people in the developing countries of the world still using straw as their
domestic fuel source (Gao, 1989).
The present need of the third world countries is to use the biomass material in
particular wood more efficiently, otherwise they will face a shortage. The United
Nation's Food and Agriculture Organisation forecasts that there will be a shortfall
between supply and demand in 1995 amounting to the needs of 650 million people.
Supply cannot be increased but demand can be decreased. Mankind must solve this
problem by reducing the wasteful use of wood for cooking over open fires, or nature
will reduce the demand. At the heart of the problem is the intolerable waste of more
than 80% of the energy in the fuel wood because people follow the footsteps of our
ancestors and cook over open fires as they did thousands of years ago. If people
would change over to fuel efficient stove, the demand for fuel wood could be
reduced by up to 80% (La Fontaine 1985)
1.32 Biological conversion process
Biological conversion process involves transformation of biomass into storable

energy. This includes fermentation that takes place in the presence of an atmosphere
containing oxygen and which produces alcohol as an end product. Another biological
process is anaerobic digestion that requires an environment free of oxygen and which
has methane as an end product.
Gas obtained from anaerobic digestion of organic wastes or animal excreta is known
as biogas. The process of digestion of organic wastes for the production of
combustible gas is a century old technology, but since oil, wood, coal and other
combustible matter were then cheap, no attention was paid to the production of
biogas for use as a combustible gas for cooking and heating. Cow dung is an ideal
raw material for gas generation as it needs no pre-treatment or addition of any
chemicals, apart from water. It has the capability to adjust to favourable conditions
such as pH or temperature as the process is slightly exothermic. Biogas contains a
fair amount of combustible gas (50-60% methane) which has a heating value of
about 22.3 -23.4 MJ/m 3 , which is good for a domestic fuel. It is clean, smokeless and
environmentally benign fuel for combustion purposes. It will burn in a natural gas
burner with a light blue flame.
Anaerobic digestion of organic waste does have an immediate technical appeal with
an operating temperatures in the range of 30-37C. The only drawback of this
process is the very low rate of biogas generation. About 0.5 kg of gas is produced per
kg of slurry in a temperature range 25-37C per day (Au.! 1994). The rate of biogas
generation could also be increased by warming the slurry, but this is not
thermodynamically efficient. This is one reason for the unpopularity of biogas plants.

1.33 Thermochemical conversion process
In thermochemical conversion process, there are two processes that are used to
produce fuels from dry biomass. The first process is called Pyrolysis and is defined
as the decomposition of biomass material in the absence of air or oxygen at elevated
temperatures to yield a variety of energy rich products such as char, gas and oil. The
product mix depends on the temperature of the process. At low temperatures more
char are produced than gas or oil (Hatt, 1984).
Pyrolysis is the most fundamental process and is considered to occur in all

thermochemical conversion processes. Domestic and other refuse, straw and wood
have received most attention in this area, a moisture content much above 35-40 % is
detrimental to a favourable energy return. The heating value of the char ranges from
25.5-31.5 MJ/kg and oil from 23-30 MJ/kg. The uncondensed gas phase composition
varies considerably, depending on the process and heating rate. Typical energy
contents are 8 MJ/m3 (Slesser and Lewis, 1959).
The other process is called Gasification and is similar to Pyrolysis except that the
process occurs in limited presence of air or oxygen. The product is a low heating
value fuel gas containing mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Biomass has
limited value if it can only be used as a solid fuel for cooking and heating to produce
steam. The advantages of gas as a fuel over liquid or solid are that (1) gases burn
with a higher efficiency than solid or liquid forms; (2) they can be readily transported
in pipelines;(3) they have higher rate of heat release; (4) the rate of energy output is
easily controlled and adjustable;(5) less fouling of the heat exchange equipment
occurs; (6) very low particulate emissions occur;(7) less gaseous pollutants and (8)
gaseous fuels with good energy potential can be used for electrical power generation.
1.4 OBJECTIVES AND OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH WORK
A considerable quantity of research and development work were carried out in the
field of biomass gasification during the World War II as a means of providing an

alternative source of energy for the areas of the economy effected by the importation
of petroleum fuel. The interest in biomass gasification however faded when the
Second World War ended and normal life resumed.
Lately during 1980s, there was a resurgence of interest in this field as the
environmentalist constantly championed the cleaner, pollution free environment and
the use of renewable energy. This was the prime objective of the current research.
The objective of the current research was to evolve and characterise a high
performance gasifier based on experience from commercial and research gasifiers.
Extensive performance data including gas flows, heating value, effect of fuel type
and fuel characteristics were obtained. Complementary studies of gas cleaning
systems to remove residual particulate matter and tars were also made, followed by
extensive tests running a loaded spark ignition engine generating up to 9 kW of
electricity.
The theory and the chemistry of gasification are elaborated in Chapter 2 so as to

understand the phenomena of pyrolysis and gasification. Much work has been carried
out by chemists and chemical engineers to understand these phenomena. Various
types of gasification processes are discussed with emphasis on the gasifying agent
that acts as a catalyst for gasification process. Biomass properties affecting this
process are discussed.
Especially during the Second World war thousands of wood gasifiers were used to
provide fuel for motor vehicles, whilst with the energy price shock of the 1970's
attempts were made to use the technology for small scale electricity generation in
Asia and Africa. A review of this technology is made in Chapter 3, starting with a
description of various types of gasifier and their applications. Emphasis is placed on
specific design variations.
Beyond understanding the principles of biomass gasification and the types of

gasifier, there was a need to be able to predict the performance of a particular design.

Modelling of the downdraft gasifier is discussed in Chapter 4 specifically with
respect to the equilibrium thermodynamic modelling.
Chapter 5 discusses in detail the design of the UWCC gasifier and its salient features.
Since the gasifier was operated frequently, detailed operating procedures are
presented as a means of reference and as a safety measure whilst working with
hazardous element, namely the carbon monoxide produced as the main fuel
components.
One of the main areas of interest was to characterise the phenomena inside the
gasifier. Hence several thermocouples were placed at specific positions to record the
dynamic temperatures inside the gasifier. Another equally important phenomenon
was the quality of the gasified product of the gasifier. Hence large numbers of gas
samples are extracted via a sampling train and analysed to determine their
compositions and calorific values. Procedures and techniques are detailed in this
chapter.
The gasified product can be used in various applications. In this study the gasified
product was used to run a reciprocating engine that is coupled to a generator thereby
generating 3 phase electricity. Chapter 6 describes the cooling and cleaning system,
the engine and the generator for electricity generation. The engine design and
specification are crucial in ensuring reliable operation to produce an alternative
supply or complement existing electrical supplies.
The results and discussion of the experiments conducted occurs in Chapter 7. Results
are arranged and presented graphically and some tabulated for easy reference.
Operations of the gasifier, fuel gas clean up, reciprocating engine, generator and load
dissipation systems are also discussed and conclusions drawn as to future
developments
Finally in Chapter 8, the thesis concluded with prospects for biomass gasification
and recommendation for further work in this area.
Hydro
7%
Nuclear
5% Biomass
5%
Gas
Oil
35%
Figure 1.1a Contribution of biomass to the world energy use
Hydro
6%
Gas
23%
Nuclear
541lomass
3%
Oil
38%
Coal
25%
Figure 1.1b Contribution of biomass to the energy use in developed countries
Biomass
35%
Nuclear
1%
Hydro
6%
Oil
23%
Coal
28%
Figure 1.1c Contribution of biomass to the energy use in developing countries

Figure 1.1 Various forms of energy used in developed and developing countries of
the world
Developing
countries
15%
Developed
countries
85%
Figure 1.2a Global energy distribution of 6862 Mtoe
Developed
countries
Developing
countries
78%
2r/e
Figure 1.2b Population distribution in the world (5.3 billion)
Figure 1.2 Global energy distribution and the world's population in developed and
developing countries
Table 1.1. Earth-based world power sources and possible practical expectations
(present world requirement is about 2 x 10 13 W, perhaps rising to about
10 14 W)
Source
Maximum
Output
Comments
Regenerative sources
Photovoltaics
10 15 W
for total world land coverage: 7-10 %

conversion efficiency required: heavy
duty storage system and higher
conversion efficiency
Land coverage difficulties
Visual pollution
Biomass
9 x10 12 W
For total world land coverage:

Land coverage and harvesting provide
social problems
Wind power
1 x 10 15 W
For total world land coverage:

required: heavy duty storage system
Land coverage gives technical and social
problems - evident visual pollution
Wave power
uncertain
(<6 x 10 12 W)
useful for communities near the sea:

heaviest and most expensive of
engineering
Hydroelectric
uncertain
(<10 12 W)
restricted in global application
Tidal
<7 x 10 12 W
restricted to tidal regions
Geothermal
<3 x 10 13 W
restricted to specific areas
Nuclear
101D W for 10
years
No more than 1 K rise in environmental

temperature
problems of waste disposal and safety
Fossil fuels
109 W
small application for special, local uses:

pollution extraction essential
High density sources
Table 1.2: Renewable energy sources in the UK(TWh/yr.)

Contributions
Max. technical
Estimated
potential
contribution by 2025
Dry wastes
21-60
2-10
Wet wastes
3.5
1-2
Crops as fuel
66
55-60
Wind(on and offshore)
720
30-55
Tidal
50
15-20
Hydro
Wave
N/A
<0.4
Geothermal: hot-dry rock
60
Geothermal: aquifers
negligible
negligible
Photovoltaic
N/A
N/A
Photoconversion
75
N/A
Active solar
13
0.2-5
Passive solar
150
2-3
Chapter 2 Biomass Gasification 15
CHAPTER 2
BIOMASS GASIFICATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Gasification or more technically thermochemical conversion into gaseous products

from solid fuel has been researched since 1798 when it was first discovered in
England and France. The problems associated with using solid fuel had long been
realised. The development of gasification technology gave many advantages in that a
gas could be directly piped to consumers and its calorific value, flow rate etc. readily
controlled.
In the 18th century at the time of Industrial Revolution, coal was the main source of
fuel in Western Europe. Gasification of coal was therefore the subject of intense
activity and research. In 1850 "town gas" or gaseous fuel from coal gasification was
used to light most parts of London. This technology rapidly spread over virtually all
the industrialised world, such that by the 1920's it was very widely used both for
cooking, space heating and lighting. Sadly the discovery of low cost natural gas has
caused the demise of coal gasification. By 1980's most of the plants producing
manufactured town gas were closed down and replaced by the natural gas.
Interest in gasification process has since the 1980's been rekindled in three areas:
1) To provide a medium calorific value fuel gas which can be used, after clean up to
directly fire gas turbines, forming part of a very high efficiency, combined cycle heat
and power so as to provide fuel gas at high pressure for the gas turbine combustors.

Pressurised gasification process need to be used and the resulting plant is highly
complex. Coal is normally gasified and the system is exemplified by the Shell Plant
constructed at Buggenum in the Netherlands.
2) To provide Synthetic Natural Gas by gasification of coal. The work of British Gas
in this area is well known and a special design of fixed bed gasifier has been evolved
over many years in conjunction with the Lurgi Company in Germany.
3) Smaller scale gasification of biomass to provide fuel gas for a number of

processes including reciprocating engines for electricity production.
Gasification of biomass is a relatively recent innovation or technology. Work really

only started in the 1930's. Interest in biomass gasification began as a cheaper
alternative to coal gasification and was driven by World War II fuel shortages as an
alternative fuel for vehicles.
Whether gasification of coal or biomass, the principle of gasification needs to be

defined clearly. It is not sufficient to define gasification as the conversion of solid
fuel into gaseous one. The complete definition of gasification is the conversion of
solid fuel into combustible gases at elevated temperature with limited quantities of
gasifying agents such as oxygen, hydrogen or steam. Pressure effects, where
applicable need to be taken into account.
2.2 TYPES OF GASIFICATION PROCESS
Biomass by itself at ambient temperature will not gasify. However by using certain
gasifying agent, gasification can be promoted. The types of gasifying agents used

determine the types of gasification process. Figure 2.1 shows a classification of
various type of gasification processes.
2.21 Pyrolysis gasification
Historically pyrolysis processes have been operated primarily to produce char and oil
products, with some of the gas produced being burned to provide the heat for the
process. However some processes burn the oil and the char to recover their heat in
the form of higher yields of medium energy gas. The only gasifying agent in this
process is heat.
2.22 Air gasification
Air gasification is the most common, simple and the cheapest type of gasification
process. The gasifying agent for this process apart from heat is air. Air contains 79 %
by volume of Nitrogen which does not react with the biomass. Thus when using air
as the gasifying agent, the nitrogen dilutes the gas produced and hence lowers its
heating value to about 4-5 MJ/m3 . However the gas produced is suitable for
operation of boilers or engines but is too diluted to be efficiently transported in
pipelines over long distances.
2.23 Oxygen gasification
If oxygen is used as gasifying agent instead of air, a medium energy gas of about 8
MJ/m3 will be produced suitable for limited pipeline distribution. This gas can be
used for industrial process heat or as synthesis gas to make methanol, gasoline,
ammonia, methane or hydrogen.
1.24 Hydrogasification
Hydrogasification is a process when hydrogen is used as the gasifying agent

producing methane as the product. This process is also called methanation. Hydrogen
can be added to the system or generated in the reaction by the shift reaction between
carbon monoxide and steam.
2.25 Steam gasification
Steam is sometimes added with air as gasifying agent to increase the quality of the
gas produced and to reduce the high heat of reaction. The presence of small quantity
of steam helps in the production of methane. The steam is also generated from the
drying process of biomass.
2.3 CHEMISTRY OF BIOMASS GASIFICATION
2.31 Global gasification reaction
Biomass gasification can be viewed as a global reaction between the biomass and the
gasifying agent.
Consider wood as biomass having a chemical formula of
CHIA 00.6

based on single atom of carbon (Reed, 1985). This is sufficiently accurate since
66 00083
. 83 and Lignin which
wood is made up of Cellulose which has a formula of CH 1 . 66
has a formula of
CHL2300.38
The ideal gasification reaction with oxygen can be written as follow:
CHIA 00.6 + 0.2 02> CO + 0.7
H2
The above reaction is an endothermic reaction which requires heat to convert the
solid wood into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The wood can either be heated
externally or can easily be heated internally by partially burning the wood. An
additional amount of oxygen has to be supplied to provide the combustion heat for
the gasification reaction. The excess oxygen reacts with about a third of the carbon
monoxide and hydrogen ideally produced.(Reed, 1985). The above reaction becomes
the theoretical global gasification reaction given by
CH 14 00.6 + 0.450 2 --> 0.7C0 + 0.3CO 2 + 0.55H 2 +0.211 2 0
The above gasification reaction can be partly represented by a homogeneous

gasification reaction with the shift reaction being considered to be at equilibrium.
The Equilibrium constant of the shift reaction can be written as follows:
K=
PH2. PCO2
VH2. vco2
rco.19-120
VCO. VE120
0.55 x 0.3
0.7 x 0.2
= 1.1786
where v ii2 , vcoz,vco and VH20 are the mole fractions for hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and water vapour respectively obtained from equation 2.
From the table of equilibrium constants, the equilibrium temperature is 768.28C.

This indicates that the theoretical gasification temperature is
TI(gasification) =
768.28C
The temperature obtained is based on dry biomass material. Normally biomass

material is characterised by its moisture content. The higher the moisture content the
more the water-gas reaction occurs. The limit is about 36 % whereby the equivalent
saturation reaches 100 % and thereby reduces the reduction temperature to about
500C (Gumz, 1950). This reduces the combustible gases concentration and the
hence the calorific value. This is true for certain gasifiers in particular the downdraft
type. However fluidised gasifiers or updraft gasifiers can gasify biomass material
having moisture content up to about 60%.
2.32 Thermochemical phase reaction
Biomass actually goes through successive phases or processes which involves

drying, pyrolysis, oxidation and gasification. These reactions may be outlined as
follows.
1.
DRYING PROCESS
In this phase, the biomass is dried from the heat supplied through partial burning of
biomass.
(0
Wet biomass + heat = dry biomass + steam

2.
PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis or devolatilisation of biomass occurs at a temperature greater than 200C

producing char, gas and tar (vapour or liquid). The relative quantities of these
products and their exact composition depends strongly on the rate of pyrolysis. The
heat of pyrolysis hp is an important quantity for any engineering application of
pyrolysis including gasification. It is defined as the heat required to bring the
biomass surface to a temperature Ts somewhat above that required for pyrolysis in
order to drive the reaction at a reasonable rate. The pyrolysis products then leave the
biomass particle surface at a temperature T . The heat of pyrolysis is estimated to be
s
in the range of about 2150kJ/kg ( about 10 % of the heat of combustion).
In an ideal pyrolysis process the principle heat transfer mechanism is radiation.

However in a gasifier the principle heat transfer mechanism is not radiation but
rather conduction from the combustion process. As such the actual pyrolysis process
in a gasifier is known as flaming pyrolysis which is analogous to flaming
combustion but with a limited supply of oxygen. Not only is the heat of pyrolysis
important but so is the time required for the flaming pyrolysis process and the length
of the reaction zone.
The reaction associated with pyrolysis is thus as follows:
(ii) Dry biomass+heat=C(char)+CO+CO 2+H2+H2O+CH4CH m+tar
3.
OXIDATION OR COMBUSTION PROCESS
In this phase part of the char and the volatiles produced in the pyrolysis phase are
completely burned to provide the necessary heat for further pyrolysis and also for the

char gasification or reduction reactions. The product of the combustion are carbon
dioxide and water vapour. Nitrogen would appear on both sides of the equation when
air is used, but for simplicity it is omitted .
(iii)
c + 02 -> c02
(iv)
H2 + - l/2 ---> .112J
1 rl
TT ,..1
(v)
AH = -393.8 kJ / mole
All = -241.8 kJ / mole
AH = -283.8 kJ / mole
CO +- 02 02
2
The oxygen is supplied from air as the gasifying agent. In downdraft gasifiers the
pyrolysis products will have to pass through the combustion zone thereby cracking
the tar and thus lowering its content to about 0.1 % of the weight of the feedstock.
(vi)
Tar + 02 = CO + 112 + CO2 + H20
Sometimes this zone is also called the flaming pyrolysis zone. Flaming pyrolysis is a
combination of flaming combustion and pyrolysis occurring at the same time. The
phenomena of flaming pyrolysis can be demonstrated by the burning of a match
stick. When a match is ignited, the heat from the flame pyrolyses the wood below it.
The volatiles mix with air and are burnt in the flame. The flame travels along the
match stick pyrolysing the wood and burning the volatiles at the same time.
4.
REDUCTION OR GASIFICATION PROCESS
The char (carbon) undergoes reaction which liberate gases from the char. This is
sometimes known as char gasification or reduction phase. The following are the
reactions associated with char gasification.
The heterogeneous reaction of carbon with limited supply of oxygen or air results in
incomplete combustion of char as in equation (iii) to form carbon monoxide. This is
an exothermic reaction according to :
(vii) C + - O2 --> CO
AH = -110.6 kJ / mole
10
Similarly the product of combustion, carbon dioxide reacts with the char to form a
heterogeneous Bouduard reaction which is an endothermic reaction.
(viii) C + CO2 > 2C0
All = +172.6 kJ/mole
11
Another endothermic reaction is the heterogeneous water-gas reaction between the

char and the water vapour formed from the drying, pyrolysis or the tar cracking
processes.
(vii) C + H20 <-> CO -I- H2
AH = + 131.4 kJ / mole
12
The final heterogeneous reaction is the methane formation involving the char and the
hydrogen.
(x) C+ 2H2 > CH4
AH = -74.9kJ / mole
13
However the above reaction is unstable and the methane converts to form carbon
monoxide and hydrogen through a homogeneous reaction between the methane and
water vapour.
Chapter 2 Biomass Gasffication 24
(xi) CH4 + H20 > CO + 3112
AH = -201.9kJ / mole
14
The Buoduard and the water-gas reactions can be combined to form the shift reaction
(x) CO + 1120 > CO2 + 112
AH = -41.2kJ / mole
15
According to Reed and Levie (1984), the char gasification process in a downdraft
gasifier is incomplete; that is complete conversion of char to gases is mechanically
and thermodynamically impossible.
2.33 Air-fuel ratio for theoretical gasification processes
The air-fuel ratio is essential to determine the amount of air required to gasify a
known quantity of biomass material. This can be calculated from the Global
Chemical Reaction as follows:
CH1.400.6+ 0.4502 > 0.7C0 +0.3CO2+0.55H2+0.21120
16
The global reaction can be written in mass form by multiplying the molar fractions
of the biomass and the gases by their molecular masses. The above equation
becomes,
(23kg) CH1.4 00.6 +0.45(32kg)02 --> 0.7(28kg)C0
17
+0.3(44kg)CO2 + 0.6(2kg)H2 + (18kg)H20
This becomes
23011.40o.6+ 14.402 ---> 19.6C0 + 13.2CO2+ 1.2H2+ 18H20
18
For 1 kg of CH I A 00.6, the amount of 02 required is 0.626 kg. Therefore the amount
of air which is used as the gasifying agent per kg of biomass is given by
0.626 kg/0.233 = 2.687 kg
Therefore the gravimetric air-fuel ratio for theoretical gasification process is given by
( A/F )theoretical
"="
2.69
The volume of air required for theoretical gasification will be about
2.69/1.2 = 2.24 m 3/kg of biomass

The above air fuel ratio shows that for 1 kg of biomass material the amount of air
required is about 2.24 m3 . The value is regardless of the rate of biomass material
consumed and the flow rate of the air supplied. There is a balance whereby the
higher the flow rate of air supplied, the higher is the rate of biomass consumed.
However the higher the flow rate of air supplied, the higher is the rate of gasification
and hence the higher the flow rate and the rate of energy output of the producer gas.
2.34 Equivalence ratio
The amount of air required for complete combustion of the biomass material to form
carbon dioxide and water vapour can be represented by
C1-1 1. 400 . 6 +
1.05 02>CO2 0.7 H20
19

In mass form,
(23) CH1.4006+
. (32)1.05 02--->(44)CO2 + 0.7 (18)H20
20
The amount of oxygen required per kg of biomass material is 1.46 kg
Therefore the air -fuel ratio becomes 6.27 kg of air/ kg of biomass
or in terms of volume, 5.22 m 3/ kg of biomass
Hence for equivalent ratio (4)) of unity, the air-fuel ratio is 5.22 m 3/kg of biomass.
The equivalent ratio of a gasification process can therefore be determined from the
air-fuel ratio of the gasifier.
Similarly the equivalent ratio can also be determined from the number of moles of
oxygen used in the reaction. For equivalent ratio of unity the number of mole of
oxygen is 1.05. Hence for ideal gasification where the number of moles of oxygen
used is 0.2, the equivalent ratio is 0.19. Likewise for theoretical gasification where
the number of moles of oxygen is 0.45, the equivalent ratio is 0.43. Therefore the
equivalent ratio for gasification is 0.19-0.43 ranging between the ideal gasification
and the theoretical gasification
2.4 PARAMETERS GOVERNING BIOMASS GASIFICATION
Gasification of biomass depends on several parameters. These parameters can be

classified into 3 main categories: fuel specification, gasifier specification and the gas
product specification. These specifications are necessary to quantitatively evaluate
various operating parameters so that progress can be judged and gasifiers can be
compared.
2.41 Fuel specification
The specifications on any gasifier system should indicate the range of fuel properties
giving acceptable operation. The variables that affect these parameters are:
1.
Size
2.
Size range and distribution
3.
Shape
4.
Shape distribution
5.
Heating value
6.
Proximate analysis ( moisture content, ash content, volatile content)
7.
Mineral content
8.
Fuel wood value index (FVI)
2.411 Size and shape
It is well established that the gas composition of the product is affected by the size,
range and the shape of the fuel or feed. The smaller the feed the faster is the
gasification reaction thus affecting the choice of the gasifier. For instance fluidized
bed systems are able to accept feed size in the range of 1 mm mean diameter whilst
the fixed bed gasifiers are able to accept larger feed in the range of about 100 mm
mean diameter. Any size reduction operation is expensive and has to be optimised
for cost effective. The most suitable size of wood is between 1 mm to 100mm. It is
generally considered that the length of the feed must be between 1/10 and 1/5 of the
hearth diameter. Too long a feed can generate bridges preventing the feed from
flowing down to the gasifier hearth. Then gasification can tend towards combustion
with too much excess air. Too small sized feed causes high pressure drops by
forming a kind of airproof cake. Non-woody material such as straw, bracken or

refuse may need to be densified for example pelletised. There is therefore a trade off
in both cost and energy terms between feed size and choice of gasifiers, gas
composition and heating value (Bridgwater, 1984).
In the present study, furniture wood leftovers and wood chips as shown in figure 2.2
were used as biomass material. The furniture wood was irregular in shape and size
even after being cut into smaller pieces.
2.412 Heating value
The heating value of various types of wood ranges between 15.3 MJ/kg to 21.2
MJ/kg on dry basis (Negi and Todaria, 1993). There are two types of heating values:
the high or gross heating value (HI-IV) and the lower or net heating value (LHV).
The former represents the heat of combustion relative to liquid water as the product
and the latter is based on gaseous water. The difference between the two is the latent
heat of water of combustion and is given by the following formula:
HHV = LHV + W k
21
where W is the mass of water per kilogram of feed and X is the latent heat of
vaporisation of water. The heating value is determined using an adiabatic bomb
calorimeter which measures the enthalpy change between the reactants and the
products at 25C. The samples are crushed in an electric mill and burned in the bomb
calorimeter. The heating value obtained is the higher heating value because the water
of combustion is present in the liquid state at the completion of the test. Heating
value is commonly quoted on dry basis whereby the feed is dried and all the moisture
content is removed before the test is conducted. The heating value on dry basis is
given by
HHV (dry basis)
HHV( wet basis)

(100 MC)
22
where MC is the moisture content of the feed.
2.413 Moisture content ( MC)
The presence of moisture is of prime importance for the success of the gasification
process and tend to reduce the heating value of the biomass. Cane et al (1989) has
given the following equation relating the lower heating value and the moisture
content of biomass wood. They considered that the lower heating value of ash free
dry biomass wood has an approximate LHV of 18.8 MJ/kg.
LHV = 18.8
100
100 -I-MC
2.5
MC
100 +MC
23
The LHV of the gas product decreases as the moisture content of the feed increases.
The gas compositions in particular CO and CO 2 are very much affected by the
increase of moisture content in the biomass feed. The concentration of CO reduces
whilst CO2 increases as a result of the reaction between CO and stem. CH4
increases slightly due to the reaction between carbon and hydrogen.
Typically the moisture content of wood is about 30-60 % and therefore, air drying of
wood (much cheaper than oven drying) is very essential to reduce its effect on the
heating value. The moisture content is determined by drying a sample of the fuel or
feed in an oven at about 105 0C for 48 hours (Negi and Todaria, 1993). The moisture
content is given by
Chapter 2 Biomass GasUication 30
MC(dry basis)
Weight of dried biomass - Original weight of biomass

Weight of dried biomass
MC(wet basis) Weight of dried biomass - Original weight of biomass

Weight of orignal biomass
24
25
2.414 Ash content (X)
Ash or mineral content is also a very important parameter because the lower the ash
content the better the fuel is. Ash content is determined by burning 2 g of ground
sample of the wood in a muffled furnace at 600C.
The biomass feed ash content should ideally be as low as possible because it affects
the LHV and the composition of the gas produced. Carre et al (1989) made a
modification to LHV equation to include ash content. The equation becomes
LHV = 18.8
100 - X
100 +MC
2.5 MC
100 +MC
26
where X is the ash content in the biomass wood.
2.415 Proximate and ultimate analysis
Biomass material essentially consist of moisture, ash, volatile and fixed carbon.
These amount varies for different biomass materials. High contents of moisture and
ash decrease the quality of the biomass material as a fuel. Higher fixed carbon
content is preferable than higher volatile content for good gasification as this limits

tar formation. For example charcoal is a better fuel for gasification than wood but
typically more than 50% of the calorific value is lost in making the charcoal.
Biomass, in particular wood, has a much higher volatile content compared to

charcoal or coal. On a dry basis, coal has about 30% volatiles whilst wood has about
80%. That is why wood burns with a brighter and larger flames in the open air due to
partial burning of volatiles. The volatiles also include tar which is an undesirable
product of gasification, the quantity being generally proportional to the volatile
content. Charcoal gasifiers produced less tar and thus do not require such elaborate
gas clean up system compared to wood gasifiers. Tars can be partially removed by
passing them through the combustion zone where they are cracked.
The amount of fixed carbon is determined by subtracting the measured amount of

moisture, volatile and ash. The amount of fixed carbon in the biomass would
determine the extend of the char gasification process. Unlike wood, charcoal and
coal have very high quantities of fixed carbon which increases the char gasification
rate, providing suitable gasification conditions exist.
The ultimate analysis shows the weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and ash in the fuel. Typically the amount of nitrogen is about 1% of
the weight of the biomass material whilst there is normally no sulphur content.
(Reed, 1985). Although the amount of fixed carbon in wood is lower than that of
coal, the hydrogen content is almost the same at about 5 %, except for charcoal
whose hydrogen content is about 3%. The heating value of the biomass can also be
determined from the ultimate analysis by the following equation (Reed, 1985)
HHV(MJ / kg) = 0.002326(146.58 C + 568.78 H - 51.53 0 - 6.58 A + 29.45)
27

Where C, H, 0 and A are the weight percent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and ash in
the dry fuel respectively.
2.416 Fuel value index
The final desirable parameter which characterises whether the wood is efficient as a
fuel is given by the fuel wood- value index (FVI) defined as the following: (Purohit
and Nautiyal, 1992).
FVI =
HHV(dry basis)xDensity
(Ash content) x MC
28
The formula includes the density owing to its variability. High wood density is
desirable for storage, transport and maintaining the gasification reaction over a
longer period of time due to longer residence time.
2.42 Gasifier specification
The operating parameters inside the gasifier which will govern the biomass
gasification are as follows;
i)
turndown ratio
ii)
efficiency
iii)
conversion rate
Turndown ratio (TR) is defined as follows:

TR Designed thermal output
Min. thermal output
29
This ratio is claimed to vary between about 3- 20 (Reed, 1984) and must be specified
in terms of the gas quality required. Too low a value generates a very dirty gas and a
too high a value yields low energy gas. TR is also important for load varying
applications. Typically TR for fixed bed gasifier is about 5 and that for fluidized bed
is 3. Turndown ratio is primarily affected by the fuel moisture content; combustor
size and insulation are also important.
The efficiency of a gasifier is also an important parameter which is defined as

follows:
Energy in the cold gas

Energy in the biomass feed
30
The efficiency of a gasifier normally ranges from 70-90 %. Most of the losses are
associated with sensible heat loss of the gas, loss in the heat transferred to the skin of
the gasifier, tar loss and char carryover. Carre et al (1989) have also shown that the
gasification efficiency (as expected) reduces as the moisture content increases. This
is due to the energy loss in evaporating the water present in the solid fuel.
Finally the conversion rate which is the rate at which gas is produced from the solid
feed, is also an important parameter. The conversion rate is defined either as energy
per area which is approximately 630-9450 kW/m 2 or as energy per volume which is
approximately 1030-5150 kW/m 3 . The area refers to the cross-sectional area of the
gasifier throat and the volume refers to the volume of the reduction zone. These
values are convenient for comparing gasifiers of different sizes and estimating
gasifier size requirement.
2.43 Product specification
The parameters which determines the gas quality are important because it will
determine the application of the gas. The heating value of the gas for example affects
the ease of combustion. Tar and particulate level of the gas produced are required to
estimate cleanup problems and to determine the use of suitable burners, engines, etc.
The temperature of the raw gas dictates the degree of cooling required for use in
engines or the sensible heat that may be recovered. The moisture content of the gas
determines, in part, the cooling load.
GC)
0
.s<.
*ZZ.
c.)
Er:
cri
tn-n
cn
an
a) a)
cri
fa,
,N
ca.
Figure 2.2a Picture showing the different size and shapes of furniture wood used in
the present study
Figure 2.2b Picture showing wood chips used in the present study
Figure 2.2 Types of biomass feed used in the present study
Chapter 3 Biomass Gasifier 37
CHAPTER 3
BIOMASS GASIFIERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Gasifiers are devices that convert organic substances into combustible gases. As
mentioned in the first chapter, the organic substances are broken down and converted
into combustible gases by either biochemical or thermochemical processes. Only
thermochemical conversion processes and specifically gasifiers will be discussed in
this chapter.
3.2 TYPE OF GASIFIERS
Biomass gasifiers are generally divided into three categories:

a) Fixed-bed gasifiers
b) Fluidized-bed gasifiers
c) Suspension gasifiers
3.21 Fixed-bed gasifiers
Fixed bed gasifiers are the most common due to their relative simplicity in design,
low cost of fabrication and ease of operation. The fixed bed gasifiers are further
classified into 4 types depending on the direction of air flow.
i) Updraft(counter current) gasifiers
ii) Downdraft (co-current) gasifiers
iii) Crossdraft gasifiers
Attention is directed at small scale systems for use in rural areas and /or 'off' grid
electricity generation.
3.211 Updraft gasifier
Updraft gasifiers are the earliest type of gasifiers and were used to burn charcoal.
Charcoal gasifiers produced relatively clean gas that can be immediately burned in
vehicles without any complex cleaning-up system. However, the production of
charcoal from raw biomass uses more than 50% of its energy, therefore charcoal
gasifiers are not efficient and waste much energy. Charcoal gasifiers are generally no
longer in used and emphasis has swung to the development of wood gasifiers.
In this type of gasifier, shown in figure 3.1a, air or oxygen is admitted to a grate near
the bottom of the gasifier. The biomass is ignited and causes incomplete combustion.
The resulting CO 2 is immediately reduced to CO by the excess of hot carbon present.
The hot gases produced become a source of heat to pyrolyse and dry the incoming
biomass fuel. These gases contain very high quantities of tar which can be up to
about 30 % of the input energy, is very difficult to remove and is highly corrosive.
They are normally burned immediately near the gasifier. The heat of reaction in the
updraft gasifier is very high, therefore steam is sometimes passed into the gasifier for
cooling purposes. The advantage of the updraft gasifier is that they can use a wide
variety of high moisture fuels whilst the gasified product leaves the gasifier at a
temperature of about 200C (Reed, 1985).
3.212 Downdraft gasifiers
Figure 3.1b shows a schematic diagram of a downdraft gasifier. As the name implies,
air or oxygen is admitted into the gasifier above the exit of the gasified products. In
this way the tars are forced through the combustion zone where they are reduced or
cracked at a high temperature of about 1000C. Unlike the updraft gasifiers, the
downdraft gasifiers produce very little tar, typically of the order 0.1 % of the biomass
material. The gas produced is much more suitable for use in engines, turbine,
operation of burners or transported in pipelines. The disadvantages of the downdraft
gasifiers are that the biomass feed must be uniform in size and low in moisture
content, typically less than 25 %. The temperature of the gasification reactions occur
at about 750C and reduces with high moisture content biomass materials, therefore
reduces the formation of combustible gases in the gasified product. At 36% moisture
the equivalent saturation reaches 100 % and water gas is produced, but then the
reaction temperature drops below 500C and retardation of the gasification process
occurs. External heat would then be required to increase the gasification zone
temperature to 750C, either through preheating the supply air or recycling the fuel
gas and heating it before reintroduction (Gumz, 1950).
The volatiles produced in the pyrolysis process are forced into the combustion zone
where the tars are cracked. Tars are cracked at temperatures of about 900C. In a
typical downdraft gasifier, there is a throat or a constriction to aid the flow of tar
laden volatiles into the combustion zone. The throat is located about 100mm (Hoi
1992) below the combustion zone. Another typical feature of a downdraft gasifier is
that the top is sealed to prevent any escape of volatiles. The combustion zone is also
fixed at the air supply outlet.
3.213 Crossdraft gasifiers
Most of the research in fixed bed gasifiers is either into the updraft or the downdraft
types. Figure 3.1c shows a schematic diagram of a crossdraft gasifier. Crossdraft
gasifiers are generally considered to be operationally similar to the downdraft types.
Since they also produce higher quantities of tar, their uses are limited to charcoal
(Reed, 1985).
3.214 Suspension gasifiers.
In this type of gasifier, fine or pulverised feeds such as saw dust are suspended in a
cyclone combustor or a swirl burner based system or some form of transport reactor
system and gasified. In a cyclone gasifier, the pulverised particles of biomass with
air are injected tangentially at the periphery of the gasifier cylinder at several
positions longitudinally along the cylinder. Due to the particles' cyclonic movement
inside the cylinder, their residence time is substantially increased so that all the solid
particles are converted into a fuel gas. The amount of air entering the gasifier is
limited to ensure that gasification and not combustion processes take place. The solid
fuel is pulverised, and although up to 80% of the ash can be retained in the system,
stack dust clean up is still needed (via bag filters or similar) to meet emissions
regulations (Reed, 1985).
3.22 Fluidized bed gasifiers
Gasification can also be produced in fluidized bed systems. Figure 3.2 shows a
diagram of a fluidized bed gasifier with a bed that is sufficiently deep to maximise
the production of fuel gas. Shallow bed systems do not allow sufficient time for the
cracking of tars. The exit temperature of the gas is slightly lower than that for fixed
bed gasifiers. Fluidized beds systems are more expensive and complex than the fixed
bed gasifier; they are not limited to feed size but produce more tar than the
downdraft gasifier. Fluidized bed gasifiers are not recommended for use in engines
with power outputs of less than 300 to 400 kW (Reed, 1985).
The choice of any of the above gasifiers whether fixed-bed, fluidized bed or
suspension gasifiers depends on the following factors:
(i). Power output
Chapter 3 Biomass Gasijier 41
(ii). Application
(iii). Economy
(iv). Type and condition of biomass material
(v). Simplicity in construction
(vi). Ease of operation
The table 3.1 shows a summary of the type of gasifiers with their advantages and
disadvantages.
3.3 APPLICATION OF GASIFIERS
Gasifiers are used either as heat producing or power producing systems. Thousands
of gasifiers are being used particularly in the underdeveloped countries. The gasifiers
have changed the lives of these people by increasing their standards of living. Rural
people are able to gain the benefits of electricity through the use of gasifiers and
improved living standards.
The application of gasifiers can normally be classified as either power gasifiers for
generating electricity or heat gasifiers primarily for heating and drying purpose.
However recent advance research has included gasifiers in cooking stoves for
domestic application.
3.31 Power gasifiers
In power gasifiers the gasification systems are coupled to an internal combustion

engine to produce shaft power which in turn can be used for pumping water, running
a compressor, milling rice and for generating electricity. Approximately a
consumption of only 1.0 kg of dry wood is needed to generate 1 kWh of electricity
(Gao, 1989). The gas produced by the gasification process has to be cleaned and
cooled before passing to the internal combustion engines, otherwise particulate, tars
and moisture present will result in wear of the engines and reduce their efficiencies.
As such power gasifiers require elaborate and expensive cleaning and cooling
systems. Apart from using internal combustion or reciprocating engines for
generating electricity, gas turbines have also been developed in conjunction with
biomass gasification to generate electricity particularly with fluidized-bed gasifiers.
3.32 Heat gasifiers
Gasification systems that are used to fuel external burners such as those found in
boilers, kilns or dryers are referred to as heat gasifiers. Heat gasifiers are by far the
most common type of gasifiers in the world.
Heat gasifiers are also more energy efficient because they tend to utilised heat and
tars in the gasified products. As a result of the less critical gas requirement, heat
gasifiers, in general are simpler in design, construction and operation than the power
gasifiers. They do not require elaborate cleaning and cooling system thus they are
cheaper than the power gasifiers. The gases produced are immediately burned in
close proximity to the gasifiers. Heat gasifiers have also been developed to produce
hot air for drying various agricultural products. Figure 3.3 shows a schematic
diagram of various types of gasifier application in power and heat generation
(Bridgwater, 1984)
3.4 REVIEW OF GASIFIER DESIGNS
Here gasifier designs relevant to this project are reviewed and discussed.
3.41 Buck Rogers commercial downdraft gasifier.
A schematic diagram of a commercial-scale downdraft gasifier is shown in figure

3.4. The gasifier consists of a screw feeding system, tuyeres, stirrer, gas fan and a
cyclone (Walawender, 1985)
Wood chips are used as the biomass material. They are fed into the gasification
chamber through a screw feeding system which is located at the top of the gasifier.
The gasification chamber is made from a cylindrical pipe of about 30 cm diameter
and about 1 meter in height. When the wood chips are loaded into the gasification
chamber, air is passed through a pipe and exited through tuyeres located at the centre
of the gasification chamber. The tuyeres are inclined downwards at an angle of about
45 thus preventing any biomass material, ash tar or particulate from entering and
blocking the holes of the tuyeres. The tuyeres cover the whole cross-sectional area of
the gasifier so that a throat or constriction is not necessary.
After ignition of the biomass material, a bed of char is established. Stirrers are used
to maintain a homogeneous bed of char of 1-1.2 m deep that is gasified. The stirrers
and the tuyeres are one single unit that rotates at a speed of 3-4 minutes per rotation
through a belt and hydraulic motor system located at the bottom of the gasifier.
A gas fan draws the gasified product out from the gasifier into a cyclone. The
gasifier requires preheating to prevent tar from condensing on the gas fan. Once the
fan temperature reaches 2600C, wood is fed into the gasifier. The gas fan is located
at the bottom of the gasification chamber and blows the gasified products into the
cyclone separator. The larger char particles trapped by the cyclone are removed by a
hydraulically driven auger attached to the bottom of the cyclone. The remaining gas
and char exit the cyclone to a flare or end-use system.
Chapter
_
. 44
Brewer and Brown (1992) used the Buck Roger's gasifier and coupled it to an
internal combustion engine. The gasified product has to be cooled and cleaned with
particular emphasis on the removal of tar and particulate before it is used in an
engine. Brewer and Brown (1992) also designed heat exchanger and filter units. The
heat exchanger was constructed from a 12.7 mm steel tubing, 2.1-11 m long to give a
temperature drop from 593C to 266C while assuming gas flow of 2.4 -11.5 m3/min.
Since the gas should contain less than 10-50 mg/m 3 contaminants for use in an
internal combustion engine, a filter was designed consisting of a 55 gallon drum with
a 1.9 cm mesh, expended metal filter media basket. The filter media used was
fibreglass.
3.42 Research of Groeneveld and Van Swaaij (1980)
Groeneveld and Van Swaaij (1980) have designed a co-current moving bed (fixedbed) gasifier as shown in figure 3.5. Air is fed into the gasification chamber through
tuyures located at the centre of the gasification chamber where combustion takes
place. A cold flow model of the air supply through the tuyeres was made to observe
the flow pattern using char powder. Groeneveld observed a double circular flow
pattern that prevents the pyrolysis products consisting of tar from flowing along the
wall of the chamber and escaping together with the combustible gas. The dimension
of the throat is critical so that the appropriate circulatory flow pattern was achieved.
Penetration of an air jet in a packed bed was also studied by measuring the radial
velocity distribution. The penetration of the jet was found to be independent of the
mass flow rate of air and the tube size. The penetration of the jet and thus the
dimensions of the circulatory flow pattern are mainly determined by the biomass
particle size. This explains the empirically found fact that for most co-current
gasifiers a minimum particle size is required for tar -free operation.
Groeneveld and Van Swaaij (1980) also found that the correct positioning of the
tuyeres is also critical. Raising the tuyeres or lowering it showed distinct changes in
the amount of tar produced.
The significant benefit of tuyeres design is that the air supply is preheated as it
passes from the top of the gasifier through the biomass bed before exiting through
the tuyeres for the combustion process. Higher input air temperature is an important
parameter for improving the gasifier performance. A higher input air temperature
provides additional enthalpy for reaction with consequence of lowering the air to fuel
ratio and thus increasing the conversion efficiency. For the same conversion, a
shorter reactor is required for a gasifier operated with a higher air temperature (Chen
and Gunkel, 1987). Furthermore higher air inlet temperature allows higher moisture
content biomass to be used in the gasifier.
3.43 Design of Hoi, WK (1989)
A downdraft fixed-bed gasifier of 35 kW capacity was designed by Hoi (1989) using

the guidelines established by the Swedish Academy of Science. Figure 3.6 shows the
design that consisted of a double skin wall which serves as a passage for air supply
to the combustion zone and as an insulator preventing excessive heat or skin losses.
The air supply is fed through several 25 mm ports at the periphery of the gasification
chamber 152 mm above the throat of 202 mm diameter. The design also uses a
continuous ash removing system and a hopper feeding system.
Hoi (1989) used wood taken from mature 30 year old rubber trees obtained in
Malaysia as the biomass material or as the solid fuel for his gasifier. He estimated
that 2.7 million tonnes of rubber wood are wasted either left to rot or burned in the
open every year.
The gasifier was designed to be used to generate electricity using an internal

combustion engine. The fuel gas was fed to a cyclone dust separator, a volume filter,
an air cooler condenser and an air gas mixer before being fed into a compression
ignition engine.
Hoi et al (1992) made an economic comparison between generating electricity by

gasification using waste rubber wood and a conventional diesel engine system. He
found that for application in the rural areas where biomass materials are readily
available, a net saving of 32% of the cost of generating electricity by diesel engines
could be achieved.
3.44 Combustor and Gasifier-Combustor design
Payne (1986) has made a survey of small-scale combustion and fixed-bed

gasification systems to assess the current level of technology in this field. He
classified the thermochemical conversion equipment currently being marketed as
combustors, updraft gasifier-combustors and downdraft gasifier systems.
The classification of either the combustors or gasifier-combustors is not distinct

because in combustors, gasification characteristics are present and likewise in
gasifier-combustor systems, combustion is an essential part of some of the process.
In general the design of combustors and gasifier-combustor systems are very similar.
In combustors, the combustion process takes place in only one chamber which may
be split into two zones: one zone for solid fuel oxidation and the other zone for
volatiles combustion. The primary characteristics of combustors are: a single
combustion chamber and the presence of radiant heat transfer between the
combusting volatiles and the solid fuel. However in updraft gasifier-combustor
systems, gas is produced in one chamber and burned in an another. The primary
characteristics are:
a) two distinct chambers for gasification and combustion,
b) insignificant radiant heat transfer between the producer gas and the solid fuel and
c) an appreciable amount of condensable organic materials
Figure 3.7 shows a combustor for producing hot air developed by Lynndale
International Inc. which uses stickwood. Another combustor developed by Dumont
Industries which produces hot water is shown in figure 3.8. Both of these combustors
have a single combustion chamber, although they are divided into two zones: the
primary and the secondary zones. The significant characteristic is that combustion
process is continuous in both zones. The gasification process or in fact the process of
incomplete combustion occurs in the primary zone and produces fuel gas in the form
of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane.
The significant difference between combustors and gasifier-combustor systems is

that the gasification and the complete combustion processes are separated by a short
ducting system where no combustion whatsoever occurs. Figures 3.9 and 3.10 show
the updraft gasifier-combustor systems developed by Forest Fuels Mfg. Co and
Payne respectively. Updraft gasifiers are normally chosen in gasifier-combustor
systems for the following reasons: firstly in terms of the type and the condition of the
biomass material use, updraft gasifiers are able to accept higher moisture content
material of various sizes. Thus updraft gasifiers when compared to the downdraft
gasifiers are more flexible. However the excessive tar emission from the updraft
gasifiers have made them less acceptable when strict environmental policies and
laws are enforced. Nevertheless, if the gasified products are burned immediately near
the gasifiers, then the use of updraft gasifiers are justified. Hence attaching updraft
gasifiers to combustors would be the most appropriate step to take and thereby
developing what is essentially the updraft gasifier-combustor systems.
3.45 Stratified downdraft gasifiers
Downdraft gasifiers are characterised by an initial reaction of the fuel volatiles with
air or oxygen in a zone of flaming pyrolysis( analogous to the flaming combustion
but with limited supply of oxygen or air) followed by adiabatic char reaction in a
second zone. In the earlier downdraft gasifiers, air was added through nozzles to the
bed above a conical constriction, producing a complex material flow that is very
difficult to analyse mathematically.
The stratified downdraft gasifier designed by Reed and Levie (1984), figure 3.11,
have some unique features and the once thought to be essential features of downdraft
gasifiers are eliminated. The main feature of the stratified gasifier is the absence of
the air supply ports or nozzles, the closed top and the constriction. In this design,
oxidant and fuel flow in horizontal layers down through the zones. It is mechanically
simpler to design and easier to instrument, characterise and analyse mathematically.
The air is supplied from the top of the gasifier which is opened for easy loading of
biomass fuel. Gasified product will not escape from the top of the gasifier because of
the pressure difference created by a suction pump at the exit of the gasifier located at
the bottom. Air will pass through the drying zone and then react with the biomass in
the so called flaming pyrolysis zone. After this zone the pyrolysis products pass
through the char reaction zone where they are reduced to fuel gases and exit through
the grate.
In the flaming pyrolysis zone the energy in solid biomass is first converted to very
hot carbon dioxide, water and char; then as oxidant disappears, these very hot gases
crack the pyrolysis product to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. In the adiabatic
char zone, hot carbon dioxide and water react endothermically with char to make
more carbon monoxide and hydrogen, thus cooling the mixture to a final temperature
of 700-9000C
Reed and Levie (1984) also made a prediction of the size of the pyrolysis and char
reaction zones and pressure drop in these zones as a function of fuel size, moisture
content, density and proximate and ultimate analysis.
Stratified gasifiers depend entirely on the suction from internal combustion engines
or from fans to remove the gasified product. Hence the pressure drop from the
gasifier to the engine, for example, must be small. Development of producer gas
application on internal engine, La Fontaine and Reed (1992), showed only a simple
filter system that is not sufficient to remove water vapour and contaminants such as
tar and particulate. Elaborate gas clean up systems have high pressure drop and
would not be able to draw the gasified product from the gasifier. Only in cases of
emergency, for example shortage of fossil fuel, the use of stratified gasifiers with
internal combustion engines could be used without much concern to the maintenance
and the life of the engines.
The use of a fan to aid suction, if placed just after the gasifier, would cause
condensation of tar on the fan blades. Placing the fan before the engine would not
necessary induce the gasified product into the engine. Air could also be entrained
into the system.
3.46 Ferrocement Open Core gasifier for gasifying rice husk
An open core type of gasifier shown in figure 3.12 was designed by Coovattanachai
(1991) for gasifying rice husk which is abundantly found in Thailand. The gasifier
was designed to produce 10 kW shaft power. It was made of 3 mm thick steel sheet.
The inner wall was lined with locally made heat resisting bricks. The diameter of the
gasifier and the height of the fuel container are 45 and 120 cm respectively. The
gasifier was fitted with a rotating grate which could continuously remove the ash
formed from the gasification process. The ash fell through holes drilled on the
rotating grate. The grate was powered by a 0.197 kW motor through a speed reducer.
The air enters the gasifier through the top as in the stratified gasifier and the fuel gas
produced is sucked from the bottom of the gasifier. The husk was fed by a screw
conveyor. The combustion zone can be fixed at the required position in the gasifier
by regulating the rate of ash removal after start-up. The gasifier is sealed at the
bottom by water which removes ash from the gasifier.
Further improvement on the gasifier was carried out by constructing it completely

from ferrocement. The Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Bangkok has
developed a 10 kW "ferrocement" open core gasifier. The reactor is lined with
refractory bricks to manage the normally high temperatures encountered in this zone.
The ferrocement components are water cooled which provides a relatively uniform
temperature gradient over the ferrocement surface minimising thermal stress. The
water also serves as heat transfer fluid for gas cooling. As a result, the use of
ferrocement solves many of the material (thermal stress and corrosion) as well as
economic constrains associated with conventional metal gasifiers. The ferrocement
gasifier presents the possibility of ten fold decrease in the capital cost of a gasifier.
3.47 ND- 900 Biomass gasifier
The ND-900 gasifier is a commercial downdraft biomass gasifier which gasifiers

many kinds of agricultural and forestry residues such as wood shavings, corncobs,
camellia, wood chips etc. (Xu, 1988).
The cross section of the gasifier is shown in Figure 3.13, consisting of a double
conical shape combustion and reduction chamber with a major diameter of 900 mm.
The air is supplied to the gasifier via a central pipe with six holes located along the
axis of the gasifier and a row of 30 nozzles located at the periphery of the
combustion chamber just above the throat. The gas and air jacket in the combustion
chamber are used as a heat exchanger to preheat the supply air and maintain high
temperatures in the reduction zone.
The thermal output of the gasifier ranges between 230 -380 kW, a cold gas efficiency
of about 65-75 % occurs which varies with different feedstock and their moisture
content whilst the fuel gas has a low heating value of about 4-5.5 MJ/m
3.48 Multi-stage reactors for the thermal gasification of wood
It is desirable to crack the tar inside the gasifier as much as possible. At normal
temperatures, tar forms a sticky condensate and cannot be removed by common
solvents. It causes most of the problems in engines and piping systems and is the
most undesirable contaminant formed from producer gas.
In pyrolysis processes the amount of tar varies in the range 10 to 25 % of the gas
evolved typically but can be as high as 50 %. The average amount of tar produced in
3
a downdraft gasifier is about 2 g/Nm3 , for an updraft gasifier it is about 50 g/Nm .
For engines, however, the amount of tar and dust should be less than 10 mg/Nm 3 to
avoid damage to the engine itself (Brewer 1993).
Bui et al (1994) evolved a design to crack the tar more effectively. The design is a
throatless two stage downdraft gasifier as shown in figure 3.14. The gasifier consists
of a cylindrical tube of 200 mm in diameter with a total height of about 1 m.
The air intake ports are located both above the pyrolysis zone and below it. The
upper air intake port allows air for the combustion of the wood. The heat generated
thus initiates the pyrolysis process producing among its product, tar. Some of the tar
is cracked in the flaming pyrolysis zone below the upper air intake port. Below the
flaming pyrolysis zone the pyrolysis products enter the secondary combustion zone
where the tar is further cracked before proceeding to the reduction zone. Initially at
start-up the secondary air intake port is closed to allow the pyrolysis process to
mature.
3.49 The Cemagref process
Other designs of gasifier have also concentrated on the elimination or reduction of

tar. The Cemagref gasifier (Becker, 1989) as shown in figure 3.15 is mounted
horizontally and uses a high temperature recycling fan to reduce the formation of tar.
The horizontal position provides better distribution of the combustion gases through
the biomass bed. The pyrolysis gas which contains high quantities of tar is recycled
into the gasifier by a high temperature fan through the air intake port. The recycled
pyrolysis gas is burned and the tar is cracked before passing into the combustion and
the reduction zones. Without the recycling fan the pyrolysis gases would pass
through the combustion and the reduction zone with the tar mostly escaping into the
product gas. The Cemagref gasifier without recycling is similar to the crossdraft
gasifier. Furthermore the recycled gas also heats up the incoming air and thus aids
the combustion process. The movement of the wood chips is assisted by a piston
located beneath the wood chips loading port. The gasifier shows good efficiency and
low tar content for wood consumption in the range of 50 to 200 kg/h.
There are four control parameters in the Cemagref system: the gas, air and recycled
gases are regulated by three fans and the speed of the piston to determine the feed
rate.
3.5 CONCLUDING REMARK
The design of various gasifiers currently being used provides a useful base
knowledge for gasifier design. An initial part of this project was to design and
fabricate a gasifier based on experiences gained and the literature reviewed. The
present gasifier, which is discussed later, has some modifications made to the design
based on the works by Groeneveld (1980) and Hoi (1989).
Biomass feed
Gas
Drying
Pyrolysis
Reduction
Combustion
Figure 3.1(a) Updraft Gasifier
Biomass feed
Drying
Pyrolysis
Air
Combustion
Reduction
Gas
Figure 3.1(b) Downdraft Gasifier
Biomass feed
Drying
Pyrolysis
Air
-4 Gas
Combustion
Reduction
Figure 3.1(c) Crossdraft gasifier

Figure 3.1 Various type of fixed-bed gasifiers depending on the flow of air supply
.--- Gas
Fluidised bed ofN

biomass material
and sand
...."..............................................4.....,.......4
.
Ash
Grate
Biomass
Air
Figure.3.2 Fluidized bed gasifier
-17.12.9-1
.64
Tz.
C)
0
z
0
4C"'
("3
.Eb
ccs
a)
to
'CA
E.)"
a)
C.)
to
0 g
,
0)
0
0
4.4
a)
0
03
air
fuel
Bed of biomass
material
Ash
Figure 3.5 Downdraft gasifier with a central tuyure

air supply (Groeneveld, 1980)
gas
Fuel in
Gate valve
+___ Air
4_____
4-1
Gas
20 mm Protrusion
Sight glass
Throat
Reduction zone
Ash
chamber
Figure3.6 Gasifier design of Hoi et al (1989)
Return air
Supply air
0 Fire box door
......n1.
3
Secondary
combustion chamber
Primary air
m
Secondary air
Fire brick
Grate
Ash pan
Figure 3.7 Stickwood combustor- Lyndale International Inc.
Water jacket
Forced combustion
air
Water heat
exchanger
Secondary
combustion
chamber
Fire brick
Figure 3.8 Stockwood combustor for heating water-Dumont industries
Fuel
auger
--r--'-----t'
___
Boiler
combustion
chamber
Primary air
Ash
Secondary air
Figure 3.9 Inclined wood chip updraft gasifier for boiler

retrofit-Forest fuel.
Hopper
li
L
Damper
Cone
I
fe
r
Venturi
pump
f\
Primary air
Figure 3.10 Updraft gasifier and close-coupled cyclonic
combustor- Payne
Secondary air
Biomass and air
Unburned fuel zone
Refractory
Flaming pyrolysis(7cm)
Char reduction (11cm)
Inert char
Gas
Figure 3. 11 Stratified downdraft gasifier

82
Air and rice
husk
Bed of rice husk
270
Gas out
Water level
Nir
Figure 3.12 Rice husk open core gasifier
Feedstock hopper
kv
Gas out
)
Condensate
channel
Firebox
Cyclone
Ash container
4-- Air in
LI
Figure 3.13 ND updraft gasifier
Fuel bunker
Raw wood
Upper air intake
,
+
Pyrolysis zone
300
Second air intake

Reduction zone
Grate
4-Ash
Gas
200
Figure 3.14 Two stage throatless downdraft

gasifier
0
ct
C.)
tr-n
Table 3.1. Summary of the type of gasifiers with their advantages

and disadvantages
Advantages
a) Updraft (counter current) gasifiers
1. Simplicity in construction
Disadvantages
1. High tar content in the gas
2. Ease of operation
3. Low cost of fabrication
2. Lump or block feed only
4. High moisture content is
4. Water pollution resulting from
acceptable(max. 50 %)
disposal of tarry effluent
3. High heat of reaction
5. Low exit gas temperature
b),Downdraft(co-current) gasifigr
1. Low moisture content of feed required

(max. 25 %)
2. High gas outlet temperature
4. Low tar content in the gas (0.1 % of
3. Low ash content of feed
the feed)
4. Lump or block feed only

5. Difficult to scale up
c) Crossdraft gasifier
1. Wood char feed only
4. Low tar emission
5. Light weight
d) Fluidized bed gasifier
I. Can accept wide range of feed sizes
1. Require large bad depth
2. High ash feed can be accepted

3. High moisture content acceptable
2. Higher tar content than the downdraft

gasifier
3. Higher outlet temp than the downdraft
gasifier
4. Expensive and complex construction
5. Difficult to control and operate
Chapter 4 Mathematical Modelling 68
CHAPTER 4
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF GASIFICATION

PROCESS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Gasification is a complex, but versatile process. During gasification there are

physical phenomena such as gas and solid flows, heat and mass transfers and
chemical phenomena such as thermal decomposition: pyrolysis, combustion and
gasification. The rate of thermal decomposition varies with temperature, the rate of
heating, and the chemical and physical structure of the fuel. The chemical
phenomena closely interact with the physical phenomena, and the same applies to the
process of gasification. Moreover, the relative importance of these various
phenomena changes as a function of feedstock material.
Under such circumstances the mathematical modelling of reactors becomes a

difficult task, but still remains a worthwhile venture, since mathematical model
permits the following:
a) input to the design of new gasifiers

b) more effective control
c) simulation of a reactor operation under either continuos or transient conditions,
this is much safer and easier than generation of comparable results under
experimental conditions.
For a model to be successful three conditions have to be met:
a) It should adequately reproduce at least some of the essential features of the

gasifier operation.
b) Its predictions should have been checked by comparison with at least one
comprehensive set of data derived from an operating gasifier.
c) Its numerical parameters should be derived from other disciplines (such as heat
and mass transfer, reaction kinetics) or be derived from available experimental data.
The tools available in modelling are mass, energy and momentum balances as well
as equilibrium data and the rate laws.
An important step in establishing a realistic model is to have a complete

measurement of temperatures and gas compositions. There are some difficulties in
getting these results such as the difficulty of inserting temperature and gas probes
into a very high temperature, often corrosive atmosphere. In addition, the solid and
gaseous species are often not in equilibrium and measurements have to take into
account simultaneously the radiation, gas and the particle temperature at a point.
4.2 TYPES OF MODELS
Gasifier models can be classified in order of increasing complexities as follows:
a) Equilibrium models in which the gas composition is calculated assuming a fixed

reaction temperature with heterogeneous or homogeneous reaction equilibrium as
appropriate;
b) Kinetic-free models in which the reactor is subdivided into different zones, but the
*gas composition in the gasification zone is calculated from the equilibrium data. The
reaction temperature is calculated in each zone by a separate heat balance;
c) Steady-state models using time independent mass, energy and heat balance;
d) Semitransient models in which transients are calculated using the pseudo-steadystate assumption from steady state model; and
e) Transient models involving the computer solution of the time dependent,
differential mass energy and heat equations
4.3 REVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF GASIFIERS
Gumz (1952) initiated modelling of gasification process. The basic equations were
derived from the definitions of the equilibrium constants of the Bouduard reactions,
the heterogeneous water gas equations, the reaction of methane formation, Dalton's
law and four equations of material balances. Thus eight equations were produced
with 8 unknowns. These equations were solved by several methods, one being
Newton's method. The reaction temperature was determined by heat balance in the
reaction zone in the gasifier. Gumz provided a ground breaking effort in gasification
modelling and since then enormous progress has been achieved in understanding the
phenomena.
Buekens and Schoeters (1985) made an extensive study on various types of models
for biomass gasification. Results on kinetic free and the rate models were discussed
(Yoon et al (1979)). The kinetic free models yield gas compositions essentially equal
to those predicted by rate models because in most cases the water-shift reactions is
close to equilibrium. The main difference between the two models is the amount of
methane predicted in the kinetic free models, being slightly higher mainly produced
by the pyrolysis reactions. The use of kinetic free models require realistic input data,
hence the model is not recommended unless very detailed experimental data is
available.
Rate models developed by Yoon et al (1979), described the gasifier as a continuous

medium in which different reactions are taking place simultaneously. The rate
models consist of mass and energy balances in which time derivatives are neglected.
Most work done has been carried out on various types of coal.
Most of the present work is based on the work by Belleville and Capart (1984) to
predict the gas concentration from a wood gasifier. Belleville produced 5 equations
based on the mass balance, thermal balance and the equilibrium constant for the
water shift reaction. Bellevile neglected the equilibrium constant for methane
formation because of its negligible effect on the calculations. The present study
includes the methane formation. Belleville also studied the non-equilibrium model
(kinetic free model) and found it to be better suited to fluidised bed gasifiers as the
residence time of the gas and the biomass are relatively short and thermodynamic
equilibrium cannot be reached.
Yue (1992), developed a kinetic model based on the mechanism of surface reactions
with the apparent rate constant computed by minimising the differences between
experimental data and theoretical results for different residence times and
temperatures. Yue compared the results with a fluidized bed gasifier (with saw dust
as the biomass feed) and found it to fit quite well with the model. Yue stated that
fluidized-bed and downdraft gasifiers are quite similar and assumed that the results
obtained were also applicable to downdraft gasifiers. However, Reed (1984)
characterised fluidized bed gasifier in terms of their excellent mixing properties and
low residence times, in contrast to the differing conditions in downdraft gasifiers.
Gibbins and Wilson (1982) stated that equilibrium models are quick and easy to use
for estimating the performance of an existing model on a new fuel or establishing the
operating envelope for a new gasifier design. However the equilibrium model cannot
be used for detailed gasifier design and the kinetic model as developed by Yoon
(1979) is more appropriate. Gibbins developed an equilibrium model based on two
equilibrium conditions: equilibrium in the presence of solid carbon (5 equations) and
equilibrium when solid carbon will not be present in significant quantities (2

equations). The model appears to have been developed for coal gasifiers and the
results obtained were compared to the British Gas/ Lurgi slagging gasifier. There
was no mention of its general use with biomass material.
Chen and Gunkel (1987), developed a model to simulate downdraft biomass

gasifiers, based on the non-isothermal particle model whilst applying the principles
of thermodynamics, transport processes, hydrodynamic, mass and energy balances.
Chen obtained the gas compositions and the reaction temperature from the known air
input by using the mass and energy balances and the equilibrium constants. The
method is similar to the approach made in the present study. Subsequently Chen used
the results to model the gasification zones by using the normal transport processes,
hydrodynamics and mass and energy balance techniques.
Chowdhury et al (1991) developed a non-equilibrium model for updraft rice husk
gasifiers based on chemical kinetic models and assumed the gasifier to be adiabatic.
The model was assumed to operate as an assembly of three reactor elements
operating in series (oxidation, gasification and pyrolysis). Esmail et al (1992)
developed a similar chemical kinetic model for crossdraft coal gasifiers.
4.4 MODELLING OF THE GASIFIER-THE EQUILIBRIUM MODEL
The thermodynamic equilibrium model was used to model the present gasifier
because it is the simplest model and assumes that all the principal reactions are at
thermodynamic equilibrium. Reed (1984) stated that since the pyrolysis products
have a chance to burn and then reach equilibrium in the reduction zone just before
leaving the gasifier, the equilibrium model can be used to model downdraft gasifiers.
The reactions are given below.

C + CO2 *2C0
C + H20 --> CO2 + H2
C + 2 H2 > CH4
The Bouduard reaction of equation 1 and the water-gas reaction of equation 2 can be
combine to form the shift reaction
CO + H20 -> CO2 + H2
Consider wood as biomass material having a typical chemical formula base on a

single atom of carbon as the following:
CH1.4 00.6
The global reaction of gasification involving pyrolysis, combustion and reduction

process can be written as follows:
C11 1.400.6+wH20+m02+3.76mN2 := x1H2+x2C0+x3CO2+x4H20+

x5C1I4+3.76mN2
From the above equation there are 6 unknowns x l , x2, x3 , x4, x5 and m is the amount
of air consumed per mole of wood. The moisture content of the wood which is
known is represented by w.
The unknowns can be solved using the following equations below:
The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen mass balance are obtained from equation 5 for the
following equations respectively.
Carbon mass balance
1 x2 +x3+ xs
Hydrogen mass balance
2w + 1.4 = 2x 1 + 2x4 + 4x5
Oxygen mass balance
w + 0.6 + 2m = x2 + 2x3 + x4
Equilibrium constant of the shift reaction of equation 4 is given by:
Kco =
PCO2 PH2
XI X3
Pco Po2o
X2 X4
whilst the equilibrium constant for methane formation is given by:
PC114
KCI14 =
Xs
10
(P112) 2 X12
The equilibrium constants --t,

Tc -o and 1(cH4 are taken from the equilibrium constants'
table at the reduction zone temperature.
Belleville and Capart (1984) neglected equation 10 arguing that the equilibrium
constant for methane formation is very small. This however is not true because the
value although small is not negligible. The value is expected to be small, because the
amount of methane in the producer gas is small but not negligible. Higher order
hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are also found in small quantities in the producer gas
but their equilibrium constants are negligible and are therefore neglected.
The final equation is the adiabatic thermal balance of equation 5

Hfw000 + wHfvAp = xi Hfli2 + x2Hfco + x3 Hfc02 + xalifino
+ x5Hfca. + 3.76 m HfN.
.11
The heat of formations were obtained from the properties of fluid tables at the
reduction zone temperature concerned. The heat of formation for wood is 115248
kJ/kmole obtained from Belleville and Capart (1984)
Equations 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 are six equations having six unknowns which can be
reduced to three equations with three unknowns x3 , x4, x5
From equation 6
x2 =-- 1- X3 - X5
From equation 7
1.4
xi = + w - X4 + 2x5
2
From equation 8
0.6 +
X3 + X4 - X5 -
Substituting x 1 ,x2 and m into equation 10, we obtain:

Hfwood + wHvap - (w + 0.7+ 4x5)Hfin - (1- x3 - x5)Hfco
x4
-x3Hfco2- x5Hfcn4 - 1.88(0.6 + x3 - x5 - w)HfN2

-Hf112+ Hfazo +1.88HfN2
12
From equation 9
Kco =
xi. x3 (w + 0.7 - x4 - 2x5).

X2. X4
(1 - X3 - X5) X4
X3
2Kco. x4(1 - x5)

X3-
13
2W + 1.4 - 2x4+4x5+ 2Kco. X4
From equation 10
X5
KCH. =
(X1)
X5 =
KcH,(w +0.7 -
X4 + 2x5) 2
14
Equation 12, 13 and 14 are three equations with x 3 , x4 and x5 as unknowns. These
equations can now be solved by using Gauss-Seidel Iteration method. Figure 4.1
shows the computer flow chart whilst Appendix A shows the computer program for
solving the equations and determine the gas composition of the producer gas.
Set initial values of heat of

formation and equilibrium
constants
i
Initial value of
moisture content
I---0
-,,
Assume initial
values of x3, x4 and
X5
Solve equations 12, 1

and 14
1r
Obtain another values of x3,

x4 and X5
No
Zero error
Yes
n
Obtain x 1 and x2
Obtain concentration
values
Next value of
moisture
Figure 4.1 Flow chart to solve the equations for

gas composition of the producer gas
Chapter 5 Experimental Rig 78
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL RIG AND MEASUREMENT

TECHNIQUES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the detail design and fabrication of the gasifier used in the
present study. The design was based on the present commercial gasifiers and those
currently under research. A review of gasifiers has been presented and discussed in
the previous Chapter. In this chapter, a detailed discussion will be made on the
design of the UWCC downdraft gasifier.
This chapter also describes the temperatures measured inside the UWCC gasifier to
determine the dynamic temperature distribution of the biomass during the
gasification process.
The gasified product from the UWCC gasifier was analysed by a thermal
conductivity gas chromatograph to determine the gas composition and hence it's
heating value. The present chapter also discusses the experimental set up for the gas
analysis.
5.2 DESIGN OF A UWCC GASIFIER
5.21 Salient features of the UWCC gasifier
The design of the UWCC gasifier has several salient features, one of the most
important being its low manufacturing cost which is ideal for rural application in the
underdeveloped world where cost of living is lower than the developed world. Figure
5.1a shows a picture of the gasifier whilst figures 5.1.b and 5.1c show the assembly

and detail drawings of the gasifier respectively. It consists of a main body that is
made from a 600 mm diameter mild steel pipe with a thickness of 12 mm. The
circular section enables the unit to withstand large temperature gradients without
warping. The total height of the gasifier is 2.5 meters. The gasifier is compact and
weighs about half a ton. It is based on the designs of Groeneveld (1984) and Hoi
(1992) and is designed to give a fuel gas of about 4-6 MJ/m3 with low tar.
The gasifier is almost maintenance free because of the absent of moving parts or
mechanical movements. With this gasifier the removal of the ash from the ash bin
and general cleaning are the main maintenance requirement.
In research, the possibility of modifications are expected. Therefore the gasifier is

built in four main parts: the lower main body, the upper main body, the cone or the
gasification chamber and the hopper or the feeding chamber. These parts are easily
dissembled for modification or repair.
The operation of the gasifier is very easy and does not require a skilled operator to
start the process. Once the gasifier is up and running the only thing that an operator
needs to do is to load the biomass material into the gasifier either manually or
through a hopper.
5.22 The cone structure
Figure 5.2 shows the cone structure which is 400 mm in height, 600 mm diameter at
the top and 200 mm diameter at the bottom. The cone is inclined 60 to the
horizontal to enable the biomass material, the volatiles and the tar to flow to the
combustion zone located near the neck or the throat of the cone. Groeneveld and Van
Swaaij (1984) used a cone angle of 45; this is determined by the angle of repose of
the raw biomass material, its char and ash. The angle of repose for wood biomass
material and its char was found to be about 45 0 . However in practice the wood char
can still form bridges and prevent smooth gravitational movement of the wood to the
combustion zone. Hence this gasifier has an increased bed slope to allow the biomass

material to flow smoothly into the combustion and the gasification zones. The throat
is very useful in gasifiers as a means to direct the flow of biomass material and to
force the cracking of the tar in the combustion zone.
The cone is also lined with 15mm thick refractory cement to prevent the excessive
heat generated in the combustion zone warping the cone. The refractory lining is also
very important as an insulator to prevent the heat transfer from the combustion zone
to the outside of the gasifier. It is essential that the gasifier does not release too much
heat to the environment as this would obviously reduce the efficiency of the gasifier.
5.23 Air supply into the gasifier
In the gasifier the air is supplied by two means. It is either supplied through a pipe
and nozzles located along the longitudinal axis of the gasifier or through ports from a
plenum located at the throat. Figure 5.3a shows the air supply nozzles' design. It is
made of 40mm diameter stainless steel pipe. The air exits horizontally through 4
ports of 1 Omm diameter equally spaced on the circumference of the pipe. The
nozzles were positioned about 150 mm from the neck of the cone as suggested by
Hoi (1992) (taken from the Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences publications)
according to the following formula
h/Dt = 0.75
Where h is the depth of the throat below the tuyure nozzle and Dt is the diameter of
the throat which is 200 mm.
The nozzles are in the combustion zone where the temperature is in the range up to
1200C. Therefore the nozzles and part of the pipe, 100 mm from the bottom, were
lined with refractory material. One of the advantages of using this arrangement for
the air supply is that the air from the blower is gradually heated while flowing
through the pipe before it exits to the combustion zone thereby assisting the

combustion process and increasing its efficiency. Figures 5.3b and 5.3c show two air
supply pipes with 4 and 8 nozzles respectively used in the gasifier.
Another means of supplying the air is through a plenum. Figure 5.4 shows the
plenum of 300 mm diameter and 100 mm thick. The air supplied from the plenum
leaves through 6 ports of 10 mm diameter located equally spaced on the periphery of
the plenum.
The air is supplied to the gasifier by a 10 kW blower which is conveniently available

in the laboratory, otherwise the air could be supplied by a lkW blower commonly
available in the market. The flow rate of air is varied according to the power output
required from the gasifier.
5.24 The feeding system
Feeding of the biomass material or the solid fuel into the gasifier is either throlagh a
hopper for continuous feeding system or through the side door for manual batch
feeding. The hopper is shown in figure 5.5 and unlike manual feeding does not
disturb the gasification process. It also consists of a double gate valve to prevent the
escape of gasified product and volatiles from the gasifier. A known amount of
biomass material is loaded into the hopper and at an appropriate time for reloading
the gate of the hopper is opened and the biomass material is allowed to fall into the
gasifier. Thereafter the gate is closed immediately to prevent the escape of volatiles.
The feeding rate of the biomass material can be determined by feeding a known
amount of biomass material at a specific time. A more elaborate design of the
feeding system could be made at an extra cost but this gasifier is meant for rural and
domestic use where substantial cost would be unattractive. Furthermore the feeding
system also depends on the type of biomass material used. Biomass material such as
wood chips, rdf (refuse derived fuel) pellets, coffee husk, etc. has consistent size and
could easily be fed through the hopper. Other biomass materials such as furniture
wood, coconut husk, etc. do not have this advantage and feeding through the side
door becomes more convenient.
5.25 Ash removal system
The biomass material is eventually converted into ash and falls down through the
grate into an ash bin. The design of the gasifier does not incorporate elaborate and
complex ash removing system. The ash is removed from the gasifier by removing the
ash bin and emptying its contents.
5.26 Gas extraction and swirl burner/ furnace system
The gas extraction mechanism depends on its application. Generally as stated in

Chapter 3, the producer gas has been used in burners or in internal combustion
engines. In the latter the producer gas is extracted from the gasifier by means of the
negative pressure created by the suction stroke of the engine. This will be discussed
thoroughly in Chapter 6. If the producer gas were to be used in a swirl burner it has
to be extracted by using an extraction fan or an ejector system. The producer gas
exits from the gasifier through a 50 mm pipe and in one case was connected to an
ejector. The ejector consists of an air driven 10 mm diameter nozzle centrally located
in a 100mm diameter pipe. The air supply flowing through the nozzle creates a low
pressure downstream of the orifice. The producer gas outlet enters the ejector system
perpendicularly at a position downstream of the orifice. As a result the producer gas
is drawn into the ejector where it is mixed with air before entering a swirl burner.
The swirl burner shown in figure 5.6 and built at UWCC was found to be suitable for
burning low heating value gas. The swirl chamber consists of a dual tangential inlet
air supply. At one of the inlets, an ejector was connected which draws the producer
gas from the gasifier into the swirl chamber. The output flow rate of the producer gas
can be varied by varying size of the ejector nozzle. The swirl chamber has a diameter
of 200mm, that of the dual tangential inlet air supply 90mm diameter whilst the exit
diameter was 90 mm. The furnace diameter is 320mm in diameter with an exit
diameter of 200mm. The geometrical swirl number was found to be about 2.5 from
the following formula
S=
TEDiDo
4AT
where Di = diameter of the burner exit

Do= diameter of the swirl chamber
AT= cross section of the tangential air supply
Because the swirl is greater than the critical value of 0.6, there is recirculation at the
exit of the burner therefore stabilising the flame.
The heating value of the gasified product is sometimes not consistent especially
during start-up or during reloading of the biomass material. It is therefore necessary
to have a dual fired swirl burner capable of burning gasified product from the gasifier
as well as natural gas. The natural gas inlet is located at the bottom of the swirl
burner, entering it perpendicularly. It takes over the system heating load when the
supply of the gasified product reduces, interrupts or the heating value becomes too
low. The natural gas burner is also required to heat up the burner quarl and cylinder
before igniting the wood in the gasifier so that the gasified product can be easily
burned in the swirl burner.
The flow rate of the secondary air into the swirl burner is determined by calculations
for the complete combustion of the biomass material. In Chapter 2, the air-fuel ratio
for theoretical gasification process is 2.24 m 3/kg of biomass material. This was
determined from the global chemical reaction between the biomass material. The
amount of air required for complete combustion of the biomass material is calculated
from the following reaction.
C111.400.6 + 1.0502 > CO2 + 0.7H20
The above reaction can also be written in mass form as follows;
(23)CH1.400.6 +1.05(32)02 --> (44)CO2 + 0.7(18)H20

This becomes
230-11.400.6+ 33.602 > 44CO2+ 12.61120
For 1 kg of biomass, 1.46kg of 02 is required for complete combustion of the

biomass solid material into ash, carbon dioxide and water. Therefore the
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for complete combustion of solid biomass material is
given by
1.46/0.233= 6.27
The volume of air required for complete combustion is therefore
6.27/1.2 = 5.225 m3/kg of biomass
Therefore the amount of air required in the swirl burner is the difference between the
amount of air required for complete combustion to the amount of air required for
gasification
5.225-2.24 = 2.985 m 3/kg of biomass
Obviously this needs to be increased by the normal 15-20% to ensure complete

combustion.
5.3 GAS ANALYSIS
5.31 Gas sampling train
A gas sampling train was installed to process the gases from the gasifier before they
are analysed by the gas chromatograph. Figure 5.7 shows a schematic diagram of the
sampling train consisting of a probe, condensation unit, filter, dryer, sampling bag
and a suction peristaltic pump.

The condensation unit was used to condense and trap all the liquid and particulate
phase: water, organic pollutants (acids, methanol, phenolic compounds and tars).
Three condenser bottles were submerged in an ice bath. The condensate which
contained mostly water is weighed to obtain the relative proportion in the gasified
product.
After the condenser, the wood gas was passed through a filter which trapped any
particulate in the gas. The filter could either be made from glass fibre or PTFE. The
chemical composition of the gas should not be affected when passing through the
filter. The filter is heated to about 110C to prevent condensation from occurring.
An air-tight pump or a peristaltic pump was used to induce the wood gas into the
sampling train. The amount of gas passing through the sampling train can be
determined using a flow meter located upstream to the pump.
Finally sampled gases were collected in 1 litre non permeable Teflon sampling bags.
Before collection into the bags, the pump was switched on so as to allow the sampled
gases to pass through the sampling train and out to the atmosphere for about 30
seconds. This will ensure that any contamination of the sampled gases will be
avoided. The procedures for sampling are presented in a later section. The gas
samples were analysed as soon as possible to avoid any contamination or diffusion of
gases into or out of the bags.
5.32 Gas chrornatograph
A thermal conductivity gas chromatograph shown in figure 5.8 was used to analyse
the composition of the producer gas which consist of carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, small amount of methane, oxygen and nitrogen. The Thermal
conductivity detector was used because it is suitable for detecting the permanent
gases mentioned just now. The specification of the chromatograph is given in
Appendix B. In gas analysis, various types of absorption columns are used

depending upon the type of gases to be identified. In this case, the Molecular Sieve
and Silica Gel columns were used for their suitability of detecting permanent gases.
The thermal conductivity detector operates on the principle of a Wheatstone bridge.

When the sampled gas is injected through the injection port, it is carried through the
column with the help of a non reacting gas known as the carrier gas. For detecting
common gases as mentioned above, the most common carrier gas used are Helium,
Nitrogen or Argon. Helium is mentioned by the supplier of the columns as the
preferred carrier gas. When the sampled gas flows through the column the
component gases are retained by the phase material in the column. Different gases
are retained at different length of times. For example, hydrogen is retained for a very
short time, only about 60 seconds, whilst carbon monoxide is retained for 10 minutes
in the column. Table 5.1 shows the retention time for the component gases for
columns containing molecular sieve and silica gel phase materials. These columns
were place in an oven that was maintained at a temperature of 50C.
After being retained in the column for a specific time, the gas leaves the column and
enters a detector that is maintained at a temperature of 60C. The oven and the
detector temperatures are the temperatures recommended by the suppliers of the
columns. The detector is connected as one of the bridges in the Wheatstone circuit.
The thermal conductivity of each component gas is different. Therefore when one of
the component gases passes through the detector, a current will cross the detector
depending upon the thermal conductivity of the gas. The flow of the component gas
acts as a resistor in one of the bridge. The reduced current flow through the detector
caused an unbalance in the Wheatstone circuit. The unbalance is recorded by a
printer showing a peak. The area underneath the peak is dependent on the thermal
conductivity of the component gas and its amount. For example, Hydrogen is
retained in the column for just 60 seconds and then passes through the detector. As a
result of the unbalance of the Wheatstone circuit the printer records a peak. The
second component gas is nitrogen in the producer gas which is retained in the
column for about 3 minutes. After that it passes through the detector and the printer
recorded a very high peak. This is because the amount of Nitrogen in the producer

gas is typically about 40 % whilst that of Hydrogen is about 15 %. Hence for the
producer gas the peaks on the chromatogram will be recorded at different heights and
at different times for each component gas. Table 5.1 shows the retention times for the
component gases. It is expected that the gas composition of the producer gas is of the
following approximation as shown in table 5.2.
The heating value or the calorific value of the producer gas can be calculated by
multiplying the volumetric concentration of combustible components and their
calorific values: For example:-
LHV= 0.16(LHVH2)+0.2(LHVco) +0.02(LHVcH4)
The calorific values of the combustible components of the gasified product are given
in table 5.3 obtained from Technical Data on fuel. The reference temperature at
which these values are measured is 288 K. Typical calorific values of producer gas is
3
about 4-6 MJ/m .
5.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND DATA ACQUISITION
The temperatures inside the gasifiers were measured using type K thermocouples.
There were 6 thermocouples used in the UWCC Gasifier. The thermocouples are
connected to the CIO computer board which is then connected to a computer. Lablog
software recorded the temperatures every 30 seconds. Figure 5.9 shows the position
of the thermocouples in the gasifier and the data acquisition system. The data
obtained were plotted by a graphical software showing the dynamic or time
dependent temperature profile over the period during which the run was conducted.
The thermocouples were used to determined the various thermochemical phases

inside the gasifier. The thermocouple which measures the combustion temperature
was replaced three times during the test carried out on the gasifier because of damage
due to excessive temperature rising up to 1200C occasionally. Care was also taken
to clean the tips of the thermocouples with a wire brush when they were covered

with a layer of tar thus giving erroneous temperature readings. The drying and the
pyrolysis thermocouples were shrouded with 10 mm steel tube to prevent the
thermocouples from bending. The thermocouple which measures the combustion
zone was positioned near the cone wall directly in front of the nozzles through where
the supplied air exits. In subsequent modifications to the gasifier, another
thermocouple was placed at the throat of the cone, to determine the combustion zone
depth, figure 5.10. Finally the reduction zone thermocouple was placed in the middle
of the straight tube after the cone neck,
5.5 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR RUNNING THE GASIFIER
The operational procedure of the gasifier includes set-up, running and data
collections phases are as follows:
5.51 Set-up and running
1. Weigh and prepare thirty kilograms of biomass material. The ideal size of
biomass material for the gasifier is about 50 mm in length and an equivalent
diameter of 25 mm. The furniture wood has to be cut up into the appropriate size
before loading.
2. Turn on the main Natural Gas supply.
3. Switch on the air supply fan
4. Allow 500 litres/min of air through the ejector and 70 litres/min of Natural Gas
into the swirl burner at the bottom.
5. Ignite the swirl burner with a spark lighter.

6. Turn on the fan which supplies air to the nozzles and the other tangential port of
the swirl burner. Allow 1000 litres/min of air into the swirl burner. The air
supply to the nozzles remain closed.
7. Ensure that the flame of the swirl burner is contained inside the furnace.
8. Allow the swirl burner to warm up sufficiently about 15 minutes.
9. Connect the thermocouples from the gasifier to the CIO-ADO8 computer board.
Switch on the computer and initiate the data acquisition software. Load the
appropriate filename, change the disklog filename for each run and display the
temperatures.
10. Ensure that the thermocouples are in working condition.
11. Open the side loading door of the gasifier and load the biomass material into the
reduction zone from the grate to the neck of the cone. Ensure that the air supply
nozzle is positioned just above the neck of the gasifier. In later runs, 1.5 kg of
charcoal was loaded into the reduction zone to assist the gasification process.
12. Place some firelighters on the biomass surface and ignite them.
13. Turn on the air supply to the nozzles to about 200 litres/min.
14. When the biomass material has ignited, load the remaining biomass material and
close the door.
15. Allow the required amount of air into the gasifier, typically 400 11min.
16. Monitor the changes in the thermocouples reading.

5.52 Gas sampling
1. At specific intervals, for example 10-20 minutes, a sample of the gasified product
was taken for analysis in the gas chromatograph.
2. Ensure that the sampling line is free from leaks. Leak tests can be done by
blowing air through the line and observing any air bubbles when a layer of soap
film is applied on the surface.
3. Ensure that the sampling probe (stainless steel or ceramic) is not blocked with tar
or soot
4. Insert the probe into the sampling port.
5. Turn on the peristaltic pump at 100 % speed. Leave it on for 30 seconds.
6. Connect a sampling bag to the outlet of the sampling line.
7. Allow the bag to be filled partially and then squeeze all of the sampled gas out of
the bag. This is done to ensure that there is no contamination.
8. Fill the bag again.
9. Remove the connection to the bag and then stop the pump.
5.53 Problems encountered while running the gasifier.
The main objective of running the gasifier was to obtain a consistent supply of
producer gas in terms of its calorific value and the flow rate. Nevertheless there are
many other problems encountered while running the gasifier some of which could be
solved whilst others could not. In general the gasifier works well.

The most significant problem encountered was the problem of leakage of volatiles,
water and tar from the side loading door. The door was closed and clamped on one
side whilst hinged on the other side. As a result the door was not sealed perfectly.
Volatiles, tar and water were initially observed to escape profusely near the hinge.
Initially a layer of refractory wool was used as a gasket material to seal the door.
Water and tar soon saturate the wool and rendered it useless in providing a perfect
seal. Much work have been carried out to overcome this problem using a range of
different gasket materials.
An extraction hood was place over the gasifier to extract any escaping volatiles.
There have been occasions prior to the installation of the hood where volatiles filled
the laboratory causing extreme inconvenience.
The hinge was replaced by another clamp. With two clamps on each side of the door,
the amount of leakage reduced substantially. Since the side loading door is not
subjected to very high temperature; the maximum being 40C, a rubber gasket was
used instead of refractory wool. Furthermore a second door was constructed inside of
the main loading door. The second door has hinges located at the bottom. It does not
however provide a good seal but rather serves to reduce the amount of volatiles
escaping. As a result there was little leakage of volatiles, water or tar from the door.
The ash door was also modified with the hinge replaced by a clamp. Since the
temperature of the ash door was about 112C, rubber is not suitable and thus
refractory wool continued to be used as a gasket material. The pressure in the ash bin
is much lower than in the top part of the gasifier hence the amount of leakage is
much lower.
Initially there was a lighting port with a sight glass by the side of the gasifier, but the
port was later used to insert a thermocouple to measure the reduction zone
temperature which is more essential. The lighting of the wood was aided by
firelighters. Some quantity of wood and later charcoal was placed in the reduction
zone up to the level of the air supply nozzle. The firelighters were placed on top of

the pile and ignited. Later a blow torch was used to ignite the firelighters. Air supply
into the gasifier at the time of loading was set at a flow rate of 200 litres/min to aid in
the initiation process. Problems arose when the wood was loaded into the gasifier
when the charcoal has not sufficiently ignited. As a result the combustion zone
sometimes extinguished or moved downward towards the reduction zone which
recorded temperatures in the range of 1000C. Since downdraft gasifiers are very
sensitive to moisture content, it is necessary to ensure that the moisture content of the
biomass material used was low (about 20-25%). Several runs were forced to be
abandoned due to the high moisture content of the wood chips that were used.
Further problem arises in removing the wood chips from the failed run. The wood is
either removed from the gasifier by removing the grate at the bottom of the reduction
zone and letting the wood to drop into the ash bin or by removing it via the loading
door. Although the latter method is very laborious, it is nonetheless more convenient.
Reloading of the biomass material during a run is another major problem. At present
the wood is reloaded via the loading door. During reloading the air supply into the
gasifier was reduced to about 200 litres/min to avoid excessive volatiles being forced
through the loading door, otherwise the reloading process becomes extremely
difficult. The gasifier was run on a batch basis, reloading being done in certain runs
only. Screw feeders for wood chips or hopper with gas tight seals are commercially
available and can conveniently be installed for commercial application.
The temperatures in the combustion and reduction zones reached very high levels
more than 1150C occasionally. As a result the thermocouples at these zones melted
three times and had to be replaced. The position of these thermocouples also causes
some obstruction in the flow of the biomass in the gasifier.
A considerable amount of time was spent in preparing the gasifier for subsequent
runs. The furniture wood had to be cut into small pieces with a band saw whilst the
wood chips had to be dried in open air to reduce the moisture content. Furthermore
the wood chips had to be sieved to remove the fine wood particles, sand and stones.
The biomass feed had to be weighed for each run.

The wood chips in the vertical filter in the cooling and cleaning system has to be
removed and replaced by fresh materials. The water vapour condensed in the
condensers had to be collected and weighed. The sealants for the condensers had to
be renewed. Occasionally after about 6 hours run the rotameter for the wood gas has
to be taken apart for cleaning. The oil-bath filter also had to be cleaned with diesel
oil after the same interval.
Initially the air supply nozzles were protected with a layer of refractory cement.
During the runs, the refractory cement broke off as a result of impact with furniture
wood while loading. The air supply nozzles then had to be removed from the gasifier
and refractory cement remoulded on to them.
5.6 PROCEDURE FOR USING THE GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
5.61 Start-up procedure
1. Purge the lines (Molecular Sieves and the Silica Gel) for 15 minutes using the
carrier gas before switching the detector power.
2.
Set the column oven temperature to the required test setting of 50 C and the
detector temperature to 60 C.
3. Use Helium as the carrier gas. Adjust its flow rate to about 65 ml/min.
Disconnect the bubble flow meter after setting the flowrate.
4. Switch on the detector power and the circulating fan.
5. Set switch for either Molecular Sieves or Silica Gel.
6. Set output attenuator to 5.
7. Set the detector current to about 200 mA.
8. Switch on the computing integrator.
9. Enter the date and time.
10. Check the input level on the computing integrator by adjusting the course and the
fine controls on the gas chromatograph so that the level is 1005.
5.62 Calibration procedure
1. Calibration gas of the following compositions: CO (7%), CO 2 (15%), 02(5%) in

Nitrogen were used. The gases are contained in a 14 litre bottle with a syringe
adapter. A small amount of the calibration gas is withdrawn into a syringe
through a silicone rubber septum. A vent at the septum permits purging prior to
filling the syringe. Other calibration gases such as CH 4 and H2 were obtained
from a 5 litre can with needle spouts. Cans of CO, CO 2 and C2H6 were also
available.
2. It is essential that the following procedure be followed to prevent any

contamination of air into the syringe. The main valve of the bottle was turned on
for 5 seconds to allow the gas to enter the syringe adapter. The piston syringe
was pushed forward and the syringe was inserted through the syringe adapter.
The pressure inside the syringe adapter pushed the syringe piston to about the 4
ml mark. The syringe was remove and the piston was pushed forward completely
to purge the gas output of the syringe. The syringe was inserted again into the
syringe adapter. When the pressure inside the adapter pushed the piston
backwards to the 4m1 mark, the syringe was removed. The piston syringe was
then pushed forward to the 2 ml mark. Subsequently the calibration gas inside the
syringe was immediately injected into the injection port of the gas
chromatograph. Delay in injecting the sample into the gas chromatogaph would
result in the diffusion of air into the syringe needle thereby contaminating the
calibration gas.

3. For calibration gases in the canisters the piston syringe was pushed forward and
the syringe needle inserted into the needle spout of the canister. The canister
button was depressed and the pressure inside the canister pushed the piston
backwards to the 4 ml mark. The syringe was remove from the needle spout and
the calibration gas purged out with the forward movement of the piston. The
syringe was inserted again into the needle spout of the canister and the procedure
repeated as above.
4. Two ml of the calibration gas were injected into the septum port of the gas
chromatogaph at the same time pressing the injection button on the computer
integrator.
5. The method of analysis used was method 0 which measures the peak area of the
component gases detected.
6. The calibration gas was injected three times to get an average reading prior to
actual injection of the sample.
7. A sample of the gasified product from a sampling bag was withdrawn into a
syringe. Then the sample was purged out to the atmosphere to ensure that the
syringe is not contaminated with air. Another sample was withdrawn into the
syringe slightly more than 2 ml. It was then purged out to the atmosphere until 2
ml of the sample gas remain in the syringe.
8. The sample gas is then injected into the gas chromatograph and simultaneously
pressing the injection button on the computer integrator.
9. Three injections of the same sample were made to obtain an average value.
10. The calibration and the actual sampling procedure should be done at the same
time or on the same day.

5.63 Calculation procedure
Out of 6 methods for gas analysis using the gas chromatograph with the computing
integrator, methods 0, 1 and 5 are the relevant ones. However, method 1 requires that
all the components be accounted for which is not possible because there are some
components in the sample gas that are not detected by one column. Method 5
requires that the amount injected into the gas chromatograph be exactly the same.
This is very difficult to achieve in practice unless an autosampler is available. Hence
method 0 was used which measures the peak area for every component detected.
When method 0 is used, the areas of the peaks of the sample gas are compared to the
peak areas of the calibration gas. Since the amount of gas to be analysed is not the
same as the calibration gas, the comparison is made with reference to the total area of
the injected amount. The following formula was used:
X% = Area X (sample gas)/ k x
e = X%(calibrated gas)/ Area X(calibrated gas)
k-...-- Total Area (sample gas)/ Total Area (calibrated gas)
An Excel program was made to calculate the concentration of the sample gas. After
the concentrations of H 2, CO, CO2, CH4, 02 and C2H6 are determined the
concentration of N2 was calculated from the difference of 100 %.
5.64 Problems encountered while using the gas chromatograph
The main problem encountered while using the gas chromatogaph was base line
drifting in the chromatogram. This problem occurred occasionally and sometimes
stabilised after a few hours. At times the analysis had to be postponed. The main
cause of the drift was the presence of water vapour in the stationary phase of the
column. This is due to the water vapour content in the samples and due to the slight

humid condition in the winter. The columns were reconditioned for 24 hours with the
oven temperature set at about 200C and the carrier gas set at about 5 litres/min.
Figure 5.1a Picture of the UWCC Gasifier
300
0150/
1
2001
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II
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400
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840
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Figure 5.1b Detail drawing of the gasifier
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0300 mm x lOmm
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Figure 5.2 Cone Assembly
STAINLESS
STEEL TUBE
0 20 0.D
0 10 I.D
STAINLESS
STEEL TUBE
0 40 0.D
0301.D
Figure 5.3a Air supply nozzles
Figure 5.3b Air supply with 4 nozzles
Figure 5.3c Air supply with 8 nozzles
Figure 5.3 Design and pictures of air supply nozzles used in the study
Figure 5.4 Alternative air supply plenum fitted to the cone
0750
-4
Galvanize
sheet metal
3mm thick
0150
300
Variable blower
A
1
1
400
III
Ill
1 II 40mm
I Pipe
III
III
III
III
1
Figure 5.5 Hopper and loading chamber assembly
1060
Figure 5.6 Swirl burner showing the ejector and the gasifier
a.)
4-4
a.)
-0
0
4-1
Figure 5.8 Picture of gas chromatograph
450
Drying
150
Pyrolysis
200
Combustion
200
Reduction
Computer
Software
CIO computer board
Exit
400
Gasifier
Figure 5.9 Position of the thermocouples in the gasifier and temperature data
acquisition system
Air supply nozzles
.
150mm
'WI
180mm
1
70mm
I'
Thermocouple at air
outlet
.1.,n
Thermocouple at the neck

of the cone
Reduction zone
thermocouple
Figure 5.10. Position of another thermocouple at the neck of the cone.
Table 5.1 Retention times of the constituents gases of the producer gas
COLUMNS
GAS
RETENTION
TIMES (MINUTES)
Hydrogen
Molecular Sieves
0.65
Oxygen
Molecular Sieves
1.66
Nitrogen
Molecular Sieves
3.20
Methane
Molecular Sieves
6.10
Ethane
Molecular Sieves
6.0
Carbon Monoxide
Silica Gel
9.0
Carbon Dioxide
Silica Gel
13.3
Table 5.2 Composition of the producer gas

Gas
Volumetric %
112
15
CO2
16
CO
20
CH4
C2H6
0.01
N2
47
Table 5.3 Heating values of the constituent gases of the producer gas
Low Heating Value
High Heating Value
(MJ/m3)
(MJ/m3)
Hydrogen
10.22
12.10
Carbon Monoxide
11.97
11.97
Methane
33.93
37.71
Ethane
60.43
66.07
Gas
Chapter 6 Power Production and Electricity Generation 112
CHAPTER 6
POWER PRODUCTION AND ELECTRICITY

GENERATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Generators are normally driven by turbines in large systems. For small power outputs
in isolated areas such as in farms, turbines are not cost effective. In most cases,
generators are driven either by petrol or diesel engines. Normally such reciprocating
engines are run on petroleum fuels. In this application producer gas from gasifiers
are used to supply the fuel to reciprocating engines.
In this chapter, the requirements for successful application of gasifier technology to

small scale electricity generation are described. The gasified product, the wood gas
has to be thoroughly cooled and cleaned before it can be used as a fuel in a
reciprocating engine. The components for the cooling and cleaning system are
described. The properties of the wood gas being far different from either petrol,
diesel or natural gas in its calorific value and combustion properties, would not
immediately seem suitable for application in existing engines. Such engines need to
be modified to accept the wood gas as a fuel, owing to available energy coming
primarily from the combustion of a mixture of hydrogen (which burns quickly) and
carbon monoxide (which burns slowly).
Finally the generator was connected to an electrical power output device whose load
can be varied to gauge the performance of the gasifier system in varying load
condition. The generator available produces a maximum electrical output of about 12
kW.
6.2 GAS COOLING AND CLEANING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The temperature of the gas leaving the reduction zone is at about 800C. This high
temperature is one of the disadvantages of a downdraft gasifier, but on the positive
side the quantity of tar produced is very small. The low exit temperature of about
200C occurring in an updraft gasifier would seem to be more suitable, but the
excessive quantity of tar produced outweigh its low temperature advantage. As the
gas leaves the reduction zone it enters the ash collection area thereby reducing its
temperature to about 350C. This temperature is still high for use in an internal
combustion engine. The gas needs to be cooled for three reasons. The first and the
second reasons are that the high gas temperature would reduce the volumetric
efficiency of the engine as well as lowering the maximum 'Came efficiency
attainable. As the temperature of the wood gas increases its density decreases hence
reducing the mass of wood gas entering the engine per cycle and thus reduces the
difference between maximum and minimum temperature levels. Thirdly, when the
wood gas is cooled, the water vapour present condenses. Together with the water
vapour the more important impurity, the tar, is also condensed. Condensers are used
to cool the wood gas and condensed the water vapour and the tar. The wood gas has
to be cleaned by a filter train, typically using filters and cyclones so that it should not
contain more than 10-50 mg/m3 of particulates. (Brewer, 1993)
Figure 6.1 shows the schematic diagram of the cooling and cleaning system
eventually evolved. The cooling and cleaning system comprises of a filter, cyclone,
multitube condenser, spiral inclined condenser, box condenser and an oil bath filter.
Some designs of gasifiers use double skin to transfer the heat from the exiting wood
gas to the incoming air supply (Hoi, 1989). As a result the temperature of the wood
gas is reduced to about 200C before entering the cooling and cleaning system.

6.21 Filter
After the gasifier, the wood gas passes through a filter that is lm high and 100mm in
diameter shown in figure 6.2a. The filter is used to trap large particles found in the
wood gas. The wood gas enters from the bottom of the filter and exits through the
top. The filter is filled with 800g of wood chips and topped up with three layers of
refractory wool each of 20 mm thick. The average size of the wood chips is about 20
mm square and about 3 mm thick. Wood chips are used because they can be reused
as biomass feed in the gasifier. Before the filter the wood gas passes through a two
meter 150 mm diameter pipe which reduces the temperature of the wood gas exiting
from the gasifier from 350C to 250C. It was found that the wood chips in the filter
partially pyrolyse into char after each run.
Fibreglass cloth (Hollingdale, 1983) can also be used as a filter medium provided
that the temperature of the wood gas is low and would not cause the cloth to pyrolyse
and burn. However in this study the temperature entering the filter is at about 250C
and would easily burn filter medium made from fabric materials. Hoi (1992) used a
volume filter consisting of two layers of wood chips above a layer of charcoal.
Brewer et al (1993) designed a filter consisting of a cylindrical metal mesh basket
containing wood chips. Wood gas enters at the periphery of the basket, passes
through the wood chips and exits via a cylindrical plenum in the middle of the filter.
Brewer also found that the wood chips partially pyrolysed and subsequently replaced
it with fibreglass wool. The use of fibreglass, although eliminating the problem of
the wood chips from being pyrolysed, is not economical because of its relatively
higher cost. The fibreglass material will have to be changed periodically.
The used of wood chips as a filter medium is a sensible one because of its
availability and low cost. However, pyrolysis of the wood chips defeats the purpose
of the filter in filtering the tar and the particulates. Charcoal, the end product of
pyrolysis of wood would be a better choice as a filter medium than wood chips
because it does not pyrolyse as much.

Commercially available wet scrubbers could also be used in cooling and cleaning the
wood gas provided that water supply is readily available. Although wet scrubbers are
very effective, they are not attractive because of the problem in disposing and
cleaning the contaminated water (contain toxic tars). Also wet scrubber systems
require more installation work and are not appropriate for mobile or vehicular
applications.
6.22 Cyclone
After the filter the wood gas was passed through a cyclone. Figure 6.2b shows a
schematic drawing of the cyclone which is cylindrical in shape of 1 m high and 200
mm obtained from the SELTEC charcoal gasifier system. The wood gas flows
tangentially into the cyclone. The wood gas spirals downwards followed by a vertical
flow upwards and exits through the top of the cyclone. The purpose of the cyclone is
to separate particles present in the wood gas by means of centrifugal force. Larger
particles are flung to the wall of the cyclone and fall down to the bottom.
Cyclones are used as the initial cleaning component in most work done on gasifier
system. Hollingdale (1988) allowed hot gas from the gasifier to enter a 144 mm
diameter cyclone that has a purpose built emptying port for daily removal of dust.
Hoi (1993) replaced a drum cooler by a cyclone immediately after the gasifier
because of problems with leaks and corrosion. Similar arrangement using a cyclone
separator was also used by Brewer (1993), where large particles trapped by the
cyclone were removed by a hydraulically driven auger attached to the bottom of the
cyclone. Shashikantha (1994) used a wet cyclone to clean the wood gas.
Subsequently the wood gas passes through a multitube cooler shown in figure 6.3
where it is predicted to cool from 150C to about 40C. The condenser is designed in
two sections consisting of 6 copper tubes of 15 mm diameter and a length of 2 m.

The positions of the tubes are staggered as shown in figure 6.4 to allow better
exposure to the atmosphere.
6.231 Thermal balance for the multitube cooler
As the wood gas flows through the condenser, the heat of the wood gas is transferred
to the wall of the tube. The outside wall of the tube is subjected to natural convection
and radiation to the environment. As a result, the temperature of the wood gas
decreases as it passes through the tube. This is actually a variable property problem
whose fluid properties, being dependent on temperature, vary as it flows through the
tube. The fluid concerned is the wood gas whose properties are not readily available,
hence the problem is simplified assuming a mean temperature based on the
experimental value of 100C.
Consider a section of the tube with length 6.x and perimeter P as shown in figure 6.5.
An energy balance is made for the section.
It is assumed that the conduction resistance of the tube wall is negligible. Inside the
tube the energy balance is
m g c p T M,g = h I. PAx(T -T. w) + mgcpT.4. 1,g
Where h i is the convective heat transfer coefficient on the inside of the tube that may
be calculated from the relationship assuming the flow is turbulent.
Nu = h i d/k = 0.023 Red"Pr 03 2

The properties are evaluated at a mean temperature of 100C. The energy balance for
the heat flow through the wall of the tube is the heat flux inside the tube and the heat
fluxes outside the tube due to natural convection and radiation.
q conv,i
q conv,o
q rad,o
By using convective heat transfer coefficient and radiation terms per unit area.
hi (T. ,
T., w) = hc(T. ,w - Ta) +
t(Tm,: Ta4)
The outside heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the natural convection
relation
hc = Nu.k/1
where Nu = 0.825 + {(0.387) (GrPr) 1/6}/{1 + [0.492/Pr] 9/16} 8/27
GrPr = g.P.AT.Pr/v2
Equation 1 can be solved for T.+1,g to give

= {1.-h iPAx/mg.ep}.T.,g + ( hiPAx/m g.,p).T. ,w 8
Equations 4 and 8 have two unknowns and can be solved by the Gauss-Seidel
iteration. Figure 6.6 shows the computer flow chart whilst Appendix C shows the
computer programme to calculate the temperature of the wood gas through the cooler
at specific intervals.
Figure 6.7 shows the temperature of the wood gas against the distance along the
condenser tube. It was found that the most suitable length of the copper tube is 2 m.
Increasing the copper tube does not reduce the temperature substantially. The final
temperature after the multitube condenser with initial temperature of 150C is about
40C.
The condenser was designed as an air cooled type. In practice the whole gasifier
including the cooling and cleaning system will be left outside in the open air. Any
breeze present would enhance the heat transfer in the condenser thereby reducing the
temperature of the wood gas and condensing the water vapour. The whole unit
should be under a shade to avoid heat addition into the system from the sun. Hoi
(1992) also designed a similar multitube air cooled condenser with different
dimensions and configuration.

6.24 Box and spiral-inclined condensers
Figure 6.8 shows a schematic diagram of a box condenser which is placed after the
multitube cooler. The condenser consists of a cylindrical barrel where the gas passes
through from the top via a pipe, enters a plenum and 6 pipes of 200 mm long and 40
mm diameter. The wood gas exits the condenser by its side and enters the spiral
inclined condenser.
There are four spiral condensers inclined 30 0 to the horizontal through which the
wood gas passes after being substantially cooled in the multitube condenser. Each
spiral condenser, obtained from the SELTEC gasifier system, is 250 mm in diameter
and 1 m long. Inside the condenser the wood gas is made to move in a spiral motion
by a stationary auger within it which can easily be removed and cleaned regularly.
Figure 6.9 shows a picture of the condenser and one of the augers inside it.
6.25 Oil bath filter
Finally the wood gas passes through an oil bath filter to remove any impurities from
the air and the wood gas. Figure 6.10 shows a diagram of an oil bath filter consisting
of an oil bath and wire mesh. The air and the wood gas enter through the annulus of
the filter and impinge on the oil. The air, wood gas and the oil splash pass through
the wire mesh where the oil together with any particulates and tars are trapped and
trickled down into the oil bath. The air and the wood gas are now cooled and cleaned
for use in the engine.
Before the installation of the oil-bath filter a duct filter using thick wire mesh and
refractory wool as filtering media was tested. The pressure drop developed was quite
high reducing hence the quantity of mixture into the engine. The installation of the
oil-bath filter contributed quite effectively to the cleaning of the mixture and reduced
pressure drop. Every six hours of running, the oil of the filter was replaced and the
wiremesh cleaned with diesel fuel to remove the tar deposited.
6.3 ENGINE/ GENERATOR
6.31 The use of producer gas in internal combustion engines
The use of producer gas to run internal combustion engines dates to the Second
World War. Many studies have been done using producer gas in internal combustion
engines for transportation and electricity generation. Studies have also shown that
producer gas has been used in four types of engines (Shashikantha, 1994):
i) Spark ignition petrol engine
ii) Compression ignition diesel engine operated as dual fuel engines with producer
gas and diesel fuel
iii) Converted diesel engines operated as spark ignition gas engines on producer gas
(DC SI).
iv) Gas turbines with either compressed producer gas and air mixture or with
compressed air.
The first type has a low efficiency whilst the second type needs diesel fuel. The third
type seems to be the most suitable choice both in terms of high efficiency and
independence of diesel fuel. Gas engines using natural gas as fuel are often based on
medium speed diesel engines with spark plugs to ignite the fuel and air mixtures.
Since natural gas consist mainly of methane which is resistant to auto-ignition, high
compression ratios can be used, giving high efficiency similar to the diesel engine
(Benson, 1979). The fourth type, gas turbine requires the pressurisation of the
producer gas or a pressurised gasifier. Such techniques are capital intensive and not
directly applicable to smaller scale systems as discussed in this thesis.
Shashikantha converted a Kirloskar RB22 model diesel engine into a spark ignition
producer gas engine (SIPGE) by modifying the combustion chamber geometry and
reducing the compression ratio from 17 to 11.5. Modelling and simulation processes
for the cylinder pressure and temperature at motored and 3/4 load conditions were
carried out. Good agreement between the modelling and experimental results were
found.
Hoi (1989) experimented on two types of engines using producer gas from a charcoal
gasifier: a two cylinder, four stroke diesel engine and a four cylinder, four stroke
petrol engine. When operated as a dual fuel engine (producer gas and diesel fuel),
Hoi found that diesel fuel replacement could be as high as 75% with an overall
efficiency of 21.6 %. It was also found that diesel engine is more suitable when there
are load fluctuations whilst petrol engines are better when a constant load is needed.
The petrol engine was run entirely on producer gas and had an overall efficiency of
about 12 %. With rubber wood, Hoi (1992) found that the diesel fuel replacement
was 68.9% and the overall efficiency was 18.1 %. Breag (1978) found that for a cold
gas efficiency of 70 % for the gasifier and a thermal efficiency of 25% for the
engine, the overall efficiency of the system was 17.5-18 %.
Hollingdale (1983) used a standard four cylinder, four stroke spark ignition Ford
engine fitted with a natural gas-fuelled system. The ignition timing was advanced to
35 before the top dead centre (BTDC) to compensate for the low flame speed of the
producer gas.
6.32 General problems associated with using producer gas in engines
The main problems of using the producer gas in an engine are corrosive wear due to
the phenolic and acidic nature of tar and the abrasion by soot and ash being the main
constituents of the particulate matter. Although the producer or wood gas has been
passed through the cooling and cleaning system, the tar and the particulates were not
eliminated and find their way into the engine.
Parikh (1984) made a detailed study of the problems of wear and lubricating oil
deterioration in duel fuel engines. As a result the engine life was reduced and an
increase in maintenance was required. Parikh had obtained quantitative wear rates
and the rates of lubricating oil deterioration for the reformulation of maintenance
schedules. He found that the level of wear was considerably increased and the
lubricating oil deteriorated faster than the case of diesel operation. However he did

not observe any drop in the engine performance over the period of the 400 hour run
carried out. The study was performed on the Kirloskar engine model AV-1, single
cylinder, 4 stroke, water cooled engine with a rating of 3.70 kW
When the wood gas enters the engine the contaminants especially tar get deposited in
the inlet manifold, on the valve, valve stems and the valve guide. The tar forms
sticky deposits on the piston, piston rings, piston grooves and other critical parts of
the engine. The deposit of tar of the valve and the valve guide leads to valve sticking
and results in occasional backfiring of the engine. Starting, warming up and stopping
the engine with conventional fuel is known to minimise the ill effects of tars (Breag,
1978).
6.33 Theoretical air -fuel ratio
6.331 Air-fuel ratio for natural gas
The theoretical air-fuel ratio can easily be calculated from the combustion reaction of
the fuel in air. Using natural gas as fuel and assuming that natural gas consists
entirely of methane the combustion reaction is given by:
CH4 + 202 + 2(3.76)N 2 --> 'CO2 + 2H20 + 2(3.76)N2 1
The volumetric air-fuel ratio at the same temperature for the combustion of natural
gas is therefore,
(A/F), = 9.52
The above molar equation can be written in mass equation as
16CH4+(32)202+(28)2(3.76)N2 --> 44CO2+(18)2H20+(28)2(3.76)N 2 2
16CH4+6402+(210.56)N2 -4 44CO24-(36)1120+(210.56)N2
The mass air-fuel ratio for the combustion of natural gas is,
(A/F). = 17.16
6.332 Air -fuel ratio for wood gas
Wood gas contains hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane as its combustible
constituents. The following combustion reactions will be used to calculate the
theoretical air-fuel ratio.
CO + 0.502 + 0.5(3.76)N2 > CO2 + (0.5)3.76N2
112 + 0.502 + 0.5 (3.76)N2 > H20 + 0.5(3.76)N 2
CH4 + 202 + 2(3.76)N2 > CO2 +21120 + 2(3.76)N2
Table 6.1 shows the amount of air required per mole of the wood gas based on its
volumetric concentration. Hence for a typical composition of wood gas containing
15% Hydrogen, 20% Carbon Monoxide and 2% Methane the theoretical volumetric
air-fuel ratio at the same temperature for the wood gas is
(A/F), = 1.021
Similarly the theoretical mass air-fuel ratio for the wood gas can also be calculated
based on the mass concentration of the wood gas. Table 6.2 shows the mass of air
required per kg of the wood gas. Hence the theoretical mass air-fuel ratio of the
wood gas is
(A/F). = 1.114
Either theoretical volumetric or the mass air-fuel ratio can be used. The mass air-fuel
ratio is preferred because it indicates the amount of fuel required regardless of its
volume. This is important because if the temperature of the wood gas is high, the
amount or weight of the gas per volume is less. This is the case with the wood gas
that is not perfectly cooled to ambient temperature.
6.34. Specification and description of the engine
The specification of the engine used for electricity generation is shown in table 6.3.
The engine shown in figure 6.11 is based on a diesel engine that has been converted
into a spark ignition engine to be run on natural gas. An average family car working
on the principle of spark ignition engine has a compression ratio of about 9:1, but the
present engine has a compression ratio of about 13:1. Therefore the efficiency of the
engine would be slightly higher than for a similar capacity petrol engine. A much
higher compression ratio engine up to 15:1 could be used if available. The engine
can either be started either by a battery or by crank start. The ignition system used is
the transistorised coil ignition system or the high-energy electronic-ignition system
which consist of a magnetic pulse generating system. The pulse signal is obtained
from two magnets (for two cylinder engines) attached opposite to each other on the
flywheel. When the flywheel rotates, magnetic pulse is generated twice per
revolution which sends electrical pulses to an electronic pickup module. The module
switches off the flow of current to the coil primary winding, inducing the high
voltage in the secondary windings which is distributed to the sparks plugs hence
igniting each spark plug once per revolution. This ignition system was used because
it extends the spark plug life, improved ignition of lean and dilute mixtures and
increases reliability and life of ignition coil system (Heywood, 1988). This system
also produces higher voltage output and therefore requires wider spark plug gap to
extend the ability to ignite the fuel mixture over wider range of engine operation.
The ignition timing is set at about 30 0 BTDC (before top dead centre). This was
determined by the position of the magnet relative to the position of the piston at
TDC.

6.35 Air-fuel mixture
In most gas engines, air and fuel gas are mixed in a venturi. The engine creates a
high suction which draws air through the venturi. The natural gas port is positioned
at the neck of the venturi. When air flows through the venturi, a low pressure zone is
created as the neck of the venturi and induces natural gas into the engine. The airfuel ratio is controlled by the opening of the gas port at the venturi neck. A venturi
system was used by Shashikantha (1994) whilst Hoi (1993) used a simple T junction
to mix the air and the producer gas.
A similar T junction was also used in the present work. Both the air and the producer
gas are being sucked into the system by the engine. Their flow rates are controlled by
ball valves and their values read from rotameters. The rotameter for measuring the
amount of wood gas was calibrated based on the ratio of the densities of air and
wood gas. The T junction was located about 1.5m away from the engine inlet
manifold. This was done because of the constraint of space in the whole system.
Downstream of the venturi is a throttle connected to a speed governor. For higher
load the speed of the engine reduces and opens the throttle to allow more mixture to
flow into the engine.
6.36 Procedure for operating the engine.
Figure 6.12 shows the piping system and the valves used for controlling the flow of
wood gas, air and natural gas. A 'battery charger/starter' was used to start the engine.
Natural gas was use as the initial start-up fuel for the engine. Valve 4 is the valve for
controlling the supply of wood gas into the engine and was initially closed. As the
engine was being cranked, 40 11min of natural was passed into the T junction via
valve 5 where it mixes with the incoming air. When the engine has fired, the flow
rate of the natural gas was increased to 70 11min with the air supply maintained at
about 700 11min via valve 3. The air-fuel ratio is about 10 as shown before. The
engine was allowed to warm up for about 15-20 minutes before running it on wood
gas.
Prior to this or whilst the engine was running the gasifier was started up with an air
supply of 400 litres/min and biomass material of about 30 kg. The gasifier was
initially filled with 1.5 kg of charcoal as start-up fuel. The gasified product or the
wood gas was first vented by closing valve 2 and opening fully valve 1, as the wood
gas is initially observed to contain dense smoke. This was due to two reasons: firstly,
the temperature of the combustion zone has not risen above 900C to crack the tar
formed as a result of pyrolysis; secondly, the wood in the reduction zone also
pyrolysed and leaves the gasifier with the tar uncracked. As the wood turned into
charcoal inside the reduction zone the wood gas became less smoky. This occurred
after about 20 minutes indicating that the wood gas is ready to be introduced into the
engine.
Valve 4 was opened fully whilst valve 1 and 2 were gradually closed and opened
respectively thus allowing the wood gas to enter the T junction and mixing it with air
before being drawn into the engine. As this happened, the engine speed increased
gradually. At the same time, valve 5, the natural gas inlet valve was turned down to
maintain the speed of the engine. The change over from natural gas to wood gas was
gradual to allow the engine to stabilise to the new fuel. After a few minutes the
engine was run entirely on wood gas without any support from the natural gas. When
the engine was running on no load condition, some of the wood gas was vented off
by opening slightly valve 1. The flow rate of the wood gas flowing into the T
junction was about 550 litres/min at a temperature of about 45C whilst the air
supply was maintained at about 1300 litres/min. At these flow rates the engine speed
was maintained at 1500 rpm.
At the end of the run, it was found that the engine speed reduces indicating the wood
gas quality is insufficient to sustain the speed of the engine. At this juncture, valve 5
was slowly turned on to allow the natural gas to take over from the wood gas. Valve
1 was fully opened whilst valves 2 and 4 were fully closed. The engine was allowed
to run on the natural gas for about 15 minutes before the whole system was shut

down. The air supply into the gasifier was continued to ensure that all the biomass
materials were thoroughly burned.
6.37 Combustion characteristics of wood gas in engines
Wood gas which contains mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane are
ignited in the combustion chamber. Hydrogen having a high flame speed (3.1 m/s)
burns rapidly whilst carbon monoxide and methane having same low flame speeds
(0.45 m/s) burn slower (Griffiths and Barnard, 1995). High flame speed gases have
ignition timing near to TDC whilst for low flame speed gases the ignition timing is
advanced before TDC. For wood gas, the ignition timing is set at about 30-35
BTDC to allow for the slow burning of carbon monoxide and methane.
The brake thermal efficiency of gas engines increases with increasing compression
ratio. Raising the compression ratio tend to result in pre-ignition and detonation
(knock or auto-ignition). Both phenomena are not desirable as they reduce power and
the efficiency of the engine. Detonation is cause by spontaneous ignition of the air
and fuel mixture setting up a detonation wave of extremely high speed.
The main factors affecting detonation are:
1. Fuel characteristics (molecular structure, temperature of self ignition, rate of

burning, fuel composition)
2. Conditions of the cylinder charge (slightly rich mixture strength, high inlet
temperature of the charge)
3. High compression ratio (the higher the C.R the higher the pressure and
temperature in the end gas during normal conditions)
4. Advanced ignition timing (advancing the ignition timing raises the cylinder
pressure and temperature which in turns raises the end gas pressure and
temperature)

5. Low engine speed (the lower the engine speed, the longer the time for the flame to
traverse the cylinder and the longer the time available for the end gas reaction to
take place
6. Design factors (combustion chamber shape, location of spark plugs, exhaust valve
location)
Factors like the compression pressure, valve timing, location of sparks or the
combustion chamber factors are dependent on the design of the engine. It is very
difficult for the user of the engine to change these parameters.
Gases with high flame speed tend to promote detonation whilst low flame speed
gases tend to suppress it. To reduce detonation hydrogen as fuel gas requires among
other factors lower compression ratio. However carbon monoxide and methane can
be used in engines of higher compression ratio. The overall flame speed of wood gas
is very low and together with high dilution by nitrogen reduces the chances of
detonation occurring. Hence a converted diesel engine into a spark ignition engine
whilst maintaining the high compression ratio has a higher thermal efficiency than a
spark ignition engine. The present engine which is a conversion from a diesel engine
base into a spark ignition engine has a compression ratio of 13:1. In the tests
conducted detonation was not observed. However Hollingdale (1983) reported
detonation in a spark ignition engine with a compression ratio of 8:1 using
uncarbonized biomass fuel. Nonetheless Hollingdale did not observe any detonation
occurring whilst using charcoal. This would suggest that the presence of hydrogen in
the fuel gas promotes detonation. Nevertheless detonation could also occur due to
other factors mentioned above.
6.38 Experiences obtained in running the DCSI gas engine
Four engine tests with natural gas were successful carried out; however starting the
engine with wood gas was not successful due to insufficient suction from the engine
to allow enough low calorific value wood gas to enter the cylinders and ignite. Hence
it was decided to start the engine with natural gas and gradually replace it with wood

gas. An important procedure to be highlighted is that the speed of the engine should
be at about 1500 rpm to sustain the momentum required for the changeover from
natural gas to wood gas. Test performed at a lower speed of 1100 rpm failed in the
changeover.
During the initial tests (operation in no load conditions) the occurrence of backfiring
at the inlet manifold was observed. Occasionally the engine was ignited without
problems but the speed of the engine started to drop and eventually it stopped.
The backfires could occur either due to bad valve balance, bad timing or bad sparks.
Hence the valve adjustment and the electrical system of the engine were thoroughly
checked. A careful check showed that the valves of the engine were not correctly set.
Hence the valves were set up with tappet clearances of 0.04572mm (0.018 in.) and
0.04064mm (0.016 in.) for the inlet valves and outlet valves respectively.
A compression gauge was inserted in place of a spark plug to check the pressure of
the cylinder to ensure that the there is no leakage of the pressure in the combustion
chamber. It was found to be about 14.50 bar (210 psi) in each cylinder. This value is
similar to the typical maximum motored pressure in spark ignition engines.
After these check the engine was tested again but still backfiring occurred. It was
observed that the spark plugs were not working properly and the sparks also were not
strong enough. It was decided that the spark plugs should be replaced. The original
spark plugs of the engine were of a special construction having a length of about
150mm. This is due to the conversion of the engine from a diesel engine base. These
spark plugs were of a three-gap type (three earthed electrodes) to give a longer plug
life. They were replaced by normal car engine spark plugs, although installation was
quite difficult due to their shorter length. Furthermore it was found that the life of the
spark plugs was only about 8 hours before replacement was necessary. The cause of
the damage to the plugs was due to high voltage sparks from the transistorised coil
ignition system. Nevertheless the new spark plugs eliminated the backfiring
problems. The ignition timing of engine was set by the position of the flywheel

magnets relative to the pick up module at top dead centre. It was found to be set at
about 30 0 BTDC.
In all the runs the mechanical governor which maintains the speed of the engine was
disconnected. Governors operate by varying the amount of the air/fuel mixture with
varying electrical power output. However in this case the calorific value of the wood
gas itself being inconsistent causes the engine to vary in its speed thus effecting the
power output. It is therefore necessary to control the speed of the engine manually.
Although the calorific value of the wood gas fluctuates slightly, the occurrence of
occasional bridging inside the gasifier cause the most significant effect on the speed
of the engine. This needs to be addressed in future work.
6.39 Generator and electrical load
A photograph of the electrical load is shown in figure 6.13. The specification of the
generator is given in table 6.4
At the designed speed the maximum power output of the generator is about 12 KVA.
Resistive electrical load was chosen because of its high power factor of about unity.
The load consists of three convector heaters connected in parallel producing a
maximum electrical output of 9 kW. The thermostatic controls on the heaters were
removed to prevent the heaters from being turned on and off. If one of the heaters
was turned off, an unbalance force is resulted and would cause damage to the
generator. Nevertheless safety bimetallic trip switches were not removed as this
would prevent the heaters from overheating and burning the heating coils. Air is
blown across the heaters to prevent them from overheating. Figure 6.13 shows the
picture of the heaters that are also capable of varying the power output. The voltage
output from each phase is constant at 240 V. A potentiometer was connected to three
ammeters that were connected to each of the heaters. The power output of the heaters
was varied by the potentiometer and the current read from the ammeters. It is
essential that the loads on the heaters are varied together to prevent the unbalance

forces in the generator. Figure 6.14 shows the schematic diagram of the electrical
circuit for the electrical load control on the heaters.
a)
Cl)
ta0
oci
CU
c73
1=S
tO
0
0
4-4
0
-3
czt
C)
:-8
a)
Cl)
(1.)
- . ...................................................... . .
A..
..............................................................
Figure 6.3 Picture of a multitube cooler
100
copper tube 15
mm diameter
Ii
1000
200
Drain
400
4
30
100
.30
Figure 6.4 Design of multitube cooler
Heat loss by natural

convection and radiation
ing flow of wood gas)
Figure 6.5 Elemental volume to analyse the heat

and fluid flow through the multitube cooler
Select Ax, x = 0
4-
Determine k,cp,v,cr,e for

the wood gas at 100 C
Jr
Determine Re, Pr, mg
for the wood gas
Jr
Input the geometry
of the tube and Tn,,g
Jr
Evaluate h i and II, from
equation 4 and 5
Guess value T,,,,,I
Use Trn,w2
Insert into equation 4 and

calculate T.
,g
Insert T Lg into equation

5 and calculate Tr,2
limmi - 1 in,w2 = 0

1No I
Yes
Store the
value of T..14
Jr
Repeat for x = x+Ax
Jr
x=L
Jr
End
Figure 6.6 Flow chart for determining the temperature of the wood gas
through the multitube condenser
Figure 6.7 Temperature of cooler the wood gas along the pipe of
the multitube
Figure 6.8 Box condenser
Figure 6.9 Spiral condenser with an auger
Mixture of air
and wood gas
Jr
Clean air and

fuel gas
Wire mesh
Clip
Oil and
particulates
Oil level
n
Mixture impinge
on the oil
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of a modified oil bath air
filter
Figure 6.11 Lister engine
t474
Figure 6.13 Three convector heaters connected to the generator
Red
Blue
Yellow
L3
Li
L2
Switch Si
\\\
MCB 16 A ( miniature circuit

breaker)
Current transformer
meter
12 amps full
scale
3 kW convector
heater
Phase control I.C.
0
250 k
potentiometer
Figure 6.14 Schematic diagram of the electrical circuit to vary the electrical
load on the heaters
Table 6.1 Theoretical volumetric air-fuel ratio for wood gas.

Gas
Amount of air per Typical
Amount of air per
mole
mole of wood gas
of volumetric
constituent gas
concentration
of
the gas (/o)

CO
2.375
20
0.475
H2
2.375
15
0.356
CH4
9.52
0.190
Total
1.021
Table 6.2 Theoretical mass air-fuel ratio for wood gas.

Gas
Molecular
weight
Amount of air Typical mass Amount of air

of per
kg
constituent
constituent
gas
gas
CO
28
H2
CH4
of concentration
per
kg
of the gas (%)
wood gas
2.451
21.12
0.518
34.32
1.13
0.388
16
17.16
1.21
0.208
Total
1.114
of
Table 6.3 Specification of the engine used in the experiment

Model
Lister HR2
No. of cylinder:
No. of stroke
Maximum speed
1800 rpm
Maximum power output
20 kW
Maximum capacity
2.2 litres
Cooling system
Air cooled
Compression ratio
13
Maximum motored pressure
14.50 bar
Table 6.4 Specification of the generator used in the experiment

Phases
--
Type of connection
Star delta
Voltage
415/240 Volts
Current
17.4 amps
Operational speed
1500 rpm
Frequency
50 Hz
Rating
12.5 K V A
M,)
Chapter 7 Results and Dicussion 144
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The performance of the biomass gasifier system is determined in terms of:
i) The fuel gas quality: gas composition, calorific value, tar and particulate content
ii) The flow rate of the producer gas
iii) Thermal output from the gasifier
iv) Cold gas and mass conversion efficiencies
v) Emissions from the gasifier
vi) The performance of the cooling and cleaning system
vii) The performance of the engine and its emissions and
viii) The performance of the electrical load.
The gasifier was designed with a cone having an angle of 60 0 with a cylindrical
reduction zone. The dynamic performance characterisation of this design, in
conjunction with application of the fuel gas produced in internal combustion engines,
is the main objective of this research.
The quality of the wood gas depends on various factors such as the moisture content
of the feed, the air flow rate into the gasifier, the size of the wood, the position of the
air inlet nozzle and the reduction zone volume. Exhaustive gas analysis results are
also presented to determine the development of the gas composition in the gasifier
started from cold. The gas analysis obtained were used as a basis to determine the
calorific value of the wood gas. Complete enthalpy and mass balances for the gasifier
are presented for run 43. Several assumptions are made and justified.
The process of gasification can be better understood from the dynamic temperature
profiles inside the gasifier and the authors knowledge is unique. Dynamic
temperature profiles of the gasifier were obtained for various conditions of air supply
into the gasifier and the type of biomass material used. Since the downdraft gasifiers
are very susceptible to size and dryness of the biomass material, the type of materials
used were limited to furniture wood leftovers and wood chips. Problems of gasifying
these materials in the gasifier are also discussed.
A brief discussion of the results on mathematical modelling is presented to describe

the gas composition of wood gas produced by the gasifier.
A total number of 57 runs were conducted in the period of the study. A summary of
the runs with remarks is presented in Appendix D.
7.2 DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE PROFILES INSIDE THE GASIFIER
Dynamic temperature profiles of the thermochemical phases are important to

understand the phenomena of gasification. The temperature profiles, in particular
those in the combustion and the reduction zones, can be used as an indicator of the
quality of the gasified product in terms of its gas composition and the calorific value.
There has never been any report in the literature discussing the dynamic temperature
profiles inside a gasifier. Most of the reports only quoted the mean reduction zone
temperatures. Dynamic temperature profiles also indicate the phenomena of bridging
inside the gasifier, the end of the run, when to reload and effect of using different
sizes of biomass material.
Five thermocouples were placed at different positions along the gasifier to record the
following thermochemical conversion phases: drying, pyrolysis, combustion and
reduction. The fifth thermocouple measured the exit temperature of the wood gas.
Figure 7.1 (run 39) shows the dynamic temperature profile of a run conducted using
furniture wood. The inlet air flow rate was 450 litres/min, supplied through the air
supply nozzles that were located 150 mm above the throat. The experimental run
lasted 170 minutes with 30 kg of furniture wood cut into smaller pieces of an
equivalent size of about 35 mm cube.
The run was carried out when the gasifier was cold. This was done intentionally to
determine the performance and characteristic of the gasifier when started from cold.
Normally the gasifier would be heated first by burning certain amount of biomass
material before the actual run.
From the figure, the temperature of the combustion zone rose to about 1000C after
about 5 minutes thereafter fluctuated about a mean value of 1000C for about 160
minutes. The maximum temperature recorded in the combustion zone was about
1200C. The temperature fluctuation was quite significant because the temperature
recorded was not always the temperature of the biomass material. When the glowing
wood fell onto the thermocouple, the temperature recorded a high value.
Occasionally the thermocouple was surrounded by the voids and therefore the
temperature recorded a slightly lower value. The temperature of the combustion
zone, at about 1000C, is high enough to crack the tar formed as a result of the
pyrolysis process. Tars are cracked at a temperature of greater than 900C.
Below the combustion zone is the reduction zone where gasification occurs through
reduction reactions already discussed in Chapter 2. The mean temperature recorded
in this zone was about 800C with a smaller fluctuation than in the combustion zone.
Here the size of the biomass material is almost the same after passing through the
combustion zone, hence the frequency of the hot char touching the thermocouple is
higher. A sudden peak of nearly 1259C was observed after nearly 160 minutes.
Before the sudden peak, after about 155 minutes, the temperature in the combustion
zone started to decline because the biomass material has depleted. The reduction
zone temperature began to rise at a point where the combustion and the reduction
zones temperature profiles met. This is because the glowing char in the combustion
zone has now dropped into the reduction zone. The sudden peak lasted only for about
5 minutes.
Above the combustion zone in the gasifier is the pyrolysis zone that recorded a much
lower temperature. The temperature fluctuated between 200C and 400C with a
lower frequency than the combustion zone temperature. The position of the probe
was about 300mm above the combustion zone. There was a sudden peak of about
650C after about 120 minute and thereafter a gradual increase in the temperature.
The reason for this gradual rise was that there were no more wood in the pyrolysis
zone and that the thermocouple probe was now exposed to the glowing char. The
mean temperature of 350C recorded in the pyrolysis zone was lower than that
mentioned in the theory and other work. Kristoferson and Bokalders (1991) showed
that pyrolysis temperatures in gasifiers range between 400C-600C
The temperature recorded in the drying zone was much lower at about 200C. This
temperature shows a gradual increase to about 350C until about 160 minutes, and
reflects heat conducted, convected and radiated from the combustion zone. .
Finally the exit temperature of the gasified product, which was also recorded, rose to
a mean value of about 350C after about 20 minutes. The temperature then remained
constant until about 165 minutes when there was a sudden peak to about 550C for
just 10 minutes. This peak occurred after the peak recorded in the reduction zone and
occurs due to radiation from the glowing char towards the end of the run before the
residues fell into the ash bin.
Figure 7.2 (run 3) shows the development of the combustion zone temperature using
large pieces of furniture wood in the gasifier. The rise in temperature is gradual and
reaches 1000C after 125 minutes. The reduction zone temperature however was
quite consistent at about 750C.
Gumz (1952) measured a reduction zone temperature of about 600C for biomass
with a moisture content of about 20 %. The calorific value of the fuel gas obtained
was 4.2 MJ/m3 . Gumz however measured a higher reduction zone temperature of
716C for updraft gasifiers with a higher calorific value of 4.98 MJ/m3 . Gumz
suggested that to obtain the same temperature for the downdraft gasifier the air
supply had to be preheated to about 400C. Hoi (1992) also measured a low
reduction temperature of 644C with a mean combustion zone temperature of 817C.
There is therefore a range for the reduction zone temperature of about 600-800C.
Lower reduction zone temperatures as measured by Gumz of about 555C occur with
a much lower calorific value fuel gas of 3.73 MJ/m3. In addition to this result, in run
51 (figure 7.3) with a reduction zone temperature of about 850C, the calorific value
of the fuel gas was found to be only 2.98 MJ/m 3 . The literature generally does not
consider the effect of reduction zone temperatures on performance. Gao (1989)
stated that the combustion zone temperature should range from 700-900C and
should not exceed 1000C. The reason is that high temperatures would melt the ash
and forms slag, creating bridging in the reduction zone. In the present study even
when the temperature of the combustion zone exceeded 1000C the formation of
bridging was not detected in the reduction zone; however bridging did occur in the
combustion zone as explained earlier.
7.21 Effect of using different biomass material on the temperature profiles
Wood chips were also used as a feed material in the gasifier and are important as
they are being widely promoted as alternative fuels. They were stored in 45 gallon
drums and as a result they started to decompose. The wood chips were subsequently
air dried to reduce their moisture content, air drying is more convenient and cheaper
than oven drying. Initially the moisture content of the wood chips was about 40%
that is too high to sustain reaction in the gasifier. Downdraft gasifiers are very
sensitive to moisture content and reaction cannot be sustained in gasifiers when the
moisture content exceeds 35 (Gumz, 1955). Several runs were abandoned because
the moisture content was too high. Attempts to gasify wood chips of 38-40%
moisture content proved futile. Figure 7.4 shows the effect of air drying of wood
chips as a function of time. It was found that the moisture content of the wood chips
stabilised to about 20 % after 10 days onwards. Wood chips sometime contain
stones, fine chips and dust. These have to be removed by sieves before loading into
the gasifier.
The air 'inlet nozzle was lowered down to about 75mm above the throat so as to
ensure that the air jet penetrate to the walls due to less voids in the bed when wood
chips are used. The void fraction for wood chips was found to be about 0.29 whilst
for furniture wood (cut into smaller pieces) the value was 0.39. With the new
position of the air inlet nozzle the combustion zone thermocouple was also lowered
to the new position. This thermocouple is positioned directly in front of the air inlet
nozzle to measure the combustion zone temperature.
There is no significant different in the temperature profiles when using furniture

wood or wood chips. Figures 7.5 (run 10) and 7.6 (run 29) show the temperature
profiles for wood chips and furniture wood respectively. Comparisons were made for
the same weight of feed of 20 kg and the same air supply of 400 litres/min into the
gasifier. The combustion zone temperatures for both the fuels were found to be about
the same, averaging about 1000C. The reduction zone temperatures were also about
the same with an average of about 750C.
The consumption of wood chips was found to be slightly higher than furniture wood.
The reduction zone temperature for furniture wood reached a sudden peak at about
90 minutes after start-up whilst for wood chips the peak was recorded at about 75
minutes. The size of the wood chip is approximately 20mm square and 2 mm thick.
Under the same operating conditions, the larger surface areas of wood chips tend to
increase the combustion process so that it bums faster that furniture wood. The rate
of consumption of the wood chips was about 16 kg/hour whilst for the furniture
wood it was found to be about 13.3 kg/hour at the same flow rate of 400 litres/min of
air.
7.22 Effect of different air supply into the gasifier on the temperature profiles
Figures 7.7, 7.8, 7.9 and 7.10 (runs, 13, 14, 12 and 15) show the temperature profiles
using wood chips at different air flow rates of 600, 500, 400, and 300 litres/min
respectively. The amount of wood chips used was 20 kg for each run.
The combustion zone temperatures for all the runs were almost the same. The
temperature rose to about 1000C after about 10 minutes, except for the air supply of
600 litres/min where the temperature rise was slightly faster. This is due to the faster
development of the combustion zone with higher flow rate of air at 600 litres/min.
The reduction zone temperature reached a steady level of about 780C, half way
through the run. Initially with 300 litres/min of air a gradual rise in the temperature
from about 600C to about 780C was recorded. This is because the combustion zone
is smaller and the conduction to the reduction zone took slightly longer. Furthermore
the wood chips took longer to bum and therefore dropped into the reduction zone
much slower than for higher air flow rates. For 400 and 500 litres/min flow rates the
reduction zone temperature rose to about 780C about 15 minutes after start-up. For
600 litres/min flow rate the temperature rose to about 800C after 10 minutes. Apart
from the faster formation of the combustion zone, it's size was also larger thereby
transferring heat by conduction from the combustion zone to the reduction zone
much easier.
The exit temperature is almost the same with a steady temperature of about 350C.
Again the temperature rise was quite gradual for the 300 litres/min air flow rate, but
for the 400 and 500 litres/min flow rate the temperature reached a steady level after
20 minutes. For 600 litres/min the temperature rise to 350C was much faster
occurring after 15 minutes.
The effect of different air flow rates appears primarily in the rate of consumption of
the wood chips. For 300 litres/min, the rate of consumption was found to be 11.65
kg/hr and rising to 14.12, 19.35 and 22.64 kg/hr for air flow rates of 400, 500 and
600 litres/min respectively. This increase in the rate of consumption of wood chips is
due to the higher oxygen present in the combustion zone thereby enlarging it and
causing more material to be burnt and more gasification to occur.
7.23 Effect of bridging inside the gasifier on the temperature profiles
Figure 7.5 (run 10) shows a phenomenon observed in the combustion zone
temperature profile. After about 35 minutes, it was observed that the temperature
dropped to as low as 500C for about a few minutes before increasing back to a mean
temperature of about 1000C. This sudden temperature dropped is caused by the
phenomena of bridging of the char at the throat before it is consumed. Bridging is a
normal occurrence in gasifiers and its effect has been reduced by the use of a 60
cone that is higher than the angle of repose for wood chips (45).
It was found that bridges form much easier with hot chars, as indicated by Figure 7.5
when the phenomena occurred about half way through the run when the various
zones were established. Bridging can be explained by the adhesive properties of

glowing char having very fine and smooth surface enabling the char pieces to fuse.
When bridging occurred just above the combustion zone, a temporary void is created
thus giving a lower temperature. The bridge created is a weak structure and
eventually collapses due to the weight of the remaining feed material above it.
Bridging also occurs in furniture wood as well as in wood chips. In figure 7.8 (run
13), the phenomena of bridging occurred about 12 minutes after start-up for a
duration of about 5 minutes.
Sometimes bridging occurred more than once. Figure 7.11 (run 20) shows that the
first bridging occurred 25 minutes and the other 40 minutes after start-up. The
temperature went down to as low as 380C. Bridging can be overcome by
introducing a stirrer in a form of a rotating air inlet nozzle or a rotating grate
(Walawender 1985). Nevertheless the present design of the gasifier with 60 cone
angle is quite successful in overcoming severe bridging inside the gasifier.
7.24 Temperature profile at the neck of the cone.
The combustion zone thermocouple was positioned at about 125mm above the neck
of the gasifier for runs using furniture wood as the feed material. It was found
necessary to optimise the extend of the combustion zone inside the gasifier to ensure
that the tar present is well cracked. The larger the combustion zone the more tar is
cracked as it passes through it. Figures 7.6 (run 29) and 7.12 (run 31) show the
temperature profiles for air supply flow rates of 400 and 500 litres/min respectively.
For an air supply of 400 litres/min, it was found that the temperature levels at the
neck of the cone was about 800-850C, typically fluctuating somewhat. The
combustion zone did not quite extend to the neck of the gasifier.
For the air supply of 500 litres/min the temperature profile at the neck of the cone
was somewhat higher, being in the range. 850-900C, whilst the combustion zone
extended to the neck of the cone.
7.25 Effect of reloading of feed on the temperature profiles
The design of the gasifier was based on a batch loading system. However the system
can easily be converted into continuous loading system via a hopper or a screw
feeder. At present reloading of the feed was done via the side loading door.
Figure 7.13 (run 17) shows the effect of reloading of wood chips on the temperature
profiles. 20 kg of wood chips was loaded into the gasifier at the beginning of the run.
The air supply into the gasifier was 600 litres/min. The combustion zone temperature
dropped after 50 minutes indicating that the wood chips were nearly depleted, thus
giving an indicator for reloading. The door of the gasifier was thus opened for
reloading with another 20 kg of wood chips. At the same time the air inlet supply
was reduced to about 200 litres/min to prevent excessive volatiles escaping through
the loading door. After reloading the air supply was restored to its original flow rate.
The combustion temperature was not able to return to its previous level but
fluctuated extensively about a 600C level. After about 100 minutes the combustion
temperature returned to its normal range of temperature. The reduction zone
temperature fluctuated slightly initially but intensified after reloading. The exit
temperature however was only slightly affected.
It was found that reloading of furniture wood chips was found to be much easier than
wood chips. Figure 7.14 (run 43) shows the effect of reloading of furniture wood on
temperature profiles. 30 kg of furniture wood was loaded into the gasifier with an air
supply flow rate of 400 litres/min. After about 100 minutes the door of the gasifier

was opened. At the same time the air supply flow rate was reduced to 200 litres/min.
Initially the volatiles escaped through the door but when mixed with the air formed a
flammable mixture. The mixture was ignited by flames from the combustion zone
and burnt above the bed. It then became much easier to reload the furniture wood.
Reloading took only about 5 minutes and thereafter the air supply was resumed to its
original flow rate. The temperature profiles for the combustion, reduction, the neck
and the exit zones show only a slight dip of about 100C for 10 minutes.
7.26 Effect of increasing the number of nozzles in the air supply inlet and the
size of the reduction zone
The numbers of the nozzles in the inlet air supply were increased to 8 from an initial
number of 4, whilst maintaining their diameter at 10 mm. With the increased number
of nozzles, the combustion zone spread more evenly around the nozzle. With 8
nozzles, a more uniform combustion zone was expected around the end of the
nozzles. This was confirmed by the fact that the wood gas was observed to be misty
with a pale bluish flume exhausting from the by pass vent when using 4 nozzles,
changing to a less misty nature with 8 nozzles indicating less quantity of tar in the
gas.
However with the increased number of nozzles and a constant air flowrate, the
velocity of the air jet will reduce and will not necessarily penetrate to the wall of the
cone. If this happens then the tar content in the wood gas would be increased. To
compensate for this the nozzles were lowered to a distance of 75 mm from the neck.
Figure 7.15a (run 50) shows the temperature profiles for the modified air supply and
its position. The reduction zone temperature was at an average of about 900C which
was quite high thus affecting the gas quality quite adversely. Lowering the position
of the air supply nozzles had effectively reduced the reduction zone size thus
affecting the gasification reactions. Hence, the reduction zone volume was increased
by lowering the position of the grate by 200 mm. Another thermocouple was
positioned 70 mm above the grate to record a second reduction zone temperature
before the exit (figure 7.15b). Figure 7.16 (run 56) shows the temperature profiles for
furniture wood with an air flow rate of 400 litres/min for the enlarged reduction zone
volume. The first temperature profile in the reduction zone was found to be about
750C whilst the second temperature profile was about 600C. There was a
temperature drop of about 150C in the reduction zone for a height of 210 mm. The
gas quality was found to improve with a larger reduction zone. This will be discussed
later.
Appendix E shows some of the other temperature profiles taken during this study.
7.3 PERFORMANCE OF THE BIOMASS GASIFIER
The performance of the gasifier is determined in terms of the quality of the wood gas
produced (gas composition and the calorific value), the cold gas and the mass
conversion efficiencies. The tar and the particulate contents from the gasifier are also
equally important since their presence affects immensely the running of the internal
combustion engine. Ash content is however peculiar to the type of wood or biomass
material used, but the amount of char found in the ash box is important reflecting
overall fuel utilisation. The tar, char, particulate, ash and water from the wood gas
are discussed in detail in the next section since their determination shows the
effectiveness of the cooling and the cleaning system. The emissions from the
gasifier, in particular the oxides of nitrogen although not affecting the performance
of the gasifier are an important parameter to consider due to environmental
legislation. The quality of the wood gas depends on various factors such as the
moisture content of the feed, the air flow rate into the gasifier, the size of the wood,
the position of the air inlet nozzle and the size of the reduction zone.
The composition and hence the calorific values of the wood gas are the most
important parameters in gasification. Efforts are made to increase the concentration
of the combustible component of the wood gas as much as possible and thereby
increase its calorific value. Several samples of the wood gas from the gasifier were
taken at intervals of about 15-20 minutes in each run.
The concentration of the components of the wood gas is very interesting as the run
progresses. This gasification process is initiated by the biomass gasification stage of
the process and gradually progresses into a char gasification process. This transient
phenomena affects the concentration of the combustible gases and hence the calorific
value of the wood gas.
Initiation of the process of gasification occurs in the combustion zone where the
primary air exhausts. This process sends hot gas into the reduction zone (heat is also
transferred by conduction) and starts to gasify the wood in the reduction zone. As a
result of this preliminary conversion process a dense pale yellow smoky gas is
produced with about 7 % hydrogen and 10 % carbon monoxide. The yellow smoky
nature of the gas arises from tars and water vapour initially evolved by the wood in
the reduction zone. Wood gas passing through a rotameter showed clearly the stain
of tar on the rotameter glass. At this stage introduction of wood gas into the engine
would be very detrimental.
After about 15-20 minutes the dense smoke subsided indicating that the char
conversion process in the reduction zone was completed. This time is dependent on
the size of the reduction zone. A larger reduction zone size would require longer time
for the char conversion process. The time was also dependent on the air flow rate
into the gasifier as this would affect the size of the combustion zone. A larger
combustion zone would cause higher rates of heat transfer to the reduction zone.
During tests on the internal combustion engine the disappearance of the dense smoke
signalled the time to introduce the wood gas safely into the engine.
To improve the initial quality of the wood gas, it was found necessary to use 1.5-2 kg
of charcoal in the reduction zone at start-up. In this case the char gasification process
was initiated virtually immediately after start-up and the wood gas could be
introduced into the engine after just 10 minutes. Hollingdale (1983) and Hoi (1993)
also found it necessary to used charcoal initially to ease ignition and minimise tar
carry over. Although the use of charcoal in the gasifier was found to be successful,
the gas composition and the calorific value were not stable and fluctuated, showing
gradual increase in calorific value. This is due to the gradual pyrolysis process of the
wood in the gasifier. In the earlier part of the gasification process, the wood which is
not completely pyrolysed into char is burnt in the combustion zone. At this stage the
volatiles produced, in particular the hydrogen, are partially burnt in the combustion
zone; the quantity of hydrogen being in the 12-13% range. As the pyrolysis process
matures, the combustion zone is maintained by the char and slightly smaller
quantities of hydrogen are burnt, hence the concentration of hydrogen increases to
about 14-15%.
7.31 Gas composition
Appendix F shows samples of output from the gas chromatograph for runs 43 and
45. The outputs were taken at some intervals after start-up and were compared to the
outputs for the calibration gases. The wood gas compositions were calculated using
the equations 6, 7, and 8 from Chapter 5 with the aid of a spreadsheet software.
Samples of the data and gas compositions for some of the runs are shown in
Appendix G. Same calculation procedures were carried out on all the runs conducted.
The gas compositions were extracted and tabulated in a spreadsheet to calculate the
Chapter 7 Results and Dieussion 158
performance of the gasifier. The performance tables for selected runs are presented in
Appendix H.
The gas composition and the calorific value of the wood gas were found to be similar
to those reported by others (Hoi, 1992; Hollingdale, 1983 and Walawender, 1985).
The concentrations of the permanent gases in the wood gas indicate how well the
gasifier performs. Table 7.1 shows the average gas composition for each successful
run selected. The unsuccessful runs show poor gas composition for the wood gas that
is related to the dynamic temperature profiles of the combustion and the reduction
zone.
From table 7.1 the concentration of oxygen in the gasifier was found to be an average
of 1.69%. In earlier runs the oxygen concentration was slightly higher. This is due to
the more effective gas sampling technique and gas analysis in later runs and
discussed earlier in Chapter 5. Most of the oxygen was consumed in the combustion
and the reduction zones. Xu (1988), measured 0.4 % oxygen whilst Graham (1981)
measured 0.9 % oxygen for Pine and 1.5 % oxygen for Poplar. The slightly higher
oxygen concentrations in the present gasifier probably result from entrainment of air
into the gasifier, leakage in the gas sampling train or leakage during gas analysis in
the gas chromatograph.
The average concentration of nitrogen was 43.62% There is a small reaction of

nitrogen to form oxides of nitrogen in the combustion zone due to it's temperature in
the range of about 1000-1150C. These emissions are discussed in a later section.
The average concentration of hydrogen was 14.05%. The main difference in biomass
and charcoal gasification is the amount of hydrogen present. Biomass gasification
produces much higher percentages of hydrogen. Charcoal gasifiers on the other hand
give quite a low concentration of hydrogen of about 3.8% (Hollingdale, 1983), as to

be expected.
The average concentration of carbon monoxide was 24.04%. Carbon monoxide

concentration is the most significant contribution to the calorific value of the wood
gas. In charcoal gasification the main combustible component of the wood gas is
carbon monoxide with a concentration of about 28.7 %.
Average carbon dioxide concentration was 14.66%. Concentration of methane was

very low at 2.02%. The formation of methane is unstable as it dissociates into carbon
monoxide and hydrogen in the reduction zone. Ethane was occasionally detected as
traces in most of the runs with a concentration of about 0.01%.
7.32 Calorific value of the wood gas
Table 7.2 shows the calorific value, the cold gas and the mass conversion
efficiencies, the equivalent ratio and the wood consumption rate for the gasifier. It
was found that more steady and consistent calorific values were obtained towards the
end of each run and these are the values used in table 7.2.
The higher heating value of the wood gas was calculated from the concentration of
the combustible components and had an average value of 5.34 MJ/m 3 . The calorific
value was found to be very consistent with the results obtained by other researchers
in this field and this is summarised in table 7.2a
7.33 Output wood gas flow rate
The average flow rate of the wood gas leaving the gasifier was calculated to be an
average of 744.23 litres/min for an air supply flow rate of about 400 litres/min. As
the wood gas passed through the cooling and cleaning system, the flow rate of the
fuel gas dropped due to pressure losses in the system. The pressure drop in the
cooling and cleaning system will be discussed in detail in a later section. The
pressure generated in the gasifier was 5.01 kPa and the total pressure drop in the
cooling and cleaning system was 3.25 kPa. The flow rate of the wood gas after the
cooling and cleaning system was measured to be an average of 541.3 litres/min. The
flow rates of the wood gas before and after the gas clean up system is shown in table
7.3. There is a drop of about 200 litres/min in the flow rate of the wood gas when it
is forced to pass through the cooling system.
7.34 Thermal output and the cold gas efficiency of the gasifier
The thermal output from the gasifier at ambient temperature can be calculated from
the calorific value and the actual output wood gas flow rate; and averaged 48.49 kW
(table 7.2). With a known duration of the run, the useful energy output from the
gasifier can be calculated. The table also shows that the higher the air supply into the
gasifier the higher the power output. Runs 16, 12, 15 and 13 have flow rates of 300,
400, 500 and 600 litres/min and power outputs of 44.93, 49.81, 65.04 and 87.40 kW
respectively. It was obvious that the consumption of the wood increases as the air
supply increases. The rates of consumption of the wood were 12, 17, 22 and 27 kg/h
respectively.
The cold gas efficiency was calculated from the ratio of the useful energy output to
the total energy input into the gasifier and is the most important factor in determining
the performance of a gasifier. The average efficiency of the gasifier was found to be
72.22%. Table 7.2b compares cold gas efficiencies found by other workers.
7.35 Mass conversion efficiency
From table 7.2, the mass conversion efficiency was found to be about 88.1 %. The
result obtained agrees very well with those obtained by other researchers.
Walawender (1985) obtained an average mass conversion efficiency of 88.3% whilst
Hoi (1993) had it 82%. It was also found that the mass conversion efficiencies for
run 13 and 16 were greater than 100% and had to be adjusted to be less than 100 %
by subtracting the values from 200 % (Walawender, 1985).
The overall equivalent ratio for the gasifier was found to be in the range 0.268-0.46.
Without the cooling system an average of 0.275 (for run 12,13,15 and 16) was found
whilst with the cooling system a slightly higher value of 0.367 occurred. The
increase static pressure developed in the gasifier as a result of the cooling system
causes the wood gas to remain in the gasifier slightly longer thus causing further
reactions to occur. The equivalent ratio is obviously related to the flow rate of the
wood gas.
The equivalent ratio for each run is calculated by,

Equivalent ratio 41=
__Q.flWw_m0
1
akyLatc_pfslit_aupply,1,(duration
(Mass input of wood). (flow rate of air for 4) =1)
The flow rate for (1)=1, is 5.22 m3/min (Chapter 2)
The equivalent ratios obtained from the experiments were found to be within the
range of ideal and theoretical gasification (0.19-0.43) as highlighted in Chapter 2.
7.37 Quality of the wood gas for different feed materials
With tables 7.1 and table 7.2, the average performance for the runs conducted on
furniture wood (run 54) and wood chips (run 55) can be compared. The average
concentrations of the wood gas for furniture wood are shown in table 7.2c.
From the table it seems that the wood chips gasify much better than the furniture
wood. There are many reasons why this happens and one of it is the size of the feed.
Results for normal (run 39) and slightly larger sizes (run 37) of furniture wood
showed that the gas composition and the calorific value are slightly lower for the
latter. Downdraft gasifiers are very sensitive to the size of the feed material.
Although a larger feed affects the calorific value, too fine feed would also reduce the
calorific value. Graham (1981) showed that for finer wood chips (0.5-1.3 cm) the
calorific value is lowered by about 0.18MJ/m3 compared to larger chips (1.3-2.5cm).
7.38 Quality of the wood gas during reloading and long runs
During reloading of the furniture wood the air supply flow rate into the gasifier was
reduced to prevent excessive volatiles and smoke escaping via the door. As a result
the calorific value of the wood gas reduced momentarily during reloading.
Tables 7.4 and 7.5 show the performance of the gasifier for runs 43 and 44. Figure
7.14 shows the temperature profiles indicating the time of reloading for run 43 at 105
minutes. From table 7.4, a gas sample taken 10 minutes after reloading showed that
the calorific value dropped to about 3.05MJ/m3 . Nevertheless the calorific value
increases rapidly again and reached 4.95MJ/m 3 after 30 minutes of reloading.
Similarly for run 44 reloading was made after 100 minutes. A gas sample taken 10
minutes later of reloading showed that the calorific value had dropped to 3.44
3
3
MJ/m . Subsequently 30 minutes later the calorific value rose to 4.90 MJ/m .
From table 7.2 the results of the extended runs 43, 44, 45 and 46 show that the
calorific values gradually improve over extended period. The calorific values were in
the range of 5.0-5.58MJ/m 3 towards the end of the runs. During the later part of the
run all the biomass materials in the reduction zone have been converted into char,
therefore enhanced the char gasification process and resulted in a more intense
combustion process. Also the system and shell of the gasifier had probably reached
their equilibrium temperatures, this minimises dynamic heat losses from the unit.
With batch loading system, the amount of wood placed in the gasifier at start-up
affects the quality of the wood gas. From table 7.2 the performance for runs 29 (20
kg) and 41 (35kg) are compared. The calorific value improved slightly whence larger
quantity of wood was initially used. The heat generated in the combustion zone,
dried and pyrolysed more wood above it thus producing more char material. It was
not possible to increase further the amount of wood loaded into the gasifier initially
due to inconvenience of loading and the limitation in the maximum capacity of the
gasifier to 45 kg of wood. It would appear to be beneficial to increase the capacity of
the gasifier to take more wood, so as to have a thick bed above the various reaction
zones.
For continuous feed system using a screw feeder or hopper, the feed rate at which the
wood chips are loaded into the gasifier is important. There should be a balance
between the pyrolysis and gasification processes in the gasifier. If the feed rate is
slow, a gasification dominant condition is formed (the wood would not have enough
time for it to pyrolyse and convert into charcoal) whilst the opposite would result in a
pyrolysis dominant condition (a char gasification process whereby the calorific value
of the wood gas is lower due to less hydrogen content). It is therefore necessary to
control the feed rate of the wood to ensure a balance between pyrolysis and
gasification conditions to obtain optimum condition favourable for biomass
gasification.
7.39 Effect of increasing the number of the air supply nozzles and the reduction
zone size on the performance of the gasifier
The size of the reduction zone affects the gas composition and the calorific value of
the wood gas. Table 7.6 (run 50) shows the performance table for reduction zone
depth of 180 mm from the neck whilst table 7.7 (runs 51) shows the performance
table for reduction zone depth of 380 mm. The calorific values of the wood gas were
found to be quite low 2.06-4.23 MJ/m3 for run 50. Furthermore the oxygen
concentration increases because the reduction zone was smaller and gasification
reactions were not allowed to proceed long enough for the effective conversion into
combustible gases. When the reduction zone was extend by 200 mm, the gas
composition and the calorific value were found to improve slightly (4.51-5.12
MJ/m3 ). For the above runs, the air supply pipe has 8 nozzles and positioned 75 mm
above the neck of the cone to ensure that the combustion zone extended to the wall
of the cone.
7.40 Emissions from the gasifier
Apart from the gases found from the gas chromatograph work, there are also other
emissions from the gasifier. The emissions are: NOx (consisting of NO and NO 2) and
N20. The NO and NOx emissions were measured using a chemiluminesence detector
manufactured by Horiba. The principle behind this lies with the reaction between NO
and ozone. The N20 was measured using a photoacoustic infra red method which
relies on the gas molecules absorbing infra red light at a set wavelength. The
measurements were carried out directly on line under contract by the Coal Research
Establishment, Cheltenham. Figures 7.18 and 7.19 show the emissions from the
gasifier for run 46. In this run the gasifier was reloaded with 35 kg of wood 2 hours
after the gasifier was ignited.
The figure shows that the amount of NOx emissions with a maximum value of 37.5
ppm gradually reduced to 14 ppm after reloading of the wood. A similar pattern is
also observed for the NO. The amount of NO reaching a maximum of 16.4 ppm, 53
minutes after starting the gasifier, then gradually reducing to a minimum of 4.2 ppm
after 136 minutes from start-up. The gradual decline of the NO and NOx were not
affected by the reloading. These values decline well before the reloading. The main
sources of NOx are from fuel N2 typically wood has up to 1% N 2 content, with some
contribution from the prompt mechanism. Both fuel and prompt NOx are
temperature dependent and increases as the temperature increases. The temperature
of the combustion zone reached a maximum of about 1200C and was not high
enough to promote thermal or Zeldovich NOx. With an air supply of 400 litres/min,
the wood gas flow rate initially was about 450 litres/min gradually increasing to
about 600 litres/min as the gasification rate increases. This increase in the
gasification rate due to reducing equivalence ratio gives conditions conducive to
reduced fuel and prompt NOx formation. A slight increase in the NO and NOx
concentration at the end of the run indicates that the gasification rate suddenly
reduces due to the exhaustion of the biomass material inside the gasifier.
The opposite phenomenon is observed for N 20 emission. The amount was initially
quite low of about 2000 ppm but gradually increased to a maximum of about 10509
ppm after 142 minutes. The high emission levels were perhaps due to the presence of
water vapour in the producer gas. It is known that water vapour contamination
increases the emission levels of N20. From the dynamic temperature profiles of run
46 (figure E.20), the combustion zone temperature was at an average of 600C before
reloading and therefore, unable to sustain proper combustion process. After
reloading, the combustion zone temperature increased rapidly and maintained

fluctuating about 950C level until the end of the run. These accounts for the lower
N20 emission before reloading and very high levels after it. It has been known also
that N20 is temperature dependent with optimum temperature of 950C. It seems that
the N20 emissions increases as the gasification rate increases; they represents a very
high formation rate. At start-up the amount of oxygen unused in the gasifier was
about 3-4 %. As the gasification process matures the oxygen content in the wood gas
reduces to about 1-2%. The reaction of oxygen radicals with HCN derived from the
pyrolysis of organic nitrogen to form NCO and subsequently to form N 20 increases
when most of the oxygen present is burnt in the flaming pyrolysis zone. At the end of
the run the amount of oxygen present increases as the amount of biomass material
needed to be burnt reduces, hence the N 20 amount reduces. These emissions are very
high and seen to be a function of the low temperatures in certain parts of the system
which are conducive to formations of N20. They parallel results from certain types
of fluidised bed combustors which also gives relatively high N 20 emissions
(typically 200 ppm). The N20 emissions are the highest ever recorded from a system
to the author's knowledge, certainly give concern and provide fruitful area for future
work.
7.4 PERFORMANCE OF THE COOLING AND CLEANING SYSTEM.

It was essential to characterise the performance of each component in the system in
terms of its effectiveness in performing its purpose in condensing and cleaning the
wood gas before introduction into the engine.
The effectiveness of the cooling cleaning system components was measured in terms
of its capability of condensing the water vapour and removing the tar and particulate.
The amount of water vapour condensed in the cooling system is shown in table 7.8.
Chapter 7 Results and Dieussion 167

Table 7.9 shows the pressure and temperature drops in the cooling system
components. The original results from which this data was derived are shown in
Appendix J.
7.41 Vertical filter and cyclone
These two components were mounted close to each other. The operation of vertical
filter was found to affect critically the operation of the whole gasifier system. When
the pressure drop in the filter was too high (exceeding 1 m of water and unable to be
measured by the differential multitude manometer) the pressure inside the gasifier
reached about 10 kPa. It was found that the normal operating pressure of the gasifier
was up to 7.14 kPa. When the pressure exceeded 8.57 kPa, the air flow rate into the
gasifier reduced owing to the characteristics of the fan. As a result the flow rate of
the wood gas also reduced to 150 litre/min that is insufficient to sustain combustion
in the engine. The pressure drop in the filter was always high with an average of 1.89
kPa.
The factors affecting the pressure drop of the filter were the quantity of wood chips
(the filter medium), their size and the thickness of refractory wool layer. Careful
examination of the wool showed that the inner part of the wool was not contaminated
with tar or particulate. Subsequently the wool was put in the middle of the filter
between two layers of wood chip but the result was disastrous with extremely high
pressure drop in the filter.
With the filter being 2 meters away from the gasifier, the inlet temperature of the
filter was found to be 218C that is high enough to pyrolyse the wood chips into
char. The weight of the filter medium (wood chips) was found to decrease by about
20 % in each run. Some particulates were observed to cover the wood chips after a
run. It was not possible to separate the particulate and the wood chips. Since the
wood chips pyrolysed and contributed to the content of tar in the wood gas, charcoal
was subsequently used as the filter medium. Fibreglass wool was also used in the
filter but some carried over into the cyclone.
In most work on gasification, the cyclone is the first component which the producer
gas enters. The filter medium was therefore removed and the wood gas was allowed
to pass directly to the cyclone. The cyclone was found to separate the particulate
more effectively than before when the filter was filled with a filter medium. The
amount of particulate separated was found to be 0.0125% of the feed on average. The
cyclone was not able to trap all the particulate from the wood gas. Some of it passed
to the oil-bath filter where most of the remaining tar and fine particulate were
trapped. Undoubtedly the cyclone was effective in separating most of the larger
particulates.
7.42 Multitube Cooler
The cooler which was designed and fabricated at UWCC was found to have a
temperature drop of 76.8C with a mean measured inlet temperature of 132.4C and
a mean measured outlet temperature of 56.1C. The amount of water condensed was
only about 4-10% of the total water condensed. This is very low due to the high
operating temperatures in the cooler. The design of the cooler predicted a
temperature drop of 110C with inlet temperature and outlet temperature of 150C
and 40C respectively. The deviation of the designed to real conditions was partly
due to the lower inlet temperature. When the inlet temperature reached 160C the
temperature drop was about 100 C. Other causes of deviation are due to the
formation of films of water and tar on the inner surface of the cooler pipes. Even
considering this deviation the contribution of this cooler to the gas cooling was very
important. The result could be further improved if the copper tubes were cooled by
an external air stream. The pressure drop in the multitube cooler was found to be
quite low with an average of about 0.96 kPa.
7.43 Box condenser
The box condenser has an average temperature drop of 5.7C and a very low pressure
drop of the order of 0.1 kPa. The amount of water condensed was quite high with an

average of about 20% of the total. The inlet and the outlet temperature of the
condenser were about 56.1C and 49.6C respectively.
7.44 Spiral condenser
Principle of condensation due to latent heat loss applies to the spiral condenser. The
temperature drop in the condenser was found to be only about 6.9C with the inlet
and outlet temperatures of about 49.6C and 42.7C respectively. An equally low
pressure drop of about 0.23 kPa was recorded in the spiral condenser. It was found
that the spiral condenser was the most effective component in condensing the water
vapour in the wood gas. An average of about 66% of the water vapour in the wood
gas were condensed in the spiral condenser. Since this gas was made to flow through
the tubes in a spiral motion the distance covered and the residence time was long
enough to condense much of the water vapour.
7.45 Water vapour condensed in the cooling system
The water vapour condensed (condensate) was found to vary in the range of 8-10 %
of the feed for almost constant moisture content of the fuel of about 20 % Table 7.10
shows the amount of condensate for selected runs. The variation in the condensate is
related to the temperature in the combustion and reduction zones. For successful runs
with the combustion zone temperature of 1000C and consistent reduction zone
temperature of 600-800C the amount of condensate was in the range of about 8-10%
of the feed; this coverts to an average of 0.99 kg/hr. Lower amount of condensate of
about 4-6% was recorded for runs where the temperatures in the gasifier were
inconsistent. With a larger reduction zone the amount of condensate was found to be
higher in the range of about 9-10 %. It was also noticed that with the larger reduction
zone the concentration of methane was less than 2%. Methane formation is an
unstable process, much of it is converted into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and water
vapour in the reduction zone, as discussed earlier.
7.46 Tar and particulate content in the wood gas
The condensate in the cooling system was also stained with tar that had also
condensed partially in the system. The condensate does not contain any insoluble tar
that could be collected to determine the tar content in the wood gas. It was therefore
necessary to determine the amount of tar in the wood gas by other methods.
The tar was collected by passing a sample of the wood gas through a gas sampling
train that consists of a gas filter and a peristaltic pump. The flow rate of the wood gas
through the sampling train was about 2.2 litres/min. The sampling was conducted for
40 minutes. It was not possible to extend the sampling period longer due to the
clogging of the filter medium with tar thus reducing the flow rate of the wood gas.
Table 7.11 shows the amount of tar calculated for run 55, 56 and 57. In run 57, three
samples were taken: before the cooling system, after the cooling system and after the
oil bath filter. In run 57, 29 kg of wood chips were used with 1.5 kg of charcoal. The
flow rate of the air supply was 400 litres/min producing about 500 litres/min of wood
gas. The filter medium was removed and dried in an oven for about 15 minutes at a
temperature of about 75C to remove any water vapour that might have condensed in
the filter. The filter was then placed in a room overnight to achieve equilibrium.
Measuring the tar was done by a sensitive measuring balance. The amount of tar
collected was 0.0256 g, this was extrapolated and was found to be 0.086% of the
feed. This value is consistent with the values obtained by many workers (Reed,
1984).
The second tar sample was taken after the cooling system, this was found to be
0.063% of the feed. The third sample taken after the oil bath filter showed that the tar
had reduced to 0.019% of the feed; 69.84 % of the tar was trapped in the oil bath
filter. The oil bath filter was therefore every effective in removing much of tar in the
wood gas. Inspection of the oil in the oil-bath filter showed some tar deposit, and
was very evident after 6 hours of running. A sample of the oil and tar mixture for a
six hour run was taken for analysis, but the method to separate the oil from the tar
was not readily available. The amount of tar per volume of the wood gas was found
to be about 61-96 mg/m3 after the filter. For internal combustion engine application,
the amount of contaminants should not be more than 10-50 mg/m 3 (Brewer 1993).
Hence the amount of tar is still quite high and requires more elaborate cleaning
system. Probably the use of another oil bath filter in series should be tried in future
work.
The amount of particulates are shown in table 7.12 being 0.042% of the feed for run
56 whilst for run 57 the amount was 0.028%. The total amount of particulates and tar
can also be translated to concentration levels and were 0.17g/m3 and 0.089 g/m3 for
runs 56 and 57 respectively.
7.5 PERFORMANCE OF THE ENGINE / ELECTRICAL LOAD
7.51 Tar and particulate in the engine.
The cumulative engine running time on wood gas was about 35 hours. The engine
ignition system failed before more runs on the engine could be conducted. The entire
ignition system of the engine needed replacement so that the engine would perform
properly with the correct ignition timing and thus work on the engine/generator
terminated at this stage.
One of the engine cylinder heads was removed to investigate the accumulation of tar
and particulates. Observation of the piston crown and the cylinder head chamber
showed that the amount of tar deposited appeared to be small. However the tar and
particulate were scraped from the surface of one of the piston crowns and the

cylinder head chamber and weighed. The amount of tar and particulate were found to
be about 1.1g. With the amount of wood gas entrained into both cylinders at a rate of
550 litres/min, the total amount of material accumulated in the 35 hours of running
was found to be about 1.9 mg/m3 or 31 mg/hr. It was also found that 0.7g of tar and
particulate were deposited behind one of the inlet valves. That would amount to a
total of about 1.21 mg/m3 or 20 mg/hr. The tar had caked up due to the high
temperature inside the cylinder. The exhaust valve was found to be free of any tar
deposit.
The engine was also subjected to regular treatment with Redex (a chemical
treatment) after 6 hours of running to remove some of the tar and to avoid sticking
valves. The most important consideration is the maintenance schedule for the engine.
It was suggested that the maintenance be in two forms: the regular maintenance
which involves the removal of the cylinder head and cleaning the tar and particulate
deposited at the inlet manifold, behind the inlet valves, the piston crown and the
cylinder head chamber; and major maintenance in the form of major overhaul.
Hollingdale (1983) suggested a regular maintenance (removing the cylinder head) be
made after about 50-100 hours, assuming the amount of wood gas charged into each
cylinder is 300 litres/min (for 4 cylinder, 4 stroke, 3000 rpm, 1.6 litres engine). For
the present study the amount of wood gas charged into each cylinder was almost the
same with 225 litres/min (engine operated on lean condition). For 100 hours of
running the amount of tar accumulated behind the inlet valve would be about 2g. The
engine was also run on natural gas for about 15 minutes before and after the
introduction of wood gas so that the engine would be warm enough to minimise tar
deposited on the valves. Regular treatment with Redex, starting and stopping the
engine on natural gas means that the regular maintenance period could be extended
to about 200 hours where the amount of tar behind the inlet valve would be about 4g.
The amount of tar deposited would eventually cause problems to the engine in terms
of low compression pressure of the engine, poor starting and running performance.
Thus the suggested period by Hollingdale could therefore, be extended to a period of
about 200 hours before regular extended maintenance is needed.

Parikh (1991) reported that for continuous run of 400 hours with dual-fuel operation,
the performance of the diesel engine was not affected. He suggested that a regular
maintenance be carried out with major overhauls after 2000 hours. This contrasts to
the normal diesel overhaul period of 5000 hours of operation. Parikh also suggested
a lubrication oil change at about 150 hours. The present study did not run the engine
for long enough to comment further on maintenance/overhaul schedules.
Undoubtedly extended work on gas cleaning is needed to further reduce carry over of
tar and particulates into the engine to evolve a system that is commercially viable.
This problem remains the major difficulty in implementing gasifier/engine system.
7.52 Emissions of oxides of nitrogen from the engine.
Figure 7.20 shows the NO and NOx emissions from the engine for run 46. The run
was conducted for an operating engine condition of 300 minutes using a total of 65
kg of furniture wood. The air supply into the gasifier was maintained at about 400
litres/mins, giving a wood gas flow rate of 550 litres/min. The mass air fuel ratio for
the engine was about 2.95 (the engine operating on very lean condition). Two sets of
readings were taken to determine the emissions from the engine. One set was taken
before reloading and the other after reloading. Reloading was carried out at 120
minutes after start-up. The readings were taken over a period of 30 minutes.
The emissions were found to be low not exceeding 52 ppm and 48 for the NOx and
NO respectively. NOx levels for the engine are slightly higher than the levels
measured in the wood gas by about 30 ppm, this obviously arises as a result from
thermal NOx formation via reaction of atmospheric nitrogen with producer gas in the
combustion chamber of the engine. After reloading the NOx emissions were more
consistent at the 40-45 ppm level. The N20 emissions from the gasifier were
completely destroyed and converted into N2 in the engine via reaction of N20 with
hydrogen radicals (which culminates at the combustion zone) in the combustion
zone.
7.53 Air-fuel ratio of the engine
The mass air -fuel ratio of the engine was found to be at an average 2.95. (Table
7.13). From chapter six, the theoretical mass air-fuel ratio for the combustion of
producer gas (wood gas) was found to be about 1.11, therefore, the engine was
running in a lean condition. The average flow rate of air was found to be about 1441
litres/min whilst the flow rate of the fuel gas was found to be about 556 litres/min.
The average total flow rate of the air and fuel mixture was found to be about 1997
litres/min.
Although the rating of the engine is 20 kW at 1800 rpm, it has to match the generator
that is rated at a maximum power output of 12.5 kW at 1500 rpm. The flow rate of
the mixture for the rated condition of the engine (capacity of 2.2 litres) would have to
be about 3900 litres/min.
7.54 Efficiencies of the engine/ generator system
Table 7.14 shows the overall performance of the biomass gasifier system for a
number of runs. The average thermal output from the gasifier was found to be 45.6
kW (this was also the thermal input into the engine) giving an average power output
from the generator of 6.3 kW. Therefore the efficiency of the engine and generator
system was found to be in the range of about 10-20%. This must be expected because
the engine was being used below its maximum rated capacity and was not well
matched to the generator.
Within the gasifier the air supply was provided by a blower driven by a mains driven
motor conveniently available in the laboratory. In the field, the blower would be
driven off the engine and will absorb some of the generator power.
The power output from the generator was consumed by three convector heaters
(maximum power output of 9 kW) as discussed in Chapter 6. During the experiment
it was not possible to increase the power output to its maximum capacity of 9 kW
due to the heaters tripping cause by overheating of the electrical heating element.
The convector heaters were set conveniently at 3/4 load without tripping. The
generator maximum power output rated at 12.5 kW was therefore not fully utilised.
This combined with the poor matching of the engine and the generator give rise to
the low engine/generator efficiency of 10-20%.
Due to the combined inefficient utilisation of the generator and the engine maximum
capabilities, the efficiencies of the engine and the generator are reduced as expected.
7.55 Overall efficiency and the consumption of the biomass gasifier system
Table 7.14 also shows the overall efficiency and the consumption of the biomass
gasifier system. The overall efficiency of the biomass gasifier system was
determined by the ratio of the total energy input into the gasifier and the electrical
power consumed by the convector heaters. The overall efficiency was found to be an
average of 11.15% with a maximum level of 15.46%. Hoi (1992) obtained an overall
efficiency of about 17.8% whilst Hollingdale (1983) obtained 21.2%. Obviously as
discussed earlier careful optimisation of the outputs of the gasifier, engine and
generator are needed.
The consumption of the biomass material per kWh was found to be an average of
about 1.98 kg/kWh with a minimum value of about 1.49 kg/kWh obtained for run 44
that is the longest run conducted. Hollingdale (1991) obtained a value of about 0.82
kg/kWh. It is obvious that the consumption of the biomass material is affected by the
gasifier/engine/generator system and their overall efficiencies.
7.6 ENTHALPY AND MASS BALANCE FOR THE GASIFIER
According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, enthalpy input into a system must
equal the enthalpy output from the system and any enthalpy loss associated with the
system. The enthalpy inputs into the gasifier and the enthalpy outputs from the
gasifier are shown in the figure 7.21. Table 7.15 shows the relevant information
required for the calculation of the enthalpy and mass balance. An enthalpy balance
for the gasifier was made based on run 43, that is a long run of about 285 minutes.
The detail enthalpy balance calculation is presented in Appendix K.
7.61 The total enthalpy input into the gasifier
The total enthalpy input into the gasifier includes the enthalpy from the wood, the
charcoal, the moisture in the air and the enthalpy from the fan that supplies the air
into the gasifier. The enthalpy of the wood was found to be about 915 MJ (calculated
from the heating value of the wood and amount used in the gasifier). The amount of
enthalpy input from the charcoal used in the system was found to be about 82.75 MJ.
Since the air is blown into the gasifier by a fan, the enthalpy from the fan is also
taken as enthalpy input into the gasifier. Knowing the duration of the run and the
power rating of the fan, the enthalpy input from the fan was found to be about 17.1
Mi. The least enthalpy input of about 1.5 MJ comes from the enthalpy of the water
vapour in the air supplied to the gasifier. Often this is neglected in the calculation.
Hence the total enthalpy input into the gasifier was found to be about 1014.9 MJ.
7.62 Enthalpy output from the gasifier
The total enthalpy output from the gasifier includes the enthalpy from the wood gas,
the tar, the char, condensate (mostly water) and the heat loss from the skin of the
gasifier.
The main useful enthalpy output from the gasifier is the enthalpy of the wood gas at
ambient temperature or often termed as the cold gas enthalpy. This is because the
concentration of the wood gas was sampled and measured at ambient temperature.
The amount calculated was found to be about 835.35 MJ for the duration of the run
of 285 minutes. The temperature of the wood gas exiting from the reduction zone at
750C reduced to ambient temperature as it passed through the piping and cooling
system. Hence the actual enthalpy of the wood gas should also take into the account
the sensible heat loss in reducing the temperature of the wood gas from 750C to
20C. This sensible heat loss was found to be about 73.82 MJ.
The amount of tar and char were calculated based upon the results obtained from run
56. In this run the amount of tar and char were found to be about 0.09% and 0.21%
of the feed respectively. Hence for run 43 the amount of tar and char were calculated
to be 0.06 kg and 0.125 kg respectively (for 60 kg). The enthalpy from the tar and the
char were found to be about 2.11 MJ and 2.71 MJ respectively. The contribution of
tar and char to the enthalpy output is also negligible compared to the enthalpy from
the wood gas.
The enthalpy of the water vapour in the wood gas was calculated from the enthalpy
of water in the vapour state and the enthalpy of the water and was found to be 18.1
MJ. The amount of water vapour condensed was found to be 3.82 kg or 0.8 kg/hr.
The heat loss from the skin of the gasifier is a major contributor to the enthalpy
output from the gasifier. It was found to be about 84.2 MJ. The gasifier is divided
into two zones. The top part of the gasifier has a mean surface temperature of 85C
whilst the bottom part has a mean temperature of 170C. The temperature varies
from the top of the gasifier to the bottom. The skin temperature of the gasifier
increases gradually as the run progressed and reached a maximum temperature of
about 220C at the middle of the bottom sections.
The total enthalpy output from the gasifier was found to be 1016.28 MJ. Table 7.16
shows the summary of the total enthalpy inputs and outputs. It was found that the
total enthalpy input almost balances the total enthalpy output.
7.63 Cold gas efficiency and power output
The efficiency of the gasifier can be defined as the ratio of useful enthalpy output to
the total enthalpy input into the gasifier. The useful enthalpy output from the gasifier
is the cold gas enthalpy of the producer gas that is 835.35 MJ for a duration of 285
mins. The total enthalpy input into the gasifier is 1016.54 MJ. Hence the cold gas
efficiency was found to be 82.31%.
The cold gas enthalpy from the gasifier is normally referred to as the useful power
output of the wood gas and was found to be 48.85 kW.
7.64 Mass balance for the gasifier
The mass balance of the gasifier is necessary as a check for the energy balance. The
complete analysis of the mass balance is given in Appendix K.
i) Mass input into the gasifier
The mass of furniture wood used was 60 kg whilst the amount of charcoal was only
2.5 kg. The mass of air input is a major contributor to the mass input into the
gasifier. It was found to be 136.8 kg (based upon the air flow rate of 400 litres/min,
duration of the run and the air density of 1.2 kg/m 3). Therefore the total mass input
into the system was found to be 199.3 kg.
ii) Mass output from the gasifier
a) Mass of wood gas
The mass of the wood gas was determined from its flow rate of and density. The
average flow rate of the wood gas was measured to be 563 litres/min and the density
of the wood gas was calculated to be 1.093 kg/m3 . Hence the mass of the wood gas
was found the to be 174.4 kg
b) Mass of water, char, tar, particulate and ash
Similar to tar and char, the amount of ash and the particulate were calculated from
run 56. The amount of ash and particulate were found to be 0.450 kg and 0.025 kg
respectively. The amount of water condensed in the cooling system was 3.8 kg. The
contributions of water, ash, tar, char and particulate were negligible. Therefore, any
inaccuracy of measurement of these components would not affect substantially the
mass conversion efficiency.
A summary of the total mass input and the total mass output is shown in table 7.17.
The total mass output from the gasifier was 178.9 kg whilst the input mass was
slightly higher at 199.3 kg. The mass balance closure however was found to be rather
Chapter 7 Results and Dicuss ion 180
low of about 89.7 %. Hoi (1992) found it to be 95% whilst Walawender found it to
be 97%. One of reasons for this is that not all the water vapour in the wood gas was
condensed in the cooling system. Hoi (1992) recorded the weight of water condensed
to be 1.68 kg/hr whilst the present run recorded 0.99 kg/hr. Most of the mass output
from the gasifier is from the wood gas. The result obtained for the mass conversion
efficiency was found to be 87.51% that is in agreement with results obtained by other
researchers in this field. Hoi (1992) found a mass conversion efficiency to be 82 %
whilst Walawender (1985) found it to be 88.3%.
7.7 MODELLING OF THE GAS COMPOSITION IN THE GASIFIER
Prediction of the gas composition of the gasified product was made based on
mathematical modelling of the gasifier. The modelling technique used was the
Equilibrium Model that is based on the thermodynamic equilibrium of the reactions
occurring inside the gasifier. The detailed mathematics have already been presented
in Chapter 4.
The modelling takes into account methane formation. Belleville and Capart (1989)
have obtained theoretical results of the Equilibrium Model based on the assumption
that the equilibrium constant for methane formation is neglected. Their results were
also based on oxygen gasification where oxygen is used as the gasifying agent rather
than air. Since the experimental results have shown that the amount of methane is not
negligible, the inclusion of methane formation reaction is justified. Ethane formation
was neglected because of its negligible amount in the gasified product obtained from
experiments.
The result for the equilibrium model was calculated for different moisture content
with the reduction temperature remaining the same at 800C. According to Gumz as
the moisture content increases the water-gas reaction increases and therefore reduces
the reduction zone temperature. Table 7.18 and figures 7.22 show the results that
include nitrogen as part of the constituent of air in air gasification and considered
that the water vapour present was completely condensed. From figure 7.22, the
amount of H2 and CH4 increase slightly as the moisture content increases due to the
shift reaction of steam from the moisture with CO to form CO 2 and CH4. Hence, as
expected, the amount of CO 2 increases at the expense of CO. Figure 7.23 shows the
predicted calorific value which has a value of about 6.5 MJ/m3 at zero moisture
content and decreases as the moisture content increases. Since downdraft gasifiers
are very sensitive to moisture content, the predicted results obtained for moisture
content exceeding 40%,would have to be disregarded.
Table 7.19 shows the comparisons of the theoretical gas composition and the
experimental results of run 43 for wood having moisture content of 20%. Hydrogen
is over predicted in the model by about 47 % whilst carbon dioxide is underpredicted
by about 90 %. Other values are reasonably well predicted. The calorific value from
the model is 6.2 MJ/m3 whilst the experiment shows a value of about 4.95MJ/m3.
The results obtained were not compared with those obtained by Bellevile and Capart
(1984) because the latter excluded nitrogen from the calculations. The deviations in
the predicted values of hydrogen and carbon dioxide probably arise from
assumptions made in the model that the whole gasifier bed undergoes gasification
reaction according to equation 5 (global chemical reaction) in Chapter 4. Actual
reactions in the gasifier are more complicated than that, for example in the kinetic
free model the gasifier is divided into two zones: pyrolysis and gasification zones
(Buekens and Schoeters ,1985).
The model was also run at different gasification or reduction zone temperatures.
Figure 7.24 shows the effect of the wood gas concentration on reduction zone
temperature for a moisture content of 40%. From the figure, the H2 content drops as
the reduction zone temperature increases due to the presence of less amount of steam
for the H2 formation in the water-gas and shift reactions. However, the concentration
of CO increases slightly due to the favourable condition at higher temperature in the
Bouduard reaction. The concentration of CH 4 increases and reaches a peak at 750C,
thereby reducing with increasing temperature. CH 4 formation is quite complex. As
the temperature increases initially, heterogeneous reaction of some of the H2 with
carbon is favourable for CH4 formation. As the temperature increases higher, less
hydrogen is available for the CH 4 formation. Furthermore CH4 formation becomes
more unstable as the temperature increases.
Figure 7.25 shows the effect of the wood gas calorific value on the reduction zone
temperatures. The calorific value reaches a peak at about 750C at 5.7 MJ/m 3 . The
model therefore, predicted that gasification process is most favourable at that
temperature. There was a temperature gradient in the reduction zone during the
experiments. From the model the temperature gradient in the reduction zone should
lie between 600C and 900C for optimum gasification reactions. This temperature
gradient was achieved in the experiment with the extended reduction zone length
when very good calorific value gas was obtained.
The results of the biomass gasifier system, in terms of its performance have been
presented. Discussions on the dynamic temperature profiles in the gasifier, gas
composition of the producer gas and the emissions from the gasifier have been
elaborated. The results of the performance of the gas clean up and the
engine/generator systems have also been presented and discussed. Finally the chapter
ends with the results and discussion on the enthalpy and mass balances and
mathematical modelling of the gasifier.
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Figure 7.19 N20 concentration from the gasifier
Figure 7.20. NO and NOx emission from the engine for run 46
---0 Enthalpy of producer

gas
n
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wood and charcoal
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I
Gasifier
Enthalpy of moisture
in air
Enthalpy in tar

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fan
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condensate
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Figure 7.21 Enthalpy balance for the gasifier.
20
30
40
50
60
70
Moisture content (wet basis%)
Figure 7.22 Effect of gas composition on moisture content using the

equilibrium model for a reduction zone temperature of 800C
Moisture content( wet basis%)
Figure 7.23 Effect of calorific value on the moisture content using the
equilibrium model for reduction zone temperature of 800C
Figure 7.24 Effect of wood gas concentration on the reduction zone

temperature
Figure 7.25 Effect of calorific value of the wood gas on the reduction zone
temperature
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Run
Calculated flow rate of

the gas after the
gasifier (litres/min)
41
831.14
Flow rate of the gas

measured after
passing through the
cooling system
(litres/min)
520.0
42
663.97
521.43
43
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562.5
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(Pressure generated in the gasifier was 5 010 kPa)
Cooling
system Inlet
temperature Temperature
drop Pressure drop (Pa)
component
(C)
(C)
Filter
218.3
56.2
1886.8
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162.2
38.2
59
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Table 7.15 Relevant information for run 43
Type of wood
Furniture wood
Weight of wood
60 kg
Weight of charcoal
2.5 kg
Air supply into the gasifier
400 litres/min
Pressure at gasifier outlet
5.010 kPa
Pressure loss in the cooling system
3.25 kPa
Mean wood gas flow rate
560 litres/min)
Density of air
1.2 kg/m3
Density of wood gas
1.093kg/m3
Weight of water
3.82 kg
Weight of char remained
0.125 kg
Weight of tar
0.06 kg
Weight of ash
0.45 kg
Weight of particulate
0.025 kg
Table 7.16 Energy balance summary for run 43 for a duration of 285 minutes
ENERGY INPUT
ENERGY
MJ
MJ
OUTPUT
Wood (60 kg)
915
Cold gas
835.35
73.82
Charcoal (2.5 kg)
82.75
Sensible heat of gas
Moisture in the air
1.56
Water
18.1
17.1
Tar
2.1
Char
2.71
Losses
84.2
(400 limin)
Energy
from
the
fan
Total
1016.41
1016.28
7.17 The mass balance closure and the mass conversion efficiency
MASS INPUT
kg
MASS OUTPUT
kg
Wood
60
Cold gas
174.4
Charcoal
2.5
Water
3.82
Tar
0.06
Char
0.125
Particulates
0.025
Losses
84.2
Mass of the air
136.8
(400 Umin)
Total
199.3
178.9
Table 7.18 Effect of moisture content on gas composition using the equilibrium model
for reduction zone temperature of 800 C
Moisture
content
0
H2
CO
CO2
CH4
N2
Equivalent Calorific
ratio
value
0.296
6.5
23
29
41
20
28.07
21.37
9.79
2.16
38.61
0.298
6.16
30
29.47
18.14
11.93
2.27
38.18
0.302
5.96
40
30.48
14.92
14.03
2.35
38.22
0.310
5.7
50
30.87
11.74
16.04
2.38
38.97
0.326
5.37
60
30.22
8.64
17.91
2.33
40.92
0.357
4.91
70
27.64
5.58
19.53
2.13
45.11
0.419
4.22
80
20.83
2.68
20.64
1.6
54.23
0.555
Table 7.19 Comparison of computer predicted values and the experimental value of run
43 for moisture content of 20 %
Gas
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrogen
Theoretical
results(%)
28
21
10
2
39
Experimental
results (%)
14.23
21.95
17.07
2.46
42.39
/02/4
Deviations (%)
47
4.56
89.7
23
8.7
Chapter $ Conclusion 222
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The objective of this chapter is to conclude the findings of this research work and
propose some recommendations for future work in this field. The conclusions are
divided into three main topics of interest: the performance and characteristics of the
gasifier, gas cleanup system and power generation.
8.1 PERFORMANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GASIFIER
The main objective of this study which has been stated in the first chapter was to
characterise the performance of a gasifier which was designed and fabricated at
UWCC, based on previous experiences in biomass gasification. It is concluded that
the gasifier performed well achieving calorific value in the range of 4.91-6.04
MJ/m3 . Average cold gas and mass conversion efficiencies of about 80.1% and
88.3% were obtained respectively for the gasifier. The gasified product contained tar
of about 0.09% of the feedstock and is typical for downdraft gasifiers.
Most of the runs were performed using furniture leftovers which were cut into
smaller pieces because they are easier to load into the gasifier than the wood chips.
Nevertheless wood chips is a better biomass material for the gasifier due to its size
although it had to be dried and sieved. 1.5- 2.5 kg of charcoal put initially in the
reduction zone aided effectively in achieving a high calorific value fuel gas whilst
increasing cold gas efficiency and giving very small quantities of tar immediately
after start-up.
The dynamic temperature profiles inside the gasifier are relevant in understanding
the phenomena occurring within it and to the author's knowledge are unique for this
type of system. It has been shown in Chapter 7 that the temperature levels in the
gasifier affected the gas compositions and the calorific value of the wood gas. Hence,
Chapter 8 Conclusion 223

;he knowledge of the temperature profiles are essential in optimising the
performance of the gasifier by ensuring that the various zones occur in the correct
place.
The combustion zone dynamic temperature profile clearly revealed information on

bridging phenomena inside the gasifier and affected the gas composition of the
producer gas. Poor development of the combustion zone caused by poor ignition of
the wood initially, also affected the quality of the producer gas. It is therefore,
necessary to ensure that the combustion zone dynamic temperature profile is
maintained fluctuating about a mean value of 1000C throughout the run for good
quality gas. Another important conclusion is that the dynamic temperature profile for
the reduction zone should be kept in the range of 600-800C for optimum
gasification process and gas quality. Temperatures higher than 800C, resulted in
poor gas quality of the producer gas.
The 60 cone angle of the combustion zone has prove to be effective in allowing the
biomass wood to flow down the system whilst reducing bridging in the gasifier, thus
stirrers or agitators are not necessary. The narrow cylindrical reduction zone
provided a more uniform temperature for the gasification reactions. Increasing the
reduction zone height showed better results in terms of quality of the fuel gas.
Modifications made to increase the number of the air supply nozzles also gave better
results.
A very unusual and unexpected result was the high levels of N20 formed in the
gasifier. Up to 10000 ppm were recorded with instrumentation from a fully
accredited testing organisation. There appear to be some previously unreported N20
formation routes occurring in the fuel rich conditions in the gasifier. All of the N20
was destroyed in the high temperature region of the engine combustion chamber.
The design and fabrication of the gasifier, although simple, was subjected to constant
modifications throughout the research to overcome various problems unforeseen
initially until the experiments were carried out. It is unfortunate that experiences and

problems by other workers were not explicitly mentioned in conferences and
journals. Most researchers pride themselves in obtaining good results. Furthermore
manufacturers of gasifier units rarely disclose experiences and problems encountered
due to competition. The problems encountered in this study are explicitly mentioned
and discussed in Chapter 5.
8.2 PERFORMANCE OF THE COOLING AND CLEANING SYSTEM
In conclusion, the cooling and cleaning system was found to be very effective in
cooling the wood gas, condensing the water vapour and trapping the tar and
particulates. The multitube cooler, although not effective in condensing the gasified
product, nevertheless proved to be effective in cooling the gas. The spiral condenser
was found to be extremely effective in condensing about 66% of the water vapour in
the gasified product. About 78% of the tar evolved in the wood gas was trapped in
the cooling and cleaning system especially in the oil bath filter which is an
indispensable component in the system in removing the tar, although further progress
is needed. The amount of tar remaining was 0.02% of the feed.
Since the pressure generated in the gasifier was 5 kPa (due to the air inlet pressure of
2 kPa and the pressure generated by the thermochemical processes of 3 kPa), the
pressure drop in the cooling and cleaning system must not exceed 4 kPa, otherwise
substantial reduction in fuel gas flow rate occurs.
8.3 PERFORMANCE OF THE ENGINE, GENERATOR AND ELECTRICAL

LOAD
It is concluded that the performance of the engine, generator and the electrical load
was satisfactory. The engine and the generator were both performing below their
maximum capacities. About 62.5% of the engine's capacity and only 50.4% of the
generator's capacity were used. The overall efficiency of the biomass gasifier system
was about 11.15% which is low compared to results obtained by other workers. If
proper matching of the engine (producing 20 kW), generator and load (12 kW) is

made, an overall efficiency of about 25-30% could be achieved. The specific
consumption of the biomass material being 1.98 kg/kWh, was also affected by this
low overall efficiency. Expectations of a figure of less than unity could be achieved
with proper matching of the power generating components.
It is also concluded that better performance occurred in the longer runs rather the
shorter ones owing to closer attainment to steady state operating conditions. In
practice the biomass gasifier system would be run on continuous loads for long
periods.
Chemical treatment in the engine cylinder (with Redex after every 6 hours) and
running the engine with natural gas before and after the runs is imperative to reduce
tar build up and to prolong the maintenance schedule for the engine.
NOx emission level from the exhaust of the engine was about 60 ppm which is an
acceptable emission level. The emissions of N2 0 from the gasifier was extremely
high at a level of about 10500 ppm but this was completely destroyed in the internal
combustion engine. Producer gas is a very hazardous, toxic and environmentally
harmful pollutant, but nevertheless an important energy source.
8.4 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE WORK.
8.41 Gasifier
For continuous operation of the gasifier a feeding system is essential. A hopper was
designed to be fitted at the top of the gasifier, but problems encountered during the
run forced the hopper to be discarded due to the absence of a gas tight seal. However
when using wood chips, a screw feeder which is commonly used with wood chips
gasifier could easily and cheaply be attached at the top of the gasifier. However when
using furniture wood, a hopper would suffice. The technique allowing volatiles to
burn on top of the pile of furniture wood inside the gasifier while reloading was

found to be very effective in preventing blow back of volatiles into the face of the
operator.
Numerous studies could be performed to investigate the effect of reduction zone size
and the configuration of the air supply nozzles. Different sizes and the number of the
air supply nozzles could be investigated as to their effect on temperature profiles and
the performance of the gasifier.
It might also be suitable to heat the air supply to a certain temperature via a heat
exchanger, transferring the heat from the cooling and cleaning system. The
additional temperature would increase the performance of the gasifier. Supplying the
air via a vertical pipe at the axis of the gasifier was helpful for research purposes,
however dividing the air between the central pipe and outer air inlet nozzle at base of
the cone could be beneficial in establishing better and more uniform combustion
zones.
The capacity of the gasifier was to be 45 kg of biomass material. It has been shown
that the quality of the gas improved when the initial charge of the biomass material
into the gasifier was high. Therefore increasing the capacity to 100 kg would ensure
a longer run without reloading and gives better performance. However this is not a
minor modification but a consideration for future designers and manufacturers of
gasifier. Since the amount of ash was found to be about 1% of the feed, a smaller ash
bin and door could be used to reduce the size of the gasifier and minimise the cost of
fabrication.
8.42 Cooling and cleaning system
The position of the cyclone was about 2 m away from the gasifier and after each run,
some water was collected in the cyclone. The vertical filter was a less effective
means of separating particulates than the cyclone and also resulted in high pressure
loss whilst not removing the tar; thus the vertical filter should be removed and the
gas fed directly in the cyclone, whilst the water vapour is condensed later.
Since the use of the oil bath filter has proved to be effective, a second oil bath filter
should be placed in series to further reduce the amount of tar and particulates in the
fuel gas before passing into the engine. Although this would increase the pressure
loss in the system, a small axial fan could be used to boost the flow rate of the wood
gas. Although wet scrubbing is effective in removing and cleaning the fuel gas, it
was not used due to problems associated with cleaning the effluent before disposing
it. An alternative possibility is to use a wet scrubber using oil as the scrubbing
medium, the liquid being recycled by a small pump. Such a spray system could be
incorporated into a cyclone installed after a cooler. Much of the separated material
could be removed by a liquid filter system.
8.43 Engine and generator
Matching of the rated power of the engine and the generator to the gasifier is
essential to increase the overall efficiency of the biomass gasifier system and to
lower the consumption of the biomass feed per kWh. The air supply into the gasifier
could easily be taken from a blower coupled to the engine output shaft. A 1500 rpm
blower with a capacity of about 700 litres/min and a pressure of about 14 kPa would
be sufficient for the gasifier and would not affect the engine substantially.
8.5 FURTHER WORK ON BIOMASS GASIFICATION
It is necessary to increase the electrical power output of the biomass gasifier system
to about 200-300 kW for it to be viable and appealing commercially. Hence the use
of a miniature gas turbine derived from the vehicle turbocharger seems to be very
attractive. However there are some technical problems that need serious attention
before such systems can be used. There include the problem of an effective heat
exchanger to transfer heat from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exhaust.
The major advantage of gas turbines is their relative tolerance to tars and particulates
compared to reciprocating engine.

Although downdraft gasifiers have limitations in scaling up to higher power output
in the range of 0.5-1 MW (where updraft gasifiers seem to be favoured) and the
condition of the biomass ( moisture content and size), it is necessary to rejuvenate
the interest in downdraft gasification for a medium power output up to about 300 kW
suitable for rural and isolated regions which are not connected to the electricity grid.
The N20 results are unexpected and merit further study. They parallel results from
certain fluidised bed combustion units in which high N 20 results are reported. The
downdraft gasifier seems to produce N 20 emission an order of high magnitude. This
certainly merits ftither work as there is much commercial interest in engine/gasifier
systems for power generation up to 300 kW or more.
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APPENDIX A
Appendix A
Computer Programme to Determine the Gas Concentration Inside the Gasifier
Based on the Equilibrium Model
50 CLS
100 PRINT "CALCULATING THE GAS CONCENTRATION OF THE
PRODUCER GAS"
200 PRINT" FOR REDUCTION ZONE TEMPERATURE OF 800 C"
400 REM PROPERTIES OF THE GASES ITS HEAT OF FORMATION AND THE
SPECIFIC VALUES
500 HFH20 = -241827 + 29035.97
550 HFVAP = -241827
600 HFWOOD = -115248
700 HFH2 = 22903.01
800 HFCO = -110529 + 24129.31
900 HFCO2 = -393522 + 37411.97
1000 HFN2 = 23866.81
1001 HFCH4 = -88620
1050 KCO = 1.04217
1051 KCH4 = .047156
1300 REM" THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF WOOD="
1301 I = 0
1350 W=(23*I*.01)/(18*(1 -I*.01))
1390 A = -HFH2 + HFH20 + 3.76 / 2 * HFN2
1400 REM "ASSUME A VALUE OF X3,X4 AND X5"
1500 X3 = .3: X4 = .2: X5 = 0
1600 REM "NUMBER OF ITERATION"
1650 M = 1000
1727 N = 0
1728N=N+ 1
1760 P = HFWOOD + HFVAP * W - (.7 + W + 2 * X5) * HFH2 -(1 -X3 - X5) *
HFCO - X3 * HFCO2 - X5 * HFCH4 - 3.76 * HFN2 * (.2 + X3 /2 - W / 2 - X5 /2)
1900 X4=P/A
2000X3 =2 * KCO * X4 * (1 - X5) / (1.4 + 2 * W - 2 * X4 + 4 * X5 +2 * KCO *
X4)
2001 X5 = KCH4 * ((2 * W + 1.4 - 2 * X4 + 4 * X5) / 2) A 2
2200 IF N = M GOTO 2700
2300 GOTO 1728
2700 X2 = 1 - X3 - X5
2800X1 =(2*W+ 1.4 -2*X4+4*X5)/2
2900 MM=(X2 + 2 *X3 +X4 -.6 -W)/ 2
3550 JUM = X1 + X2 + X3 + X5 + (3.76 * MM)
3600 H2 = (X1 /JUM) * 100
3700 CO = (X2 / JUM) * 100
3800 CO2 = (X3 / JUM) * 100
3900 REM H20 = (X4 / JUM) * 100
4000 N2 = ((3.76 * MM) / JUM) * 100

4500 CH4 = (X5 / JUM) * 100
4501 CV = CO * .01 * 11.97 + H2 * .01 * 10.22 + CH4 * .01 * 33.95
4549 PRINT "MC,H2,CO,CO2,CH4,N2,CV,MM"
4650 PRINT I, H2, CO, CO2, CH4, N2, CV, MM
4700 I = I + 10
4750 IF 1= 70 GOTO 5000
4800 GOTO 1350
5000 END
APPENDIX B
Appendix B
Series 104 Heated Katharometer Programmed

Chromatograph (Model 44)
Technical specification and description of the chromatograph
The model consist of

Analyser Oven
Electrical control Unit (dual channel)
Gas flow Controller(double)
Heated katharometer Head
Programmed Controller
Katharometer Power Supply
Analyser Connection Kit
Flow measurement Kit
This model provides routine analytical facilities over a useful sensitivity range
The analyser oven is standard throughout the series 1'04 range and enables the
chromatograph columns to be held at controlled temperature. For the model 44 the
analyser oven temp range is 35-429C, the upper limit being dependent on the melting
temp of the thermal fuse fitted in the analyser oven. However a maximum temp of 350
C is recommended for the analyser oven because it is generally undesirable when
using the chromatograph to have the column oven temp higher than the detector oven
temp.
The heated katharometer head forms the roof of the oven compartment and provides
mounting for the katharometer detector and the injection heads. In model 44, the
katharometer is enclosed in a separate oven which is well insulated from the main
oven and whose temp s controlled independent of the main oven temp. The column
may therefore be temp programmed without affecting the katharometer temp. The
coiled columns are suspended from the head unit, connected between the injection
heads and the katharometer inlet pipe.
The power delivered to the detector oven and column oven heaters is regulated by two
silicon controlled rectifiers mounted on the electrical control unit; Regulation is
governed in the case of the column oven heater by the programmed controller
combined with a platinum resistance thermometer which is fitted inside the column
oven compartment. The programmer controller provides facilities for linear temp
programming oven any part of the analyser oven temp range. Twelve rates of temp
increase are provided and both initial and final periods of isothermal operation may be
preset on the programmed controller front panel.
Regulation of the supply to the detector oven is governed by the detector oven
controller combined with a platinum resistance thermometer which is fitted inside the
detector oven. The detector oven controller enables the detector oven to be operated
isothermally at temp from 35-359C, the upper limit being imposed by the glass seals
of the katharometer filament. The katharometer can be operated continuously at 350C
and the filament will survive a for a short period at 400C i.e. the melting temp of the
thermal fuse fitted in the detector oven.
The filament of the katharometer form the four arms of a bridge network when the
connecting leads are taken to the katharometer power supply,. This transistorised unit
is the source of controllable bridge current and also includes bridge balancing, output
signal polarity reversal and event marking controls. The attenuator switch controls the
output to a suitable potentiometric recorder.
The analyser connection kit contains copper tubing which has been chemically
cleaned and couplings for connecting the carrier gas supplies to the gas flow controller
bulkhead at the rear of the analyser oven.
The flow measurement kit consist of a bubble flow meter mounted on a stand. Silicon
runner tubing is attached to the flow meter for connections to either of the
katharometer outlets at the rear of the gas flow controller bulkhead.
APPENDIX C
Appendix C
Computer Programme To Determine The Temperature Drop Along The
Multitube Condenser
5 REM PROGRAM TO CALCULATE THE TEMPERATURE OF THE WOOD

GAS WHILE PASSING
6 REM THROUGH 6 COPPER WITH THE BEND COPPER PIPES.
10 CLS
30 REM All properties are taken at specific temp of the wood gas
40 d = .015:
REM diameter of copper pipe of 2 m long
50 cp = 1403:
REM specific heat capacity of wood gas( J/kg K)
60 ma = .000334:
REM mass flow rate of wood gas ( kg/s)
65 REM the total mass flow rate of the producer gas is 0.1204kg/min hence
66 REM dividing it by six the flow rate through each pipe is 0.0003344 kg/s
67 REM The heat capacity was determined from the gravimetric analysis of the
68 REM of the producer gas.
70 dx = .2:
REM elemental increment of the pipe
80 p = .04712:
REM perimeter of the pipe
REM ambient temperature (K)
90 ta = 293:
100 sigma = 5.669E-08: REM Stefan Boltzmann constant
REM emmisivity for copper pipe ( oxidised)
110 e = .61:
REM thermal conductivity of the wood gas
120 k = .0547:
130 re = 3184:
REM Reynolds: the total flow rate of producer gas is
REM
600 11min, the flow rate through each pipe is
131
REM is 1001/min= 1.667 E-3 m3/s. The viscosity
132
REM of the producer gas is calculated from the gas analysis
133
REM to be 4.442E-5 m2/s
134
REM Prandtl no.which is almost constant for a wide
140 pr = .7:
REM range of temperature
141
REM Heat transfer coeff (Nu=0.023 Re^0.8. Pr^0.3)
142
150 hi = k * (.023 * (re A .8) * (pr ^ .3)) / d
REM initial temperature of the wood gas(K)
160 tm = 423:
165 tt = (hi * p * dx) / (ma * cp)
170 m = 0
180x=0
REM guessed temperature of the wall temperature
200 tw = 350:
210 PRINT" INITIAL TEMPERATURE: 150 C; FLOW RATE:1001/min"
220 PRINT" COPPER PIPE DIAMETER 0.015 m by 2 m"
230 PRINT "LENGTH TEMP WALL TEMP GAS ITERATION
ERROR"
240 m=m+ 1
250 x=x+.2
260 N = 0
270N=N+ 1
280 tw = twl
290 W = 5.91 * (tw - ta):
REM free convection on vertical cylinder
291
REM the heat transfer coefficient is the
292 REM mean value for the temperature range
300 Z = sigma * e * (tw A 4 - ta A 4): REM radiation heat transfer
310 twl =tm-(W+Z)/hi
320 IF twl = tw THEN 350
330 IF N = 1000 THEN GOTO 350
340 GOTO 270
350 tm = (1 - tt) * tm + (tt * twl)
370 er = twl - tw
375 tw = tw - 273
376 tm = tm - 273
380 PRINT x, tw, tm, N, er
381 tw = tw + 273
382 tm = tm + 273
390 IF m = 10 THEN GOTO 410
400 GOTO 240
410 END
APPENDIX D
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APPENDIX E
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX F GAS CHROMATOGRAPH OUTPUTS FOR RUNS 43 AND 45
INJECT j4,,,5 11: 43: 56
L HAHNE- A
60
4.. 43
CH= "A" PS=
j3:43:56
FILE
METHOD
1.
F Ulf- 4
1
4
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1. E32
15. 615
0.
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RT
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1.25
2. 45
4.49
9.57
INDEX
AREA BC
940 01
19679 0-1
7 2 7 4 4 ni
7194 0-1
70550
42 5207
Figure F.1 Gas cliromatograph output for run 43; Molecular Sieve;
injection after 45 minutes from start-up
INJECT 14,8. 5 16: 20: 47
CHANNEL R
2., nn
"20
14,8. , 5 16:2O47
FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
2
3
4
TOTAL
METHOD 0.
AREA
0.172
34
1.742
13.732
100.
INDE::: 11
FUN 11
RT
0.99
1.25
2.
9.3
AREA EC
l84
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l',17-7
201503
nr,
02
0=
01
1 r173,7
Figure F.2 Gas chromatograph output for run 43; Silica Gel;
CH=
INJECT
CHANNEL A
14..
11:57:12
.61')
L.77
.47
ac
14., 8.. : 5
FILE
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FEAK#
1
2
3
4
5
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA
0.24
1.312
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D.027.
24. 225
100.
RUN
n.
RT
0.6
1. 32
2.47
4.43
9. 49
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I fiDE::::
2
AREA EC
q..74.7.
5421
29S187
37:56
1 ,-ici n72
01
01
01
81
01
41.J29
Figure F.3 Gas chromatograph output for run 43; Molecular Sieve;
CH=
"A"
FS=
INJECT 14,3, . 5 16: 24: 44
CHANNEL A
1.39
7. 40
CH= "A" FS = 1.
14,8, , 5 j:4:44
FILE
1.
PEAK #
1
2
3
4
5
6
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA%
0.085
0.095
80.162
1.862
0.074
17.721
100.
FL
RUH
FT
I.-i. 97
0. q (z:
1. 25
1. 99
7. 4
9.29
12
IrIDE:
I.:
AF ER BL:
872
976
819469
19079
7 57
1:E:1159
Ci .:'
02
cv:'
1713
,-.1.'
0-
10.-22272
Figure F.4 Gas clu. omatograph output for run 43; Silica Gel;
INJECT 14. :3, , 5 14: 11: :7
CHANNEL. A
59
r-
2. J.7..
14. 8....
FILE 1.
PERM*
1
2
7
4
,..c
TOTAL
METHOD 0.
AREA
0. 1E5
8. 708
76.288
0.82
14. 019
.100.
PUN
RI
0.59
1. 3
2.4:
4.4:3
9.58
14: 11:7
7,
I NDE:-:
.:H= "P."
17'
AREA BC
7-9
-9052
-42u8
:676
62870
ni
Al
ni
01
01
448455
PS=
INJECT 14, 8, 5 15: 49:55
CHANNEL A
1.
L. 21
1.95
14,
FILE 1.
PERK#
I
-,
3
4
TOTAL
RUH 13
METHOD 0.
AREA
0.171
R.=. 052
1. *:'E.';
15. 538
100.
RI
0.95
1. 21
1. 55
9. 11
CH= "A" PS = 1.
15:4955
INIIE
12
AREA BC
1727
828754
12818
166741
02
C.I.:'
3:
01
1010040
INJECT 14,G,,5 14:24:12
CHANNEL A
. 50
14,8,5 14:24:12
FILE
METHOD
1.
PEAK#
1
.D
2
4
5
TOTAL
AREA
0.22'8
1.856
74.407
2.179
T'1.72
100.
0.
RUH
RT
0.6
1.75
2. 47
4.5
cl.=;=:
HIDE:\
__
CH= "A" FS= 1.

4
AREA BC
971:: 01
7501 01
104592 cil
8921 01
R7-n=. 01
d09495
INJECT 14, :3, , 5 17:03:22
CHANNEL A
L. 29
nn
:".
05
62
14, 8, , 5
1.
FILE
METHOD
APEA
1
n.157
2
-,
4
J
6
77. 761
O.95
1.
0. 062
20. R46
TOTAL
100.
IJI-I
O.
PT
1.01
1.29
2.05
2. otz.
7. 62
9. 5 1
INDE
14
:H= "A"
1 7 :0 : :
1-1
AFEFf
1:=24
8171092.0
5629
171710
635
206469
ni.
02
n.:
et:
02
0:
1029994
injection after 147 minutes from start-UP
PS=
1.
INJECT
CHANNEL A
14, 8, , 5
14: 37:12
.61
1. :5
2. 48
14, 8 .5
FILE
1.
FEAK#
1
T,'
4
5
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA 7:
0.246
1. 625
72. 876
..7.. -z ..:1
22.854
100.
R LI 11
0.
'
Ch = "A"
1437:12
HIDE;
c-
APES BC
RT
0.51
1. 7 5
2. 48
4.49
1011 01
5687 co
2998171::: 01
9:771 01
9.57
94020 01
' -97
PS =
1.
INJECT 14, 8, , 5 17: 20:10
CHANNEL A
2..15
"R" FS =
14. S. 5
FILE 1.
PEAK#
RUN 15
METHOD 0.
AREA
1
2
2'
4
171.
75.
2.
20.
TOTAL
100.
19
872
122
815
RT
1. 0
1. =E
2. 15
10. 04
INDE:< 15
AREA BC
1921 02
77027 ci?
21418 02
21015 131
1009497
CHAHNEL A
INJECT
14, 8,
14: 50: 27
. 60
2, 18
49
14, 8, , 5
-1.
FILE
F EAK #
1.
3
4
5
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA
0. 242
1. 19:
70. 062
1. 814
26. 68'.?
n.
RUN
RT
8.6
-1. 34
2.48
1 . aci
9. Si.
F.
14: f0: 27
CH= "A"
INDEX
AREA EC
101r= 01
0
294060
7615
112017 01
5oos
41.'5716
Figure F.11 Gas chromatograph output for mn 43; Molecular Sieve;

FE=
1.
CHANNEL A
INJECT 14,8/.5 17::9:22
1 4 , 8, , 5 17:1'9:22
FILE 1.
FEAK#
METHOD n.
FiREA%
li. 1:37
61.7:2
0.811
n. 937
.J
16.328
TOTAL
100.
RUM 15
PT
1.
01
CH= "A" FS= 1.
INDEX IA
AREA EC
_883 02
82488 OD
1.3
:E or.
2.07 18i
D. 0:3
9457 03
1E4775 01
9.7
10091:34
CHANNEL A
INJECT 14,8,,5 15:02:52

.g0
F1. 26
1 4 ., 8, , 5
FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
2
3
TOTAL
METHOD 0.
AREA
0.167
0. 032
99. 801
lOEi.
RUN
PT
0.6
1.:6
2.77
1 5 ; 0 .7' : 5 T`
It-DE:
CH= "A"
7
AF EA BC
261 01
164 01
515107 01
5161:2
Figure F.13 Gas chromatograph output for calibration sample for run 43;
Hydrogen 9.98%; Molecular Sieve
r.:-
_.
INJECT 14, :3, , 5 15: 21: 45
CHANNEL A
1.3?
4.51
.14, 8, , 5 .15:
21 45
FILE 1.
PEAK#
2
3
TOTAL
F.'liri
METHOD O.
0.017
95.444
4.539
PEI =
1.
I NDE:,=,
RT
AREA
i.7
2.37
4.51
524311 01
AREA?.
CH= "A"
B1:
c,tf, ni
2541748 01
559815
100.
Methane 5.13%; Molecular Sieve
41
14, 8, 5 5:27:2
FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
2
TOTAL
METHOD 0.
AREA
21. 043
7:3. 952
100.
F UN 10
FT
1. 29
2. 41
INDE..:
CH= "A" P3 = 1.
1,71
AREA B C
121139 01
454356 Cl
575575
Air; Molecular Sieve
CHANNEL A
INJECT 14, 8, , 5 15: 03: 05
2. 2
017:
14, 0, , 5 1:0E
FILE 1.

FEAK#
TOTAL
METHOD 0.

RT
AREA::

1. :7
0. 02
2. TR
90. 401
9.1E7
. 579
RUN
"A"
It-iDE:
AREA EC
112 01
511414 01
5416:9 01
100.
Carbon monoxide 9.86%; Molecular Sieve
FS=
J-
INJECT 14, 8, 5 17:54:37
CHANNEL A
i d , 8., 5 17: 54: -7

FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
2
TOTAL
METHOD A.
FiREFr:
98. 2E3
11.717
100.
Fl PER
"Ft"
PS=
HIDE,: 17
PUN 17
RT
CH=
Er
1.22 10 2 7255 ril

9.45
135222 01
11625:38
Carbon dioxide 9.98%; Silica Gel
1005 1805 1511715 10135 1036

11108 1008 1008 inFIR
INJECT
1013n
997
999
989
CHANNEL A
1086
9:S2
922
1008
. 68
.68
CH= "A" FS= 1.
13=:15:02
1.
FILE
PEAK#
1
2
3
4
5
TOTAL
METHOD
FIRER%
0.117
12. 392
77.75
1. 041
8.699
100.
RUN
n.
RT
0.58.
1.41
2.55
4. 68
9.99
ItIDE::
19
19
FtFER BC
517
E5181
41718937
547:
--1.753
01
Fil
01
ni
01
525561
9S2
CHANNEL A
INJECT
07:41:27
1. 26
2.06
11. 89
07:41:27
FILE 1.
PEAK#
METHOD 0.
AREA
0. 097
85. 433
1. 128
9. 176
0. 167
TOTAL
100.
INDEX 29
PUN 29
PT
1. 26
2. All,
9.57
11. 89
CH= "A" PS= 1.
AREA EC
1125 Of'
1038751 n'
iThqc-1
11:I657 7
Of.
1915
1161483
INJECT
CHANNEL A
00:51:14
Qs3:1:14
METHDD Pl.
FILE 1.
PEPle #
AFER%
0.242
2.03
75.496
,
--z.....ti
2
4
`J
Tr"L
i:J. 64
0.
FUN
PT
PPPR PC
-.3.,E
104f 1
E.:'3 31
.-;=442: ;II
102:f ;0
E5;11 0!
1.:f
2.4
4.51
9.66
TH:E!
flpq
.-._
4:2:72
P:=
1.
n5:351:58
INJECT
CHANNEL A
.97
t.25
nii
u1.1
.53
CH= "A" PS= 1.
J5:3:58
1.
FILE
FEAK#
1
',
3
4
,,
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA/
0.181
77.929
--). 12
0.058
19.713
120.
O.
RUH
RI
0.97
1.25
2.
7.57
9.32
INDEX
20
20
AREA BC
1995
859906
Da-qo
637
217520
90
OD
A-
02
03
1103448
Figure F.21 Gas chromatograph output for nm 45; Silica Gel;

CHANNEL A
INJECT
A1:56:5A
.61
CH= "A" FS= 1.

FILE
PEAK#
1
.'
3
4
5
TOTAL
METHOD
1.
AREA
0.247
2.54
74.934
2.004
20. 275
100.
O.
RUN
RT
0.61
1.27
2.5
4.54
9.71
INDEX
7
AREA BC
1171,=.7
10957
22325:
E647
87462
01
01
01
01
0/
4131386
CHANNEL A
INJECT
05:98:29
L. 24
1.99
. 46
n9:58:29
FILE
1.
FEAK#
METHOD
AREA
0.182
78. 907
3
- 1. 886
4
A . 062
5
13. 962
TOTAL
100.
0.
RUN
RT
0.97
1. 24
1.99
7. 46
9. 35
INDEX
22
CH= "A" PE= 1.

22
AREA BC
2027 02
:376836 1712
20959
1597
03
02
210712 03
11.11227
INJECT
CHANNEL A
A4:28:04
(
2.7:
nn.-
04:26:04
FILE
1.
PEAK*
1
-_,
3
4
si
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA
0.237
2.653
72.086
1.943
27.045
100.
O.
RUN
RI
0.62
1.39
2.53
4.59
9.74
DADE:
14
CH= "A" PS= 1.

14
AREA RC
10Si 01
2501 01
334572 01
R 016
101;99 01
ni
464129
CHANNEL A
35:25:34
INJECT
1.46
2.32
10.
CH= "A" PS= 1.

FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
2
3
4
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA
RUN 24
RT
0.186
30.531
1.859
17.374
0A.
O.
INDEX 24
AREA EC

1.12
1.46

10.85
2130
922128
21272
198824 Al
1144354
CHANNEL A
04:14:57
INJECT
.52
4. 59
CI 77.
04:14:57
METHOD
0.
RUN
FILE
AREA%
RI
0.
1.
72.
1.
24.
0. 62
1.37
2. 5s.
4.53
9.7":"
PEA10
I.
3
4
100.
246
309
606
692
147
It-IDE:;
13
CH= "A" PS= 1.

1:
AREA BC
1129
6013
33355 ?
7774
110929
01
ni
01
01
01
4597-=17
TOVIL
06:57:40
INJECT
CHANNEL A
1. 413
2.24
in. 50
06:57:40
1.
FILE
PEAK#
1
2
4
TOTAL
METHOD
AREA
0.188
80.752
1.605
17.454
100.
n.
PUN
RT
1.09
1.4
2.24
10.5
INDEX
26
CH= "A"
26
AREA BC
2:55
1008924
20058
218071
n:'
02
Cr'
01
1243408
PS = 1.
CHANNEL A
INJECT
c_13: 45: 28
.
1.17
2. 2.
4.53
0::45:28
METHOD
FILE
PEAO
.1
4
5
TOTHL
AREA
PUN
RT
0. 255
1. 223
72. 544
1. 975
23. 843
100.
0.
0.62
1. 27
2.53
4.58
11
INDE;
CH= "A" PS= 1.

11
AREA BC
1124
5549
3 1 993 7'
8597
105007
01
01
01
01
Al
440410
figure F.28 Gas chromatograph output for run 45; Molecular Sieve;
INJECT
CHANNEL A
07:12:57
1
1.33
2.12
O7:12:57
FILE 1.
PEAK#
i
2
3
4
TOTAL
METHOD O.
AREA'
0.191
79.536
1.8'86
18.386
100.
FUN 27
RI
1.03
1.3
2.12
9.97
CH= A" FS= 1.
INDEX
AREA BC
2227
524942
219:8
213820
Of.
02
07.,
01
1162923
CHANNEL A
04: 01 : 25
INJECT
=c4
2.49
.:4
CH = "A"
V14:01:25
le
FIL E
FEAK4
-z
TOTPL
METHOD
RT
AREA
0.216
1.218
71.156
1.641
25.55
100.
RUN
0.
59
1.33
2.45
4.55
9.68
12
INDEX
12
AREA BC
10 q 1 1711
5618 01
7c2938 01
7570 01
117888 1711
461405
figure F.30 Gas chromatograph output for run 45; Molecular Sieve;
P-2..=
1.
CHANNEL A
07: -;. 7: 07
INJECT
01
1. :2
2. 11
1747: 27:
FILE 1.
PEAK*
METHOD
AREA?.
RUN 28
R .
RI
0.191
81.402
1.01
1.32
1. 606
2. 11
2145 02
912853 02
i8005 n-z
16.801
9.93
1:3:3403 01
TOTAL
100.
CH = "A"
I t-4D EX 28
AREA Er
1-,,
...
7
ci7
1121407
injection after 353 minutes from start-tip
PS-= 1.
05:05:09
INJECT
CHANNEL A
62
2. 4:
CH= "A" FS= 1.

FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
9
3
TOTAL
RUN 17
METHOD O.
RT
AREA
0. 62
1.3 9
2.43
O. 182
0.028
99.79
INDEX 17
AREA BC
QR::: AI
151 01
54n759 01
541498
100.
Hydrogen 9.98%; Molecular Sieve
CHANNEL A
INJECT
05:09:51
1
2.47
05:05:51
FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
9
TOTAL
RUH 18
METHOD n.
AREA
21.048
78.95='
100.
RI
1.3=
2.47
CH=
"a"
INDEX 18
AREA BC
12653: 01
474634 01
601167
Air; Molecular Sieve
PS= I.
INJECT
CHANNEL A
04:56:59
1.40
2. 41
4.63
04:56:59
FILE 1.
PEAK#
i
2
3
TOTAL
METHOD 0.
AREA
0.021
95.472
4.506
1091.
PUN 16
RT
1.4
2.41
4.6
CH= "A" PS= 1.
INDEX 16
AREA BC
17e2 01
582049 01
27751; ni
615937
Methane 5.13%; Molecular Sieve
INJECT
CHANNEL R
04:43:35
1.39
9. :37
04:4335
FILE 1.
PEAK#
1
.,-..
3
TOTAL
AREA
0.023
90.312
9.F.65
100.
INDE: 15
PUN 15
METHOD 0.
RI
1.'q
2.42
9.87
CH= "R" PS= 1.
AREA BC
45
01
562808 01
60231 01
62-184
Carbon monoxide 9.86%; Molecular Sieve
CHAHHEL A
IHJECT
07:55:21
cj7:
FILE 1.
PEAK*
METHOD 0.
AREA
E8.178
11.822
TOTAL
100.
RUN 30
RT
55 : 21
INDEX
AREA 8C
1.31 111223: co
10.1
149255 01
1252488
Carbon dioxide 9.98%; Silica Gel
APPENDIX G
Table G.1 GAS ANALYSIS FOR RUN 37 ( 5/7/95)

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
02:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C21-16
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
03:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
03:15 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
03.45 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
04:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
AREA
700
27961
354768
7613
61719
452761
1.04262032
0.81932121
0.81932121
0.90676245
0.80338736
8.41131828
6.14616684
56.9612778
1.89088048
13.86893
155578
737
1082747
0.89941628
0.65315709
12.6670736
0.05435287
100
AREA
936
6626
315778
9428
82756
415524
0.95687076
0.75193674
0.75193674
0.83218643
0.73731335
12.2550411
1.58699652
46.4831934
2.55153024
20.2626604
199827
802
1048607
0.87105687
0.63256245
16.7995062
0.06107221
100
829
19810
341737
5964
62044
430384
0.99109045
0.77882755
0.77882755
0.86194714
0.76368121
10.4793284
4.58088104
52.7398292
1.55832765
14.6668469
196557
1599
1092690
0.90767573
0.65915511
15.8579355
0.11685128
AREA
AREA
100
%
945
9477
293174
7591
90440
401627
0.92486868
0.72678857
0.72678857
0.80435436
0.71265426
12.8010014
2.34838142
50.1297139
2.12546202
22.9102981
167804
0
1527395
1.26877648
0.92138687
9.68514317
0
100
AREA
0/0
760
23847
337615
2349
77209
441780
1.01733321
0.79944988
0.79944988
0.88477037
0.78390248
9.35928298
5.3721528
57.0070862
0.59793534
17.7809501
120549
0.89326759
9.8825926
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
0
1075345
0.6486919
AREA
795
0
100
e
9.96
0.0125283
434253
CH4
TOTAL
22778
499316
5.13
0.00022522
02
N2
TOTAL
116604
436001
552605
21
79
0.0001801
0.00018119
CO
TOTAL
54617
563565
9.86
0.00018053
CO2
TOTAL
136283
1203833
9.98
7.323E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
22836
1657713
1.1
4.817E-05
Table G.2 GAS ANALYSIS FOR RUN 39 (13/7/95)

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
10:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
10:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
10:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
748
37760
381203
5738
65148
490597
0.906003
0.82487659
0.82487659
0.82878955
0.82705703
9.05618848
7.66305643
58.7726125
1.33111404
13.4931768
126837
0
1110656
0.83796532
1.0323022
9.68385168
0
100
945
8744
336144
6771
83004
435608
0.80445285
0.73241956
0.73241956
0.73589394
0.73435561
12.8856017
1.99852336
49.0948323
1.76903561
19.3615975
181566
0.78011046
0.96102991
14.8904095
0
100
AREA
0
1033974
AREA
952
12439
316558
8655
87416
426020
0.78674635
0.71629856
0.71629856
0.71969646
0.71819199
13.273202
2.90703597
46.3793564
2.31215366
20.8496589
182207
0
1082085
0.81640914
1.00574681
14.278593
0
100
AREA
cyo
982
7888
312134
9607
86423
417034
0.77015158
0.70118974
0.70118974
0.70451597
0.70304324
13.9864909
1.88317363
44.5079174
202144
563
1077971
0.81330522
1.00192304
15.9014055
0.04226402
100
AREA
1072
7425
299885
10217
103437
422036
2.62177812
21.0569704
k
0.77938895
0.70959997
0.70959997
0.71296609
0.7114757
15.087387
1.75162803
39.4110243
2.75520237
24.9037318
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
CH4
TOTAL
02
N2
TOTAL
CO
TOTAL
CO2
TOTAL
C2H6
TOTAL
171401
0
903257
AREA
0.68148738
0.83953464
16.0910265
0
100
1012
9814
309612
8989
103024
432451
0.7986227
0.72711147
0.72711147
0.73056066
0.72903349
13.8999216
2.25945697
44.8540766
2.36566957
24.2069189
157056
0
1072818
0.80941739
0.99713357
12.4139564
0
100
AREA
908
541496
9.96
0.01096916
26682
591944
5.13
0.00019226
125447
469305
594752
21
79
0.0001674
0.00016833
57561
593184
9.86
0.0001713
155992
1325420
9.98
6.3978E-05
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

% =AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
10:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
10:45 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:10 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
635
60558
402814
6063
54773
524843
0.93702722
0.8724177
0.8724177
0.88241535
0.85300102
7.16522702
11.4883079
62.9751764
1.24402132
10.6693762
88283
0
1092331
0.89666005
1.01526998
6.45789115
0
100
AREA
979
8849
331944
10801
103186
455759
0.81368826
0.75758316
0.75758316
0.76626484
0.74072226
12.7213464
1.93318267
45.2475103
2.55210405
23.1466122
188908
0
1048283
0.86050244
0.97432945
14.3992444
0
100
1028
6457
317187
7377
113177
445226
0.79488319
0.74007473
0.74007473
0.74855577
0.7236035
13.6740838
1.44399011
44.3393252
1.78430433
25.9884017
166523
0
1041969
0.85531947
0.96846088
12.769895
0
100
AREA
AREA
1006
11908
329116
0.82354159
0.76675709
0.76675709
12.9157871
2.5703368
46.810647
8238
111010
461278
0.7755439
0.74969202
1.92321886
24.6037481
142744
0
0.83772744
0.94854178
11.1762621
0
100
1020538
AREA
527
15665
407270
997
93755
518214
k
0.92519215
0.86139868
0.86139868
0.87127005
0.84222724
6.02264289
3.00978316
62.7129817
0.20718375
18.4963999
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
124798
0
1044062
0.85703755
0.97040623
OA
AREA
9.55100853
0
100
e
942
560115
9.96
0.01057325
CH4
TOTAL
5965
594780
1.08
0.00018106
02
N2
TOTAL
126885
474711
601596
21
79
0.0001655
0.00016642
CO
TOTAL
59341
9.86
0.00016616
615290
CO2
TOTAL
152156
1218222
9.98
6.5591E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05
Table G.4 GAS ANALYSIS FOR RUN 41(11/8/95)

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
10:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:15 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:45 H2
02
N2
CH4
TIME
TIME
AREA
0.89844727
0.83808829
0.83808829
0.83386658
0.82059364
8.49782003
9.5830077
60.8472341
1.87524484
10.3687349
116947
0
1167348
0.88287907
1.08499473
8.82795836
0
100
942
16192
314810
5507
87244
424695
0.82854222
0.77287956
0.77287956
0.76898633
0.75674611
13.1520196
3.79913221
52.2016015
1.45848812
21.0953307
100133
0
1063934
0.80466584
0.98887631
8.29342792
0
100
AREA
AREA
960
6726
303959
7604
81455
CO
TOTAL
400704
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
159782
0
1131239
GAS
660
44289
361400
7678
46500
460527
AREA
%
0.78173791
0.72921963
0.72921963
0.72554633
0.71399756
14.205818
1.67260829
48.6659164
2.13443729
20.8747838
0.8555694
1.05143312
12.4464362
0
100
12:05 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
998
5702
285905
6645
114675
413925
0.80753091
0.75327982
0.75327982
0.74948531
0.7375555
14.2964291
1.3726715
46.085013
1.80566964
28.4495242
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
98324
0
1084293
0.82006359
1.00779904
7.9906925
0
100
0.77035434
0.71860083
0.71860083
0.71498102
0.70360042
15.0764594
1.55953992
43.9801722
2.74393291
26.5514264
GAS
12:15 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
1004
6180
275955
9633
102097
394869
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:45 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
..
GAS
122125
0
1066721
0.80677368
0.99146669
AREA
10.0884691
0
100
1002
28366
303628
6878
82357
422231
0.82373518
0.76839546
0.76839546
0.76452481
0.75235562
14.0713672
6.69435968
47.469445
1.83221749
20.0298787
123175
0
1096072
0.82897219
1.01874706
9.90273191
0
100
AREA
752
19080
333935
1930
107913
463610
0.90446193
0.84369887
0.84369887
0.8394489
0.82608711
9.61797705
4.1009704
52.2161012
0.42069177
23.9028061
111401
0.76214523
0.93662155
9.74145351
0
1007713
AREA
H2
TOTAL
861
512581
CH4
TOTAL
0
100
e
9.96
0.01156794
25189
552279
5.13
0.00020366
02
N2
TOTAL
115804
433693
549497
21
79
0.00018134
0.00018216
CO
TOTAL
53886
561212
9.86
0.00018298
CO2
TOTAL
149747
1322206
9.98
6.6646E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%--.AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
11:15 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:42 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
AREA
975
5407
287708
7550
91408
393048
0.76680173
0.71528689
0.71528689
0.71168377
0.70035566
14.708816
1.37079288
46.8120509
2.16055999
23.8817712
137854
0
1097741
0.83023447
1.02029832
11.0660091
0
100
AREA
831
9622
300281
4469
120381
435584
0.84978569
0.79269587
0.79269587
0.78870281
0.77614876
11.3122188
2.2011746
48.3990303
1.15399361
28.3801015
108529
0
1118084
0.84562012
1.03920617
8.55348116
0
100
AREA
861
512581
e
9.96
0.01156794
CH4
TOTAL
25189
552279
5.13
0.00020366
02
N2
TOTAL
115804
433693
549497
21
79
0.00018134
0.00018216
CO
TOTAL
53886
561212
9.86
0.00018298
CO2
TOTAL
149747
1322206
9.98
6.6646E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
10:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
0.82382801
0.71492656
0.71492656
0.75954378
0.75162228
13.1991962
4.60717171
47.2219284
1.91233735
17.1032364
CO2
201503
0.92445694
0.99980017
15.95613
0
GAS
11:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
TIME
0
1075687
AREA
100
k
993
5421
298187
8356
100072
413029
0.80023909
0.69445584
0.69445584
0.73779552
0.73010085
14.3544209
1.30675385
42.0174465
2.28670057
24.9399459
181159
0
1022272
0.87855151
0.95015345
15.0947324
0
100
AREA
k
0.86887657
0.75402016
0.75402016
0.80107714
0.79272248
9.83880925
8.67000476
52.0723241
0.8680392
0.93878439
14.0616343
0
100
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
976
7601
304692
8921
87305
409495
0.793392
0.68851387
0.68851387
0.73148272
0.72385388
14.2304354
1.8480642
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
206469
635
1029994
0.88518788
0.95733069
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
940
19676
326744
7194
70650
425204
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
AREA
GAS
12:12 H2
GAS
12:52 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
739
39052
342118
3676
62870
448455
166741
0
1010040
AREA
AREA
1011
6687
299808
9871
94020
411397
0.9265056
14.4307221
42.3886314
2.46238724
21.9459298
17.0746625
0.04988943
100
k
0.7970771
0.69171184
0.69171184
0.73488027
0.727216
14.6725976
1.61832271
39.7417721
2.712011
23.524619
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
01:40 H2
02
CALIB
AREA
1016
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
164775
0
1009184
0.81319507
0.70569918
0.70569918
0.74974054
0.74192129
14.4529053
1.18796521
40.9286868
2.05071731
27.4721016
0.86730355
0.93798878
AREA
1
13.9076238
0
100
e
%
861
17.7306775
0
100
%
5008
294060
7615
112017
419716
GAS
H2
TOTAL
0.86757254
0.93827969
210135
0
1009497
9.96
0.01156794
516132
CH4
TOTAL
25408
559815
5.13
0.0002019
02
N2
TOTAL
125447
469305
594752
21
79
0.0001674
0.00016833
CO
TOTAL
54189
565715
9.86
0.00018196
CO2
TOTAL
136332
1163588
9.98
7.3204E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
10:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:00 H2
13.0621584
4.60836389
47.3770681
1.9128322
17.0834474
201503
0
1075687
0.92445694
0.99980017
15.95613
0
100
AREA
CO
TOTAL
15.0908806
1.89540861
44.5704827
2.38719259
20.961303
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
181159
0
1022272
0.87855151
0.95015345
15.0947324
0
100
GAS
11.30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
GAS
12.00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
0.82361489
0.71474161
0.71474161
0.75934728
0.75142784
0.76655197
0.66522181
0.66522181
0.70673705
0.69936629
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
930
19676
326744
7194
70550
425094
1000
7532
298187
8356
80567
395642
02
N2
CH4
TIME
AREA
GAS
13:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
852
39052
342118
3676
75231
460929
0.8930448
0.77499361
0.77499361
0.8233595
0.81477246
11.0362755
8.43537071
48.7646303
0.90143182
16.8006573
166741
0
1010040
0.8680392
0.93878439
14.0616343
0
100
AREA
970
7601
304692
8921
85321
407505
0.7895364
0.68516794
0.68516794
0.72792798
0.72033621
14.2120185
1.857089
42.7799836
2.474412
21.5519449
206469
635
1029994
0.88518788
0.95733069
17.0746625
0.04988943
100
0.78991033
0.68549244
0.68549244
0.72827273
0.72067737
14.6739189
1.62445837
40.4190831
2.73661678
22.8152454
AREA
1002
6652
299808
9871
90365
407698
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
13:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
CH4
TOTAL
02
N2
TOTAL
CO
TOTAL
CO2
TOTAL
C2H6
TOTAL
210135
0
1009497
0.86757254
0.93827969
17.7306775
0
100
1023
5002
294060
7615
102364
410064
0.79449443
0.68947057
0.68947057
0.73249913
0.72485969
14.8950156
1.2144705
42.1882849
2.09898666
25.6956186
164775
0
1009184
0.86730355
0.93798878
13.9076238
0
100
AREA
AREA
861
516132
e
9.96
0.01156794
25408
559815
5.13
0.0002019
125447
469305
594752
21
79
0.0001674
0.00016833
54189
565715
9.86
0.00018196
136332
1163588
9.98
7.3204E-05
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
0.971307373
02
65181
0.874899986
12.36454385
N2
408937
0.874899986
63.42701666
5473
0.853920125
1.1845917
45753
0.843989897
8.874403455
7.745745884
CO
TOTAL
525961
CO2
106573
0.919995279
1.07954349
C2H6
TOTAL
GAS
AREA
1045
0.798473863
13.19343797
02
8858
0.719221115
2.044036924
N2
326423
0.719221115
43.8081099
10235
0.70197439
2.694803266
85811
0.693811138
20.24689996
TOTAL
432372
CO2
217520
0.809728092
17.96228737
637
0.950153453
0.050424603
C2H6
TOTAL
GAS
1022272
AREA
100
11:30 H2
1067
0.796652989
13.50198507
02
10957
0.717580972
2.534172872
N2
323253
0.717580972
44.94065994
CI-14
8647
0.700373577
2.281897813
CO
87462
0.69222894
20.68361728
TOTAL
431386
CO2
210712
0.880188168
16.00720089
693
1.032832916
0.050466127
C2H6
TOTAL
GAS
1111227
AREA
100
12:00 1-12
1081
0.857120433
02
12501
0.772046702
2.68730322
N2
334572
0.772046702
44.21033568
CH4
12.71411805
9016
0.753533235
2.211423791
CO
106959
0.744770405
23.50995319
TOTAL
464129
CO2
198824
0.906427625
14.66686607
1.063622895
C2I16
TOTAL
TIME
0
100
10:00 1-12
CO
TIME
6.403698443
1161483
CH4
FIME
617
CH4
TIME
AREA
09:35 H2
GAS
1144354
AREA
0
100
12:45 1-12
1129
0.848381711
13.4154436
02
6013
0.764175346
1.305911275
N2
333552
0.764175346
43.98442728
7774
0.745850631
1.926429682
CO
110929
0.737177142
24.63372443
TOTAL
459397
CH4
CO2
C2116
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
13:35 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
rimE
GAS
14:53 1-12
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
218071
0
1249408
14.73406373
0
100
0.989639505
1.161265617
AREA
1124
5649
319933
8697
105007
440410
0.81331787
0.732591776
0.732591776
0.715024426
0.706709415
213820
0
1162923
0.921135884
1.080881902
AREA
k
1091
5618
329238
7570
117888
0.852089943
0.767515516
0.767515516
0.749110705
0.740399304
%
13.93183719
1.279749668
42.69515562
2.248066108
24.32395634
15.52123508
0
100
%
12.90748726
1.214814763
43.7622995
1.867713951
26.06516264
461405
188403
0
1121407
AREA
1-12
TOTAL
988
541498
CH4
TOTAL
14.18252189
0.888251611
1.042294744
0
100
e
9.96
0.010080972
27756
615937
5.13
0.000184825
02
N2
TOTAL
126533
474634
601167
21
79
0.000165965
0.000166444
CO
TOTAL
60231
623184
9.86
0.000163703
CO2
TOTAL
149255
1262488
9.98
6.68654E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.52137E-05
Table G.9 GAS ANALYSIS FOR RUN46 (24/8/95)

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
12:30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
13.00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
13.30 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
14.00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
14:24 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
918
6269
274507
11592
101873
395159
0.76140003
0.7971351
0.7971351
0.70684144
0.76713518
14.9545582
1.57856553
37.593913
3.35636126
24.0269966
200000
766
974091
0.78695664
0.90537149
18.42597
0.0636354
100
AREA
911
9112
288303
9271
111572
419169
0.80766296
0.84556931
0.84556931
0.74978937
0.81374658
13.9904603
2.1630212
40.4546796
2.53057742
24.8072333
172000
0
961489
0.77677564
0.89365853
16.0540282
0
100
AREA
889
7145
306020
6376
116313
436743
0.84152488
0.88102049
0.88102049
0.7812249
178969
0.88455197
1.01765217
14.669173
0
100
872
8198
300890
7957
122719
440636
0.84902599
0.88887365
0.88887365
0.78818851
0.85542117
12.739116
1.85124611
45.2093142
2.06610118
25.9563787
152000
0
1120142
0.90494953
1.04111899
12.1778438
0
100
0.93526658
0.97916179
0.97916179
0.86824947
0.94231135
9.00488464
1.57989119
59.2207536
0.17042217
18.1404709
0.84786356
0
1094894
AREA
AREA
679
7707
381807
723
94478
485394
13.1032368
1.62784295
44.1086771
1.67033876
24.8207314
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
161299
0
1218104
0.98409187
1.13217003
11.8835774
0
100
OA
AREA
9.96
0.01240349
25066
559049
5.13
0.00020466
02
N2
TOTAL
104622
391102
495724
21
79
0.00020072
0.00020199
CO
TOTAL
54496
515110
9.86
0.00018093
CO2
TOTAL
137651
1237795
9.98
7.2502E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05
H2
TOTAL
803
518990
CH4
TOTAL

%=AREA. elk
TIME
TIME
GAS
11:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
0.79281281
0.71172269
0.71172269
0.72851918
0.70722945
14.6121262
1.3924133
42.8900376
1.52125473
24.128208
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
234603
0
1316231
0.96925868
1.22337443
15.4559602
0
100
1264
8442
399984
2735
99460
511885
0.76947533
0.69077221
0.69077221
0.70707427
0.68641123
14.504495
1.63246581
44.4871804
0.75725487
20.2709962
280658
0
1326455
0.97678753
1.23287716
18.3476078
0
100
GAS
11:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
GAS
12.00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
TIME
1312
7419
391042
5661
121976
527410
CO2
C21-16
TOTAL
TIME
AREA
GAS
12:20 H2
AREA
AREA
1334
8068
406651
9607
78832
504492
0.75836203
0.68079559
0.68079559
0.69686221
0.6764976
15.5320753
1.58300671
39.8843154
2.69892399
16.3022407
388291
1087
1406643
1.03583713
1.30740811
23.936904
0.06253385
100
AREA
A
15.1928065
1.38256919
42.4870008
1.2231039
22.8393479
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
1352
7301
395120
4511
114433
522717
0.7857582
0.70538964
0.70538964
0.72203667
0.70093638
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
265896
0
1366338
1.00615695
1.26994652
16.8751717
0
100
0.78967559
0.70890635
0.70890635
0.72563637
0.70443089
14.1781896
1.48160696
48.1648958
0.34668405
19.0663024
GAS
12:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
1268
7863
418902
1285
96005
525323
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
H2
TOTAL
246667
0
1276061
AREA
0.93967792
1.18603832
16.7623212
0
100
e
1128
665239
9.96
0.00882979
CH4
TOTAL
26204
723948
5.13
0.00019577
02
N2
TOTAL
157212
583821
741033
21
79
0.00013358
0.00013532
CO
TOTAL
70480
745741
9.86
0.0001399
CO2
TOTAL
156289
1357977
9.98
6.3856E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
11:32 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12.40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
13:00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
1107
8615
401670
3828
120644
535864
0.80552102
0.72313109
0.72313109
0.74019681
0.71856583
12.1344747
1.59137251
48.4714935
1.01245212
23.4882244
205616
0.98705795
1.24584023
13.3019828
0
100
1165
10292
442791
3505
118687
576440
0.86651564
0.77788708
0.77788708
0.79624503
0.77297614
11.8713404
1.76732662
49.9904932
0.86176938
21.4806829
216732
0
1339707
0.98654616
1.24519426
14.0283876
0
100
0
1340402
AREA
AREA
1301
8304
412817
4357
123745
550524
0.82755822
0.74291428
0.74291428
0.76044688
0.73822413
13.8812629
1.4930771
45.2162289
1.12167864
23.4504102
223692
0
1307341
0.96271218
1.2151116
14.8373422
0
100
AREA
1294
7251
408992
5984
0.7830479
0.70295655
0.70295655
0.71954616
97393
520914
0.69851865
293267
0
1373008
1.01106867
1.27614597
AREA
1175
9959
452285
2104
104294
569817
14.5913739
1.37785344
44.3751386
1.6281061
19.5056647
18.5218632
0
100
k
0.85655982
0.76894956
0.76894956
0.78709659
0.76409504
12.1124056
1.73002142
52.1006728
0.52332018
19.0951451
CO2
C21-16
TOTAL
CALIS
GAS
H2
TOTAL
219859
0
1320440
AREA
14.4384349
0
100
0.97235815
1.2272865
1128
665239
9.96
0.00882979
CH4
TOTAL
26204
723948
5.13
0.00019577
02
N2
TOTAL
157212
583821
741033
21
79
0.00013358
0.00013532
CO
TOTAL
70480
745741
9.86
0.0001399
CO2
TOTAL
156289
1357977
9.98
6.3856E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05
Table G.12 GAS ANALYSIS FOR RUN 54(6/11/95)

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
11:25 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
TIME
GAS
11:55 H2
9/0
1332
6615
362149
5273
118118
493487
0.74181911
0.6659447
0.6659447
0.68166084
0.66174047
15.8546423
1.32686055
40.1297693
1.51439512
24.9711997
229091
0
1226037
0.90284077
1.13954338
16.2031329
0
100
AREA
1301
7845
399214
6075
99929
514364
0.77320181
0.69411754
0.69411754
0.71049854
0.68973544
14.8571214
1.50971001
44.3638206
1.67391293
20.2684257
240798
0
1205102
0.88742446
1.12008529
17.3270094
0
100
AREA
9/0
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
1308
7173
381339
5654
117454
512928
0.77104319
0.6921797
0.6921797
0.70851498
0.68780984
14.9788778
1.38425332
42.4413665
1.56227162
23.8896862
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
214022
0
1178828
0.86807656
1.09566485
15.7435446
0
100
1109
9229
448719
1205
98345
558607
0.83970874
0.75382203
0.75382203
0.77161205
0.74906301
11.661465
1.63538279
53.6185911
0.30572983
18.3672844
210091
0
1264129
0.93089132
1.17494809
14.4115468
0
100
GAS
12:15 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
AREA
GAS
H2
TOTAL
CH4
TOTAL
AREA
AREA
1128
665239
9.96
0.00882979
26204
723948
5.13
0.00019577
02
N2
TOTAL
157212
583821
741033
21
79
0.00013358
0.00013532
CO
TOTAL
70480
745741
9.86
0.0001399
CO2
TOTAL
156289
1357977
9.98
6.3856E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05

%=AREA. elk
TIME
GAS
11:40 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
11:50 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12.00 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12.10 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
TIME
GAS
12:20 H2
02
N2
CH4
CO
TOTAL
AREA
1288
6814
349813
10514
152759
521188
0.78345978
0.7033263
0.7033263
0.71992464
0.69888607
14.5160814
1.29413288
37.2013554
2.859109
30.5781664
178496
917
1147688
0.84514539
1.06672169
13.486498
0.06465692
100
AREA
1288
8138
358344
9329
0.77792944
0.69836161
0.69836161
0.71484278
14.6192771
1.55657815
39.0357369
2.55490251
140410
517509
0.69395273
28.3060437
182196
735
1138658
0.83849579
1.05832873
13.8752264
0.05223524
100
AREA
9193
144805
530597
198054
630
1166532
AREA
1323
7975
367301
0.79760357
0.71602344
0.71602344
0.73292143
0.71150306
14.6461337
1.4877743
38.172347
2.45555472
28.4719891
0.85902191
1.0842363
14.722498
0.04370322
100
1316
7014
364121
10026
133753
516230
0.77600682
0.69663564
0.69663564
0.71307608
0.69223765
14.9740952
1.34491139
37.7396059
2.75259051
27.030827
227664
1024
1226934
0.90350131
1.1403771
16.090432
0.06753801
AREA
1154
39430
407080
5907
107667
561238
100
cyo
k
0.84366371
0.75737248
0.75737248
0.77524629
0.75259105
12.077768
6.95425897
47.469411
1.49168475
20.0140317
CO2
C2H6
TOTAL
CALIB
GAS
176084
0
1273187
0.93756153
1.18336707
11.9928456
0
100
AREA
H2
TOTAL
1128
665239
9.96
0.00882979
CH4
TOTAL
26204
723948
5.13
0.00019577
02
N2
TOTAL
157212
583821
741033
21
79
0.00013358
0.00013532
CO
TOTAL
70480
745741
9.86
0.0001399
CO2
TOTAL
156289
1357977
9.98
6.3856E-05
C2H6
TOTAL
14625
1075902
1.1
7.5214E-05
APPENDIX H
1'4 CO CD CO V
4- .- 00 1.4. CD CD
N- 0) CD CD CV CD
CO co r-- CD CD 10
0 1.0 CD CO 6 c.-)
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En
APPENDIX J
Table J.1 Pressure and temperature drops in the vertical filter
Density of air air =

Density of water=
Gravity=
100000 Pa
P atm =
1.2 Kg/m3
1000 Kg/m3
9.81 m/sec2
=1atm
= 100000 Nt/m2
=14.7 psi
13/07/95
COMMENTS: 11/07/95
H(ref)
[cm]
H(in)
[cm]
H(out)
[cm]
Run
77.5
77.5
77.5
5200
5200
5200
5350
4100
3850
5200
5600
60
61
57
55
55
62.5
47
43.8
55
48
50
60
54
42
30
38.5
56.5
52
63
66
61
58
62
61.5
66
65
62.5
58
58
54
65
50
44
43
25
45
45
45
51
58.5
21
21.5
62
58
43
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
5250
5200
5100
4700
5000
5250
5300
5200
3500
4100
2600
77.5
77.5
77.5
2300
4600
4500
77.5
77.5
77.5
4450
4400
3200
3400
3820
5000
5100
4650
3300
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
4300
5000
5200
6000
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
2300
2900
4200
4150
5600
5200
5300
5000
4050
3400
6300
6200
44
45.5
25
105200
105200
105200
105350
104100
103850
105200
105600
44
45
46
105250
105200
105100
104700
105000
105250
105300
105200
103500
104100
102600
102300
104600
104500
104450
104400
103200
103400
103820
105000
105100
104650
103300
104300
105000
105200
106000
105200
105300
105000
104050
103400
106300
106200
102300
102900
104200
104150
105600
n/a
Pressure drop
[kPal
Run
T(in)
[C]
3483.25
3581.35
3188.95
3142.75
1892.75
2378.5
2207.95
2294.03
38
100
101
103
94
112
168
169
255
267
255
253
253
230
265
285
290
230
240
306
315
270
285
162
190
205
213
227
221
223
227
215
238
245
230
220
230
228
231
244
222
234
260
195
235
230
220
187
101716.8
101618.7
102011.1
102207.3
102207.3
101471.5
102992.1
103306
102207.3
102894
102697.8
101716.8
102305.4
103482.6
104659.8
103825.9
102060.1
102501.6
101422.5
101128.2
101618.7
101913
101520.6
101569.6
101128.2
101226.3
101471.5
101913
101913
102305.4
101226.3
102697.8
103286.4
103384.5
105150.3
103188.3
103188.3
103188.3
102599.7
101863.9
105542.7
105493.6
101520.6
101913
103286.4
103139.2
105150.3
3042.75
2306.05
2402.25
2983.25
2694.65
1767.45
640.25
1374.1
1439.9
1598.45
1177.55
1171.85
2981.35
2587.05
2929.45
2830.4
2071.85
2173.75
2348.5
3087.05
3187.05
2344.65
2073.75
1602.25
1713.65
1815.55
849.75
2011.75
2111.75
1811.75
1450.35
1536.1
757.35
706.4
779.45
987.05
913.65
1010.8
449.75
39
40
41
42
43
44
T(out)
Temp
[Cl drop[C]
60
54
48
45
35
116
154
185
205
197
194
197
175
198
223
230
164
187
214
223
205
211
96
137
157
162
171.6
173
171
172
155.5
180
189
187
163
176
171
176
169.5
170
171
176
126
163
170
165
143
40
47
55
49
77
52
15
70
62
58
59
56
55
67
62
60
66
53
92
92
65
74
66
53
48
51
55.4
48
52
55
59.5
58
56
43
57
54
57
55
74.5
52
63
84
69
72
60
55
44
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
5400
4350
5000
4700
3000
7000
28
41
40
37
58
23
105400
104350
105000
104700
103000
107000
104856
103580.7
103678.8
103973.1
101913
105346.5
544.05
769.35
1321.25
726.95
1087.05
1653.55
45
46
Average
5010.0 Pa
1886.6
212
198
206
241
245
240
234
210
230
230
230
237
220
212
220
218
219
215
200
225
230
158
175
196
205
200
210
212
210
220
210
215
210
215
165
160
157
175.5
184
185
175.5
154
170
177
183
183
170
155
160
165
169
167
170
171
172
98
127
148
151
148
157
163
161
163
160
162
160
159
47
38
49
65.5
61
55
58.5
56
60
53
47
54
50
57
60
53
50
48
30
54
58
60
48
48
54
52
53
49
49
57
50
53
50
56
218.3
162.2
56.2
Table J.2 Pressure and temperature drops in the cyclone

1.2 Kg/m3
Density of air =
1000 Kg/m3
Density of water=
9.81 m/sec2
Gravity=
P atm =
11(in)
[cm]
77
63.5
64.5
51
51.5
69
69.5
64
36
98.1
36
98.1
49.05
37
drop[C]
[C]
[C]
[kPa]
76
T(out) Temp
T(in)
Pressure Run
H(out) Run
[cm]
=14.7 psi
=100000 Nt/m2
=1atm
100000 Pa
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
49.05
n/a
148
n/a
64.5
49.05
n/a
110
n/a
71.5
72
49.05
n/a
104
n/a
69.5
70
49.05
n/a
110
n/a
76.5
77
49.05
37
39
38
49.05
75.5
76
71
72
98.1
76.5
77
49.05
75
75.5
49.05
33.5
34
49.05
41
41.5
49.05
116
70
46
70.5
71
49.05
154
114
40
51
51.5
49.05
185
137
48
58.5
59.5
98.1
205
150
55
56.5
57.2
68.67
197
147
50
23.5
24
49.05
194
142
52
23
24
98.1
197
147
50
25.5
26
49.05
175
154
21
15
16
98.1
198
172
26
33.5
34
49.05
223
172
51
55
56
98.1
230
178
52
64
65
164
108
56
46
46.5
49.05
187
146
41
34
34.6
58.86
214
160
54
33
33.5
49.05
223
166.5
56.5
28
28.5
49.05
205
162
43
21
21.5
49.05
211
162
49
30
30.5
49.05
96
63
33
25
25.5
49.05
137
96
41
38.5
40
41
42
98.1
39
40
41
42
60
61
98.1
157
118.5
61
61.5
49.05
162
124.5
37.5
57
57.5
49.05
171.6
131.5
40.1
55
55.5
49.05
173
135
38
55
55.5
49.05
171
132
39
62.5
63.1
58.86
172
133
39
47
47.5
49.05
155.5
110
45.5
43.8
44.4
58.86
180
138
42
55
55.5
49.05
189
147.5
41.5
48
48.5
49.05
187
144 5
42.5
50
50.5
49.05
163
125
38
60
60.5
49.05
176
139
37
54
55
98.1
171
141
30
42
43
98.1
176
142
34
30
31
98.1
169.5
146.5
23
49.05
170
140
30
171
135.5
35.5
176
147
29
126
81
45
38.5
39
43
44
56.5
57
49.05
52
52.5
49.05
63
63.5
49.05
43
44
66
66.5
61
61.8
45
49.05
163
127
36
78.48
170
135.5
34.5
58
58.5
49.05
165
134.5
30.5
62
62.5
49.05
143
108.5
34.5
61.5
62
49.05
165
125
40
66
66.5
49.05
160
123
37
65
65.9
88.29
157
122
35
62.5
63
49.05
175.5
128
47.5
45
45
58
59
98.1
184
139
58
58.5
49.05
185
146
39
54
54.5
49.05
175.5
145
30.5
65
65.5
49.05
154
121
33
50
50.5
49,05
170
130
40
44
44.5
49.05
177
142
35
43
43.5
49.05
183
145
38
25
25.5
49.05
183
140
43
45
45.5
49.05
170
140
30
45
45.5
49.05
155
125
30
45
45.4
39.24
160
130
30
51
51.5
49.05
165
132
33
58.5
59
49.05
169
135
34
21
21.5
49.05
167
138
29
21.5
22
49.05
170
137
33
62
62.5
49.05
171
139
32
58
58.5
49.05
172
140
32
44
44.5
49.05
98
67
31
45.5
46
49.05
127
97
30
25
25.5
49.05
148
115
33
28
28.5
49.05
151
121
30
41
41.5
49.05
148
111
37
40
40.5
49.05
157
120
37
37
37.5
49.05
163
126
37
58
59
98.1
161
129
32
23
24
98.1
163
126
37
160
124
36
162
124
38
160
123
37
159
123
36
169.7
130.8
38.2
46
Average
59.0
46
Table J.3 Pressure and temperature drops in the box condenser

1.2 Kg/m3
1000 Kg/m3
Density of water=
Gravity= 9.81 m/sec2

=14.7 psi
=100000 Nt/m2
P atm =
100000 Pa
=1atm
H(in)
[cm]
H(out) Run
[cm]
Pressure Date
[kPal
5/7/95
T(out) Temp
drop[C]
[C]
T(in)
[C]
n/a
79.6
80
39.24
73
73.5
49.05
130
59
59.5
49.05
56
54
79.5
80.5
98.1
50
48
73.1
73.5
39.24
44
43
80.5
81
49.05
37
11/7/95
77.5
78
49.05
42.5
30.4
12.1
81
83.5
245.25
35
29.5
5.5
78.5
85.5
686.7
30
29
76
82
588.6
29
28
77.2
84
667.08
27
26
39
76
82
588.6
53
48
52
53
98.1
56
53
13f7/95
54.5
58
343.35
57
56
72.8
81
804.42
59
56
60
60.5
49.05
58
54
69
70
98.1
52
50
70.5
71.2
68.67
59
41
18
34
40
41
34.8
78.48
57
55
32.5
33
49.05
60.5
58
2.5
33.5
34
49.05
72
57
15
25
25.5
49.05
74
72
41
43.5
245.25
53
50.5
2.5
7.7
70
71
73.5
74.2
55.8
9/8/95
10/8/95
98.1
60.2
52.5
68.67
58
51
56.4
58.86
65
52
13
15.5
42
41
41.8
78.48
65.5
50
40.8
41.8
98.1
64
44
20
36.5
37.2
68.67
75.5
51
24.5
29
29.5
49.05
57
52.5
4.5
39
39.5
49.05
54.3
53.8
0.5
32
32.8
78.48
54.8
53.8
73
74
98.1
54.8
53.1
1.7
1.6
43
11/8/95
73
74
98.1
56.1
54.5
67
67.8
78.48
52
50
63
63.5
49.05
54.5
45
9.5
63
63.5
49.05
56
46.5
9.5
57.7
57
0.7
78.48
58.5
56.5
56
98.1
60.5
53.5
69.2
68.67
59
49.1
9.9
6.2
73.4
74
58.86
56
56.8
55
68.5
14/8/95
56
57
98.1
50
43.8
58
58.5
49.05
54.5
52.6
1.9
72
72.8
78.48
60.5
52
8.5
72
73
98.1
60
52.2
7.8
54
55
98.1
62
54
39
40
98.1
59
47.5
11.5
49
49.5
49.05
55
45.5
9.5
64
64.5
49.05
57.5
43.3
14.2
60
60.5
49.05
60
57
70.8
78.48
60
57
70
44
15/8/95
72
72.5
75
76
49.05
56.2
53.7
2.5
98.1
55
53
67.5
68
49.05
50
46
74.5
75
49.05
52
51
71.8
72.2
39.24
51
50
74.5
75
49.05
50.9
47.5
3.4
45
73.5
74
49.05
72.5
73
49.05
45
58
57
58
55
75
76
98.1
59
57.5
1.5
73.5
74
49.05
58
51
61.5
62
49.05
49
41
73.5
74
49.05
53
49
65.5
66.2
68.67
62
59
53
53.5
49.05
63
50
13
53
53.5
49.05
63
51
12
33.5
34
49.05
61
50.5
10.5
55.2
55.8
58.86
51
47
55
55.4
39.24
55
52
56.5
57
49.05
57
49
66
66.5
49.05
56
53
70.5
71.2
68.67
59.5
49.5
10
46
31
31.5
49.05
59
47
12
31.5
32
49.05
60
47
13
72
72.5
49.05
58
47
11
69
69.8
78.48
54
51
54
55
98.1
50.6
50
0.6
58
58.8
78.48
51.5
51
0.5
35
36
98.1
40.4
40
0.4
38
38.5
49.05
48.7
46.5
2.2
52
52.8
78.48
55.5
52.5
50
50.5
49.05
53.5
51.8
1.7
46
48
48.8
78.48
55.5
52.2
3.3
72.8
73.4
58.86
54.5
52.2
2.3
46
47
98.1
51
45
50
43.9
6.1
50
41
56.1
49.5
5.7
Average
108.5
Table J.4 Pressure and temperature drops in the multitube cooler

1.2 Kg/m3
Density of water=
1000 Kg/m3
Gravity=
9.81 m/sec2
P atm =
100000 Pa
H(in)
[cm]
H(out) Run
[cm]
=1atm
=100000 Nt/m2
=14.7 psi
Pressure
[kPal
Run
T(out)
[Cl
T(in)
[C]
Temp
drop[C]
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
64.5
73
833.85
51.5
59
735.75
69.5
79.5
64.5
73.1
843.66
110
56
72
80.5
833.85
104
50
54
70
77.5
735.75
110
44
66
37
37
981
39
54
34
52
1765.8
114
56
58
41.5
54.5
1275.3
137
57
80
71
72.8
176.58
150
59
91
51.5
60
40
833.85
147
48
99
931.95
142
52
90
41
1304.73
147
59
88
123
57
97
59.5
69
57.2
70.5
24
34
981
24
32.5
833.85
154
60.5
111.5
26
33.5
735.75
172
72
100
16
25
882.9
178
74
104
34
41
686.7
108
53
55
56
70
1373.4
146
60.2
85.8
65
73.5
833.85
160
58
102
46.5
55.8
912.33
166.5
65
101.5
34.6
41
627.84
162
65.5
96.5
33.5
40.8
716.13
162
64
98
28.5
36.5
784.8
96
54.3
41.7
21.5
29
735.75
118.5
54.8
63.7
30.5
39
833.85
124.5
54.8
69.7
25.5
32
637.65
131.5
56.1
75.4
61
73
1177.2
135
52
83
61.5
73
1128.15
132
54.5
77.5
42
43
57.7
67
912.33
55.5
63
735.75
40
41
42
43
133
56
77
110
57.7
52.3
55.5
63
735.75
138
58.5
79.5
63.1
73.4
1010.43
147.5
60.5
87
47.7
56
814.23
144
59
85
44.4
55
1039.86
125
50
75
55.5
68.5
1275.3
139
54.5
84.5
48.5
56
735.75
141
60.5
80.5
50.5
58
735.75
142
60
82
60.5
72
1128.15
146.2
62
84.2
55
72
1667.7
140
59
81
43
54
1079.1
135.5
55
80.5
31
39
784.8
147
57.5
89.5
39
49
981
81
60
21
57
64
686.7
127
60
67
52.5
60
735.75
135.5
56.2
79.3
63.5
70
637.65
134.5
55
79.5
66.5
72
539.55
108.5
50
58.5
61.8
75
1294.92
125
52
73
58.5
67.5
882.9
123
51
72
62.5
74.5
1177.2
122
50.9
71.1
62
71.8
961.38
128
58
70
44
45
44
45
66.5
74.5
784.8
139
58
65.9
73.5
745.56
146
59
87
63
72.5
931.95
145
58
87
81
59
75
1569.6
121
49
72
58.5
73.5
1471.5
130
53
77
54.5
61.5
686.7
142
62
80
65.5
73.5
784.8
145
63
82
56.5
65.5
882.9
140
63
77
44.5
53
833.85
140
61
79
43.5
53
931.95
125
51
74
25.2
33.5
814.23
130
55
75
45.5
55.2
951.57
132
57
75
45.5
55
931.95
135
56
79
45.4
56.5
1088.91
138
59.5
78.5
51.5
66
1422.45
137
59
78
59
70.5
46
1128.15
139
60
79
21.5
31
931.95
140
58
82
22
31.5
931.95
62.5
72
931.95
97
54
43
58.5
69
1030.05
115
50.6
64.4
44.5
54
931.95
121
51.5
69.5
46
58
1177.2
111
40.4
70.6
25.5
35
931.95
120
48.7
71.3
28.5
38
931.95
126
55.5
70.5
41.5
52
1030.05
129
53.5
75.5
40.5
50
931.95
126
55.5
70,5
37.5
48
1030.05
124
54.5
69.5
59
72.8
1353.78
124
51
73
24
46
2158.2
123
50
73
123
50
73
132.4
56.3
76.8
Average
961.4
46
Table J.5 Pressure and temperature drops in the spiral condenser

1.2 Kg/m3
1000 Kg/m3
Density of water=
9.81 m/sec2
Gravity=
P atm =
H(in)
Pressure
H(out) Run
Temp
T(out)
T(in)
Run
drop[C]
[C]
[C]
[kPa]
[cm]
n/a
1117/95
COMMENTS:
[cm]
=14.7 psi
=100000 Nt/m2
=1atm
100000 Pa
n/a
n/a
80
73.5
54
40
14
59.5
48
25
23
43
23
80.5
36
38
73.5
20
n/a
n/a
n/a
81
30.4
78
29.5
n/a
83.5
29
n/a
28
n/a
85.5
37
n/a
26
82
48
40
82
53
45
53
56
48
58
56
48
8
8
84
39
81
54
46
245.25
50
45
294.3
41
41
55
48
58
50
57
51.5
5.5
60.5
63
70
73
71.2
74
34.8
38
313.92
33
36
294.3
40
41
274.68
34
36
196.2
25.5
28
245.25
40
41
72
49
23
50.5
36
14.5
4.7
43.5
44
49.05
52.5
47.8
71
74.5
343.35
51
47
74.2
76.5
225.63
52
46.7
5.3
42
56.4
59.5
304.11
50
45.5
4.5
41.8
43.8
196.2
44
40
41.8
43.6
176.58
37.2
41.2
392.4
29.5
32
245.25
39.5
41
147.15
32.8
35
74
78.5
74
51
35
16
52.5
25.7
26.8
53.8
49
4.8
53.8
46.7
7.1
215.82
53.1
48.4
4.7
441.45
54.5
47.6
6.9
78.5
441.45
50
47
67.8
70
215.82
45
44
63.5
65
147.15
46.5
39.5
7
7
43
42
63.5
65
147.15
57
50
74
76.8
274.68
56.5
49.5
56.8
58.5
166.77
53.5
48.7
4.8
43
56
58.2
215.82
49.1
44.5
4.6
69.2
72
274.68
43.8
40.5
3.3
57
59
196.2
52.6
45
7.6
58.5
60
147.15
52
47
215.82
52.2
49
3.2
72.8
75
73
76.5
55
59.5
44
343.35
54
48.5
5.5
441.45
47.5
44
3.5
40
43
294.3
45.5
40.5
49.5
53
343.35
43.3
37.7
5.6
64.5
65.8
127.53
57
36.5
20.5
60.5
61.5
98.1
57
49
70.8
73
215.82
53.5
47.5
44
147.15
53
47.5
5.5
49.05
46
36.2
9.8
71
294.3
51
43.5
7.5
75
76.5
147.15
50
42.3
7.7
72.2
75
274.68
47.5
41.5
75
76
98.1
57
51.5
5.5
74
76.8
274.68
55
48.5
6.5
73
76
294.3
57.5
52
5.5
76
80
392.4
51
46
74
75
98.1
41
40.3
0.7
72.5
74
76
76,5
68
45
45
62
64
196.2
49
40.8
8.2
74
75.5
147.15
59
51.6
7.4
66.2
68.8
255.06
50
47
53.5
55
147.15
51
46
53.5
57
343.35
50.5
45.5
5
3.5
34
36
196.2
47
43.5
55.8
59
313.92
52
46
55.4
58
255.06
49
44.5
4.5
147.15
53
46
343.35
49.5
46.5
73
176.58
47
45
34
245.25
47
43
47
40
51
44
57
58.5
66.5
70
71.2
31.5
46
32
35
294.3
72.5
74.5
196.2
69.8
72.2
235.44
50
45
55
57
196.2
51
45.2
5.8
58.8
60.2
137.34
40
37
36
38
196.2
46.5
46.5
38.5
40
147.15
52.5
43.5
52.8
55
215.82
51.8
46
5.8
46
50.5
51
49.05
52.2
43.2
48.8
51.2
235.44
52.2
45
7.2
73.4
75
156.96
45
42
47
52
490.5
43.9
39.4
4.5
41
37
49.6
44.0
6.9
Average
232.8
LO
LO
10 10
LO
10 10
10C '4L0
LO
1.0
LO
LO
N- CV co
CO NNNN CO CD N
CD r- CO 0 CO N
cri
10 (0(0(0(0(01010
cc; cri ci
tri
(0(0(0
N-: cc; co Lri
LO LC) LC)
NN.
N-
LO N
CONN-
10 10
co co m a) co N- co 10 10 co
NNNN
CO CO
s is- N:
LO
co cO
n- OD %- r - r'
0 N
m- a- CO %-
CY)
LO LO LO
1010
03
CO CO CO
10
CO LO
r-- 1-- N.: (d r- co co a) a) co co co
LO
10 1010
co
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
0 CD 0 0 0 CD CD 0 0 0 0 0 CD 0 0 LO LO LO LO 1000
LO LID CO CO CO CD LO CD CD CD co
co -4- co Lo
10L0.cr
(0 N CO CO ..Zr 0) 10 (0
CO CO 0 CD N CO 1. C.0 CO 0 'Cr
w- ch N- CD CO CO N w- CO r- CO
cr) to wzr (-NJ r-- 0 0) cr CO CO
0 01 N 0 CO CO CO N l' CY) LID
0 w- 0CV CO N cr CD N- w- cr

CO CO CO ct CO
'Cr Zr 0 CO 03 NN N- Cr
n 0) 1
ch CO CO CD N N N w-
CO w- N
w-0LO
cr CO CO CO 0 0 0) 0
CD N 0
crNNNCOCOI-N
0 N V'
r-- CD 01 0) CO CO CN N
w- CNi CN N CO Cri 6 cNi
(.i c.i c\i
N
"Zr N N N Or) 0, CO Or)
LC)
co
0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
LC) LO LO LC) 0 Co Li) CV
Lf) LO
CD LO CD 0 0 0 ID 0
000
0 CO N N CD V'
CO CO 0 0 0 0 0) LO
N w- 03
N-
N- CD w- NNNN w-
N* w- NNNN w- w-
N N qtCO
CO
zr. 0 0 0
0
00
0000
0 0 0 0 0C.1
0 0 01.0
00
0 0 0 v10
LO CD
LO N
100000 N
1 1010L010 N N (0
10 03 CO CD Cr CD
LO LO
r--
LO
1.0
1.0
10
00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
0 1000100 000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 1
0 0 0 LO
LO N N N N
0
co .4- cc)
-
cl cr co co
N co CD LO
Lo
Lo
Lc) Lo to a a Lo a to a a a a a
CO N cr
w-
cr
r-
w-
w- N
LO lf)
10 100
a
10 (0 CO w-
w-
1000
w- CO LO
CO
tf)
LC)
N-
N- tO
CO
to
h-
CO
LC) LO
N N
cci co co cri cc; ca (6
Cr)
co cri
to
LO LO
LO
LO
CDCDCDCOCD
cci co co co
(13 (Li CD (0 CO co
LO
LO LC)
OD OD CO CO 03 CO is- I,- x-
to
to
CO CO CO CO CO CO CD 03 CO
LO
t's CO CV
LO
COODOOCOCOODOD
COCOCOODCOODO)COCO
to
cr)
co C 0 CO
LO
CO CO OD CO CO 03 1 ... CO
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
n- CO CO
CO
to
LC) LO
CO CO CO CO CD 03 a) 03 03
CO CO CO 03 CO CO CO
CO azi 00 CO CO CO CO CO N- CO OD CO
CD 0 0 CD00000 0000000
C)
LC) C) LC) 0 LC) LO
OC)00000
o
tO
LO LC) LO If) LC) LO LO
LO
LO
.cr t
acoc000cpc)ociocto
cpLoc)cDoc)oc,cpsocoo
Lo
Lo to to to (C) LO
LO LO to
cf.) co co co
CO CD h- CO CO V' CO (D co
,--coo) 01 0) C \ I CD 0) 0
M h- .- CN (N CD N N r---
CNJ LC) ci io 0 CD 0 CD LO
LC) N CN CO CO N CO CO N
LC) CO CV CO Cr) 0') Cr) Cr) CO
C'-i N CV Cyi Cy) CNI M Cf) Csi
coco
CD CV (13 N CD CO
N CO CO CO
a- 0) cr a- a- CD 'at CO r-CO CO CV If) CO CO CV LO CO co CO CV
N
N
h- CD 0') CS)
in CO 0
CO
N
10 CO N N
(0
LC) 0 CO 0 Lo LO Cr) 0. If). CV
. CV
. N-.
CO CD N is- x- c) Nh- CV CO C-) N- h- CO

ODOM CT) x-CON
h- CD N N N. 0) Lf)
M 0) CV CN .- x- LO
CV CV C6 Cr) M x;t: M
V")
ocDcp cp c)cococ)cp cDcpcpc)ocpcp

Lo00000e:3u"
cocoLo IC) CD LC) 0
o)cocDoc)(oocr)
N N

csj x- yCN CN N CN CN
Cf)
(r)
C4
toloccpc)cplocpcDocio
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APPENDIX K
Appendix K
Enthalpy balance for the gasifier for run 43

Enthalpy in wet
wood and charcoal
Enthalpy of producer
gas
Enthalpy in char
Gasifier
n Enthalpy in tar
Enthalpy of moisture
in air
* Enthalpy in
condensate
n Enthalpy losses
i) Enthalpy Input into the gasifier

The total enthalpy input into the gasifier are the enthalpy of the wood, charcoal and
the enthalpy of the air.
H input = H ood Hcharcoal + Hair
a) Enthalpy of the wood
The enthalpy of the wood is given by
Hwood = LIWwood X Mood
Dry wood has a Lower Heating Value of 18.8 MJ/kg. As the moisture content of the
wood increases the LHV decreases. The LHV of the wood is given by Carre (1989) as
follows:
LHV = 18.8(100/100+MC)-2.5(MC/100+MC)
For a moisture content of 20% the LHV of the wood becomes 15.25 MJ/kg. The
amount of wood in a batch
,Mood,
consumed by the gasifier is 60 kg.
Hence the enthalpy of the wood is,
wood = LHVwood Moo
16.02 x 70 = 915 MJ
b) Enthalpy of charcoal
At start up 2.5 kg of charcoal was used to assist in the ignition and combustion of the
biomass material. Charcoal has a heating value of 33.100 MJ/kg. Therefore the
enthalpy of charcoal is given by:
Hcharcoal = LHV charcoal x Mcharcoal7----
33.100 x 2.5 =82.75 MJ
c) Enthalpy of the air
The enthalpy of the air is the enthalpy of the moisture in the air due to the latent heat
of vaporisation. It is given as follows
Hair = Latent heat of water x F, /1000
The latent heat of vaporisation of water at ambient temperature of 20C is

2453.7kJ/kg. Fw is the mass flow rate of water in air. The volumetric flow rate of air
which is known is 400 1/min. The relative humidity of air which is determined by the
wet and dry bulb thermometers is 30 %. From the psychrometry chart the specific
humidity is 0.005. The density of air at ambient temperature is 1.177 kg/m3, hence the
mass flow rate of air is 0.4708 kg/min. The mass flow rate of water in air is thus:
Fw = 0.005 x 0.47= 2.35 E-3 kg/min
Hence the enthalpy of air is,
Hair = 2453.7 x 2.35 E-3/1000 = 0.00577 MJ/min
For a run of 285 mins the enthalpy of the air becomes,
Hair = 1.64 MJ
Compared to the enthalpy of the wood and the charcoal, the enthalpy in the air is
small and can therefore be neglected. The inaccuracy of measuring the exact duration
of the run and the exact weight of the wood and charcoal justifies the omission of the
enthalpy of the air in the calculation of enthalpy input. However in humid countries
where the relative humidity reaches 90 % with the dry bulb temperature of about
30C, it is possible to include the enthalpy of the air contribution in the enthalpy
input.
d) Energy from the fan
The air is supplied into the gasifier via a fan. The electrical energy input into the
system has to betaken into account. The power rating of the fan is 1 kW. The Power
input into the gasifier is
lkW x 285 min x 60 x 0.001 = 17.1MJ
Hence the total enthalpy input into the gasifier is:
Enthalpy input = 915 + 82.75 + 17.1 +1.64 = 1016.54MJ
ii) Enthalpy output from the gasifier
The enthalpy output from the gasifier are the enthalpy of the combustible gases, the
sensible heat of the producer gas, the enthalpy of the remaining char in the gasifier,
the enthalpy of tar which has not been cracked in the gasifier, the enthalpy of the
water vapour present and the heat loss from the gasifier.
Enthalpy output =
Hcombustible gases
H
sensibleheat of producer gas+Hchar+Hwater
vapour+Htar+Hlosses
a) Enthalpy of the combustible gases.
The enthalpy of the combustible gases in the producer gas is the product of LHV of
the combustible gases and the volumetric flow rate of the producer gas.
Hcombustible gases LHV producer gas X Vproducer gases
The LHV of the producer gas is the product of the volumetric fractions and the LHVs
of the combustible gases in the producer gases. The combustible gases are
H2, CO,
CH4 and C2H6.
LHVcombustible gases = V H2.LHV

H2+ v
COu-rv
. -- COVCH4.LHVCH4+VC2H6.LHVC2H6
The volumetric fractions of the combustible gases are determined from the gas
analysis. The volumetric percentage concentration for
H 2 , CO,
14.67% and 23.52%, 2.71% respectively. The LHVs for
CH4 and C2H6 are
H 2 , CO,
CH4 and C2H6 are
10.22 MJ/m3 , 11.97 MJ/m3 and 33.95MJ/m3 respectively. Hence the LHV of the
combustible gases is:
LHV combustible gases = 0.1467 x 10.22 + 0.2352 x 11.97 + 0.0271 x 33.95

=
5.24 MJ/m3
The input air flow rate is 400 Urnin. Assuming that the amount of nitrogen is 79 % of
air, therefore the flow rate of nitrogen into the gasifier is 316 Umin. The nitrogen is
inert in gasification process thus the output flow rate of nitrogen from the gasifier will
be maintained at 316 Umin. From the gas analysis, it was found that the concentration
of nitrogen was 39.74%, hence the volumetric flow rate of the gasified product is:.
V producer gas = V inlet air v Nitrogen in air' 'Nitrogen in producer gas

= 400 x 0.79/0.3974 = 795.13 litres/min
The wood gas was passed through the cooling and the cleaning system. Before the
cooling system the gasifier pressure was found to be about 5 kPa. The total pressure
drop in the cooling system was found to be about 3.25 kPa. Hence as a result of the
pressure drop the flow rate of the wood gas dropped. The new flow rate of the gas is
measured to be 563 litres/min
Hence the energy of the combustible gas is
H combustible gases 1S = 5.24 x 563 = 2.9332MJ/min or 48.85 kW
For a duration of a run of 285 minutes, the energy of the producer gas is
H combustible gas = 2.9332 x 285 = 835.35 MJ
The concentration of the producer gas were determined from the gas chromatograph
when the producer gas is cooled to the ambient temperature. Therefore the enthalpy of
the combustible gases is the cold enthalpy..
b) Sensible heat of the producer gas
The producer gas exiting from the gasifier's reduction zone is at a temperature of
about 750C due to the temperature of the producer gas exiting from the gasifier. The
temperature of the reduction zone is about 750C and drops further as it passes
through the pipes. The sensible heat of the producer gas is given by:
Hsensible heat of producer gas = Mproducer gas CD producer gas. AT
Where c Pproducer gas is the sum of the heat capacity of each constituent gas. The heat
capacity is the product of the mass fraction and the specific heat capacity of producer
gas. The specific heat capacity is temperature dependent and its value is calculated at
the reduction zone temperature of 750C. The gravimetric analysis or the mass
fraction of the producer is shown in table 7.21. AT is the temperature difference
between the reduction zone and the ambient temperatures.
Gas
Volumetric
Molecular
analysis Vi/V
weight of gas
ViN*M
Gravimetric
analysis
M
H2
0.1467
0.2934
0.01096
CO
0.2352
28
6.5856
0.2461
CO2
0.1773
44
7.8012
0.2915
CH4
0.0271
16
0.4336
0.01620
C2H6
0.000
30
0.000
0.000
N2
0.3974
28
11.13
0.4159
02
0.0162
32
0.5184
0.0194
Total
1.00
26.7622
1.00
,AT = 750-20 = 730 C
cn
E(xi. cpil
-.=-x
-H2 en
. -1- H2 +xCO
. -1- CO+xCO2.cPCO2xCH4.cPCH4xC2H6.cPC2H6xN2.cPN2+x02.cP02
=0.01096(15.017)+0.2461(1.189)+0.2915(1.24)+0.01620(4.5302)+0.4159(1.1716)+0.
0194(1.09322)
=1.400 kJ/kg K
Assuming that the producer gas is treated as an ideal gas, the mass flow rate of the
producer gas can be determined as follows:
M gas (V producer gas Wgas)/(R. T)
Where,
Wgas = is the molecular weight of the producer gas (26.7622kg/kmol)
R
the gas constant (0.08205 m 3/kmole K)
= the temperature of the reduction zone(1023 K)
V producer gas = Volumetric flow rate of the producer gas (563 1/min)
Therefore,
Mgas =
0.2535 kg/min
Hence the sensible heat of the producer gas is:
"sensible heat =
M producer gas
P producer gas- AT
= (0.2535).(1.400).(730)/1000
=0.259 MJ/min
For a duration of the run of 285 minutes, the sensible heat of the producer gas is
"sensible heat of producer gas = 73.82
MJ
c) Enthalpy of the water vapour in the producer gas
It is assumed that all the water vapour in the producer gas is condensed in the
condensers.
The enthalp y of water in vapour state is given as follows:
H water = Mwater.(hTreduction4hTambient)/1000
where,
Mwater =
the amount of water condensed ( 3.82 kg)
= the enthalpy of water vapour at 1023 K (4823.3kJ/kg)

hi-reduction
hTambient = the enthalpy of water at 293 K (83.9 kJ/kg)
Hence,
Hwater=
18.1045 MJ
d) Enthalpy in the char, tar and the heat losses
The enthalpy of the char is the chemical energy of the char and its sensible heat.
H char = LHNIchar.M
char Maar. cpchar AT/1000
The amount of char remained in the gasifier is about 0.1053kg. The amount of ash
remained was found the to be about 0.379kg.
The high heating value and the specific heat capacity of char are 25.26 MJ/kg and
0.652 kJ/kg K respectively ( Hoi 1993).
Therefore enthalpy of the char is= (0.1053x25.26)+(0.1053x0.652x(1023-293))=

2.71MJ
The enthalpy of the tar is the chemical energy of the tar and its sensible heat.
= LHV tar. M tar + Mtar.cptar.AT/1000
The amount of tar trapped in the air filter was found to be about 0.1% which is
typically for a downdraft gasifiers. For 60 kg of wood the amount of tar is about 0.06
kg. The enthalpy of the tar is given by
= LHV tar . M tar + Mtar. cptz. AT
where,
LHV tar = 35.14 MJ/kg (Hoi, 1993)
cp tar
= 2.73 kJ/kg K(Hoi, 1993)
Hence the enthalpy of the tar is
Htar =
(35.14) x (0.06) + (0.06) x (2.73) 730/1000 = 2.11 MJ
e) Heat losses from the gasifier
The heat losses from the gasifier are due to radiation and convection.
H losses
Qradiation
Qconvecti
0.6m
III
107C
A1=1.036m2
L 1 =0.8m
0.5m
139C
215C
220C
A2 = 2.92 II12
L2 = 1.7
160C
148C
1.4m
Maximum temperature of the gasifier skin at 255 minutes after start-up for run43.
The gasifier is divided into two zones. The top part of the gasifier has a mean surface
temperature of 85C whilst the bottom part has a mean temperature of 170C. The
height of the top part is 0.4 m whilst the bottom part is 1.4 m. The heat loss from the
gasifier for a duration of 285 minute run is,
Heat transfer by free convection
i) For the top part of the gasifier
1. The film temperature Tf = (85 +20)/2 = 52.5 C = 325.5 K

2. Properties of interest
13 = 1/325 = 0.003072
v = 1.807 x 10 -5 M2/s
p = 1.086 kg/m3
Pr = 0.7
k = 0.02816 kJ/m2 K
3. Gr Pr = g.13.AT.LI.Pr/v2
= (9.81)(0.003072 )(85-20 )(0.8) 3
(0.7)41.807 x 10-5)2
= 1.44 x 109
4. The Nusselt no. Nu 112 = 0.825 + toaukoryel
[1+(0.492/Pr)9/16i8/27
=0.825 + { 0.387(1.44 x 1g1L.6.1
[1+(0.492/0.7)9/1618/27
= 11.72
Nu = 137.2
5. The heat transfer coefficient h = Nu(k/L i ) = 137.2(0.02816/0.8)

= 5.52 W/m2 C
6. The heat loss Hloss( convection) = h. A AT

= 5.52 (1.036)(65)
= 317.7 W
= 0.0223 MJ/min
The convective heat loss from the top part of the gasifier is 0.0223 MJ/min
ii) For the bottom part of the gasifier
1. The film temperature Tf = (170 +20)/2 = 95 C = 368 K

2. Properties of interest
(3 = 1/325 = 0.00272
v= 2.317 x 10 -5 M2/S
Pr = 0.692
k = 0.03186 kJ/m2 K
3. Gr Pr = g.3.AT.L2.Pr/v2
= (9.81)(0.00272)(170-20)(1.7) 3 (0.692)42.317 x 10-5)2
= 2.564 x 1010
4. The Nusselt no. Nu 1/2 --= 0.825 + _{._QaMat
. .Prjj1-61
[1+(0.492/Pr)9"16]87
=0.825 + { 0.387(2.564 x 101-QP-6[1+(0.492/0.692) 9/1 ]8/27
= 18.4
Nu = 338.9
5. The heat transfer coefficient h = Nu(k/L i ) = 338.9(0.03186/1.7)

= 6.35 W/m2 C
6. The heat loss Hloss( convection) = h. A AT

= 6.35 (2.92)(150)
= 2781.3 W
= 0.167 MJ/min
The convective heat loss from the bottom part of the gasifier is 0.167 MJ/min
Heat transfer by radiation
i) For the top part of the gasifier
1) H radiation = A.ae
(rs4_Ta4)
a = Stefan -Boltzmann constant = 5.669 x 10 -8 W/m2. K4
c = 0.31 ( For Oxidised dark grey surface painted with Aluminium paint)
2) H radiation = 1.036(5.669 x 10-8)(0.31)(358
_293 4)
= 164 W = 0.01 MJ/min
The radiative heat loss from the top part of the gasifier is 0.01 MJ/min
ii) For the bottom part of the gasifier
1)
Hradiation = A.CY.E. (T4-T)
2) Hradiation =
2.92(5.669 x 10 4 )(0.31)(443 4 -293 4)

= 1598 W = 0.096 MJ/min
The radiative heat loss from the bottom part of the gasifier is 0.096 MJ/min
The total heat loss from the gasifier :
H loss = Hconvection Hradiation
=0.0223 + 0.67 +0.01 + 0.096

= 0.2953 MJ/min
For a duration of 285 minutes, hence
H105 = 0.2953 x 285 = 84.2 MJ
Mass Balance For The Gasifier For Run 43
Mass of wood
Mass of charcoal
Mass of air supply
GASIFIER
Mass of wood gas

Mass of water
0 Mass of char
Mass of tar
Mass of char and
particulates
i) Mass input into the gasifier
The mass of furniture wood used was 60 kg whilst the amount of charcoal was only
about 2.5 kg. The amount of air supplied to the gasifier was 400 litres/min. The
duration of the run was 285 minutes and the density of air is taken as 1.2 kg/m3 at
ambient temperature of 20C. The mass of air input is calculated as
Mass of air-- (flow rate of air) x (duration of the run) x (density of air)
= 400E-3 x 285 x 1.2
= 136.8kg
Mass input= mass of wood + mass of charcoal+ mass of air

= 60+ 2.5+136.8
= 199.3 kg
ii) Mass output from the gasifier
a) Mass of wood gas
The mass of the wood gas is= (flow rate of the wood gas) x (density of wood gas).
The flow rate of the wood gas was calculated to be about 559.77 litres/min. The
density of the wood gas is calculated as follows:
Density of wood gas= E( Vcomponent gas X Pcomponent gas)
=(1.62x1.3007+39.74x1.1421+14.67x0.08185+23.52x1.1421+17.73x1.7973+2.71x0.
6785)x0.01
= 1.093 kg/m3
Hence
The mass of the wood gas = 559.77E-3x 1.093x 285= 174.4 kg
b) Mass of water
The amount of water condensed in the cooling system was 3.8 kg.
c) Mass of char
The amount of char was calculated to be about 0.125 kg. In run 56 the amount of char
was found to be about 50 g for a input feed of 24 kg. Hence the amount of char was
about 0.21 kg/kg of feed. For run 43 with 60 kg of feed the amount of char is 0.125
kg.
d) Mass of tar
The amount of tar was calculated to be about 0.06 kg. From run 56 the amount of tar
was found to be about 0.09% of the feed. Hence for run 43 the amount of tar was
calculated to be 0.06 kg.
e) Mass of particulates
From run 56 the amount of particulates trapped in the cyclone was 0.042% of the
feed. hence for run 43 the amount of particulates was calculated to be about 0.025kg.
0 Mass of ash.
The amount of ash was found to be about 0.450kg.
The total mass output from the gasifier was found to be about 178.9 kg whilst the
input mass was 199.3 which was much higher.
iii) The mass conversion efficiency
The mass conversion efficiency = mass of wood gas output/ mass input
= 174.4/199.3
= 87.51 %

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PERFORMANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A BIOMASS GASIFIER

A Thesis submitted to the University of Wales, College of Cardiff

Division of Mechanical Engineering and Energy Studies

DEDICATED TO MY LATE FATHER

1.2 BIOMASS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE

1.3 BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS

1.31 Direct combustion process

1.32 Biological conversion process

1.33 Thermochemical conversion process

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH

AND THESIS OUTLINE

2.2 TYPES OF GASIFICATION PROCESS

2.21 Pyrolysis gasification

2.22 Air gasification

2.23 Oxygen gasification

2.25 Steam gasification

2.3 CHEMISTRY OF GASIFICATION

2.31 Global gasification reaction

2.32 Thermochemical phase reactions

2.33 Air-fuel ratio for theoretical gasification process

2.34 Equivalent ratio

2.4 PARAMETERS GOVERNING BIOMASS GASIFICATION

2.411 Size and shape

2.412 Heating value

2.413 Moisture content

2.414 Ash content

2.415 Proximate and Ultimate analysis

2.416 Fuel value index

2.42 Gasifier specification

2.43 Product specification

3.2 TYPE OF GASIFIERS

3.21 Fixed-bed gasifiers

3.211 Updraft gasifiers

3.212 Downdraft gasifiers

3.213 Crossdraft gasifiers

3.214 Suspension gasifiers

3.22 Fluidised-bed gasifiers

3.3 APPLICATION OF GASIFIERS

3.31 Power gasifiers

3.32 Heat gasifiers

3.4 REVIEW OF GASIFIER DESIGNS

3.41 Buck Rogers commercial downdraft gasifier

3.42 Research of Groeneveld and Van Swaaij

3.43 Design of Hoi,WK

3.44 Combustor and gasifier-combustor design

3.45 Stratified downdraft gasifier

3.46 Ferrocement open core gasifier

3.47 ND-900 gasifier

3.48 Multi-stage reactors for the thermal gasification of wood

3.49 The Cemagref process

3.5 CONCLUDING REMARK

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF GASIFIER

4.2 TYPES OF MODELS

4.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON MATHEMATICAL

EXPERIMENTAL RIG AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

5.2 DESIGN OF A UWCC GASIFIER

5.21 Salient features of the UWCC gasifier

5.22 The cone structure

5.23 Air supply into the gasifier

5.24 Feeding system

5.25 Ash removing system

5.26 Gas extraction and swirl burner/furnace system