GREEK CIVILIZATION- FROM SHAME TO GUILT

The portrayal of the Greeks in Homers Iliad and Herodotus Histories shows the
slow but steady transition from a shame culture to a guilt culture between the Late
Bronze Age and the Archaic period. As defined by the Oxford Dictionary, a shame
culture involves an individual putting high emphasis on preserving honor and on
not being publicly disgraced. People conform to societal norms and actions for
fear of being shamed or dishonored publicly1 In contrast, the Oxford Dictionary
defines a guilt culture as the internalization of a moral code. Conformity to a
moral code occurs through an individuals own will, and has less to do with the
public approval of society2 In The Iliad, honor is highly valued, and to obtain that
glory one must be a tremendous doer of deeds (e.g. fighting bravely), or be a skilled
speaker of words (e.g. speaking well in the assembly). One must continuously earn
honor within the public eye, and to do that, one must acquire goods or rewards that
publicly signify and represent that honor. In contrast, in Herodotuss Histories, the
world appears less dominated by aspects of a shame culture; rather, certain
features indicative of a guilt culture begin to appear. Instead of feeling publicly
shamed into following social norms, an individual forces morality on himself or
herself due to guilt at not observing societys condoned behaviors. The differences
beginning to develop between these cultures also appear through various
depictions of gods and their actions. In Homers Iliad the gods are ever present and
anthropomorphic. In Herodotus Histories the gods rarely appear, and, rather than
being depicted as humans with superpowers, are portrayed in ways that suggest
human behavioral norms. As Late Bronze Age civilizations collapsed and Greece
entered the Dark Ages, and even down through the Archaic period, Greece
experienced many important changes in a variety of cultural aspects, and as such,
it would not be surprising to discover a transition from a shame-culture to a guiltculture; this transformation is shown through the depiction of men and gods in
Homers Iliad and Herodotus Histories.
The humans in Homers Iliad reveal the presence of a shame culture. One example
comes from a quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles (I.105). Agamemnons
refusal to return Chryseis caused a plague to descend on the Greeks. He has been
publicly rebuked and had his prize girl taken away from him, and this dishonors and
shames him. Agamemnon seeks a replacement, since without this girl he will be the
only one among the Argives to go without (I. 118-119)3 His status as a ruler
means he should receive the most gifts, and to maintain his preeminent status, he
must receive another girl. When Achilles calls Agamemnon greedy, Agamemnon
responds by taking Achilles woman Briseis, humiliating and shaming him (I.122147).4 Achilles insulted Agamemnon in the presence of the entire assembly, so in
order to defend his honor, Agamemnon damaged Achilles reputation in public.
Achilles immediately calls Agamemnon shamelessn, and tells the gods how
Agamemnon dishonored him, asking them to restore his own honor (I.149, 356)5
Since Achilles status has been lowered in the eyes of the community, he refuses to
fight. To repair his honor, Achilles asks the gods to ensure that the Greeks lose the
war without him, which will reveal his prowess as a warrior and bring him gifts and
rewards associated with glory (I.407-411). 6 This demonstrates shame culture, since
the Greeks will be publicly humiliated in battle without Achilles, and will supplicate
him to get him to fight once again. Achilles is secretly afraid that if the battle goes
well without him, his status as an essential warrior will be weakened and his honor
will be lowered, since he would not be on the battlefield fulfilling his role as a leader
and a doer of deeds.
Paris poor fighting skills and his tendency to remain in the city also demonstrate
the operation of this shame culture during the Late Bronze Age. By stealing Helen,
Paris violated the Greek value xenia (hospitality). Even his own brother Hector
rebukes him, saying he wishes Paris had never been born so he would not have
brought shame on all of Troy for his actions (III.40-42).7 Paris is not a doer of

deeds and he is not a skilled speaker of words. His oaths mean nothing, since he
and the Trojans do not give up Helen after agreeing to one on one combat to end
the war (IV.155-157).8 Paris is often reprimanded for staying inside the walls when
his brethren are out in the fields dying. Even Helen does not wish to sleep with him
after he accepts Aphrodites help and abandons his combat with Menelaus
(III.410).9 She claims that since Menelaus publicly dishonored him, sleeping with
Paris would be shameful for her in the eyes of all Trojan women (III.410-412).10
Helen, operating within this shame culture, does not want to behave as if Paris is a
hero when he is not, for fear that she will be shamed among Trojans and Greeks. So,
through their actions and handling of situations, the characters of The Iliad all
demonstrate the operation of a shame culture in the Late Bronze Age.
In contrast, in Herodotus The Histories the mortals demonstrate the beginnings of a
shift towards a guilt culture, with the outlet of that guilt being religion. Spartas
actions after the Battle of Marathon suggest a certain level of guilt. Spartas visit to
the battlefield was not only to see the Medes, as Herodotus points out (6.120).11
She also showed up out of guilt at not fighting in the battle. Since she is usually
selected as leader of Greek ventures and campaigns, she felt guilty at her absence.
The Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC is a perfect example of how she attempts to
win back the favor of the Greeks and remove her guilt. Although the full force could
not be there due to the festival of the Karneia, Sparta sends out a band of 300
men with their king (7.206).12 Yet Sparta had declined to go to Marathon due to
religious law just ten years earlier. She had to wait for the full moon before setting
out for battle (6.106)13 Perhaps she did not anticipate the full strength of the
Persians or the dire need of the situation, but for whatever reason, Sparta did not
send troops in 490BC until the moon was full. However, when the Persians came
again in 480BC, Sparta sent 300 men to Thermopylae, despite the fact that the rest
of the Spartans were celebrating the festival of the Karneia (7.206).14 For
Marathon, Sparta held everyone back, but this time, she broke her traditional
religious laws by sending out troops and a king, indicating her desperate desire to
be at Thermopylae to help save Greece. The guilt at letting down the Greeks, who
were under her leadership and command at Marathon, sparked this different action
of Sparta. If she were still operating in a shame culture, the gods would not have
appreciated their honor and sacrifices being lessened and abandoned so Sparta
could achieve its own recognition. So, she could not have gone to Thermopylae for
the redemption of glory. However, the gods would permit this action within a guilt
culture, since guilt is an internal force that drives morality. If Sparta felt guilt at not
fighting by the Athens side at Marathon, she would have left the religious festival in
order to assuage that guilt. The gods in this new culture would realize the need for
this type of redemption.
In addition to Spartas decision to fight at Thermopylae, the story of Croesus also
points to the presence of a transition from shame to guilt culture. Croesus power
made him think very highly of himself. He hubristically dismisses Solons advice,
thinking Solon was worthless and extremely ignorant for saying Croesus was not
the happiest and most prosperous of men (1.33).15 As a result of his actions, the
dreadful vengeance of the god kills Croesus son (1.34). To help him, Croesus
invokes Zeus Protector of the Hearth, Zeus Protector of Suppliants at the Hearth,
and Zeus Protector of Friendship (1.44). Croesus could be psychologically
attempting to alleviate his own guilt. He forgives Adrastos, telling him that he is
not the cause of [Croesus] affliction and that he had no intention of doing it
(1.45).16 He calls upon the different versions of Zeus to help ease his own guilt.
Zeus the Protector of the Hearth helps him overcome the guilt of slaying his own
family, Zeus the Protector of Suppliants at the Hearth helps him to shield the rest of
his family from punishment, and Zeus the Protector of Friendship helps save
Croesus friendship with Adrastos, since Croesus forgives him. Croesus capture by
Cyrus further demonstrates the development of a guilt culture. After reflecting on

Solons advice and realizing that Solon was right, Croesus laments his life to the
Persians. Upon hearing this, Cyrus reflect[s] that [Croesus] too was human, he
changed his mind about committing a living man to a fire, especially a fellow man
whom had been blessed with happiness no less than he (1.86).17 Cyrus feels
guilty at brutally killing a man whom he considers to be much like himself, and fears
retribution from the gods on him and the rest of his family. Societies involved in a
guilt culture must assuage their guilt by professing their offenses to someone and
by making up for their poor actions. As shown through the Spartans, Croesus, and
Cyrus, one of these outlets is religion. In order to abandon a religious festival and
send three hundred men to Thermopylae, Sparta would have to check with her gods
first. It is here she most likely expresses her guilt at not being at Marathon, since
she declined to fight then because of religious reasons. Now, she bends her rules
and sends a small force anyway, demonstrating her guilt. Croesus prays to different
forms of Zeus to alleviate his guilt. Cyrus ponders his guilt while thinking of the
ramifications of his actions. In a guilt culture, offenders are not always punished on
the spot, but can be rebuked through their descendants. Guilt was inherited due to
a belief in family solidarity. No matter how long it took, cosmic justice would win.18
Thus to ease guilt and protect a persons family from paying for an offense, a
person could pray to divine justice, Zeus, as an outlet. So, the characters in
Herodotus demonstrate the presence of guilt culture, with a religious outlet for
alleviating that guilt.
Moreover, in The Iliad and The Histories the presentation of gods confirms the
beginnings of a transformation from shame to guilt culture. In Homers Iliad, the
gods are also very concerned with their own honor, and often are hot-tempered and
quick to begrudge the smallest insult.19 Just like Sarpedon incites Hector to battle
by shouting against Hectors honor, Apollo shames Ares into fighting Diomedes
(V.454-459, 470-492).20 Both Hector and Ares are forced to conform to societal
norms of fighting due to their fear of being shamed. In Herodotus, the gods are no
longer portrayed in this anthropomorphic sense; rather, they are depicted as
playing a different role within the community. Although the opening of The Iliad
shows Zeus as a protector of divine justice, he is portrayed as a human with super
powers. He controls human affairs, often helping the Trojans though he knows the
Greeks are fated to win. In Herodotus, however, the humans that Zeus believes are
morally right win throughout. Those in accordance with divine law will always win.
Unlike in The Iliad, in The Histories a state will win due to moral righteousness, not
due to a personal vendetta or the child of a god being on one side. As Hipparchos
finds out from his dream and his death the next day, there is no one on earth who
will fail to pay for committing a crime (5.56).21 Since guilt can be transferred from
one person to another, Hipparchos dream could be a manifestation of Hippias guilt
at being a tyrant. If Hippias had listened to his own morality, conformed to society
and returned to democracy, his brother would not have perished (5.55).22 So, the
gods in Herodotus operate in the beginnings of guilt culture, and the gods in Homer
operate within a shame culture. In contrast to Herodotus, the gods in The Iliad also
have pity and emotion, sympathizing with and helping the humans on earth. For
example, since Chryses is very dear to him, Apollo launches a plague at all of the
Greeks (I.380-385).23 Aphrodite saves Aeneas from certain death, even sustaining a
wound from Diomedes (V.334-351).24 The gods have human-like emotions, they
interact with humans, and humans are not afraid to challenge them. In a shame
culture, winning glory and honor in battle are important, and defeating a god in
battle would bring both. In contrast, the major emotion the gods in Herodotus
demonstrate is jealousy.25 The gods in Herodotus are jealous of men attempting to
make too much of themselves, like the Persians, who amass a large amount of
wealth, power, and land. No amount of resources or control seems to satisfy the
Persians. Hubristic men pay for their overly ambitious and pompous attitudes since
they believe they are powerful like the gods. The gods destroy Xerxes bridge of
boats across the Hellespont, since the Persian Empire would become too large.

These hubristic men are taken down because no man should control as much as a
god, and no one should have the audacity to even try. This is a stark contrast to
Homer, and the wounding of gods in a shame culture. Now, in a guilt culture, one
should not even consider challenging the gods, and Persia is even punished for
destroying sacred objects and sanctuaries. In Herodotus the gods are portrayed as
otherworldly creatures that are untouchable and do not individually choose sides
but are all on the same side. They only prevent hubris from dominating the mortal
landscape, and Zeus is often referred to as Justice the Divine.26 So, the portrayal
of the gods within The Iliad and The Histories indicates the presence of a shame
culture for Homer, and a guilt culture for Herodotus.
From the Late Bronze Age to the Archaic Age, Homers Iliad and Herodotus Histories
show a transition from a shame culture to a guilt culture. In The Iliad men conform
their behavior to society for fear of being shamed. In the Late Bronze Age, that
behavior includes winning honor and glory either on the battlefield or in the
assembly. The actions of Agamemnon, Achilles, Paris, and Helen demonstrate this.
In the Archaic Age, this changes, as the conformity of behavior to that of society is
no longer based on public perception but on the internalization of a moral code. The
stories and actions of the Spartans at Thermopylae and of Croesus show this. Each
authors portrayal of the gods also shows the transition from shame to guilt culture.
In Homers epic, the gods are as emotional and passionate about shame and honor
as humans are. The actions of Aphrodite saving Aeneas and of Apollo calling out
Ares to fight illustrate this. In Herodotus work, the gods are less anthropomorphic
and instead represent human behavioral patterns. Instead of men challenging and
fighting the gods (like Diomedes at Troy), men like Xerxes are punished for
hubristically trying to become greater than the gods.
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Homer, The Iliad of Homer, trans. Richmond Lattimore (University Of Chicago Press, 2011), 62.
Ibid.
Ibid., 68.
Ibid., 70.
Ibid., 101.
Ibid., 117.
Ibid., 111.
Ibid.
Robert B. Strassler, ed., The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories, Reprint (Anchor Books, 2009), 478.
Ibid., 584.
Ibid., 470.
Ibid., 584.
Ibid., 22.
Ibid., 2425.
Ibid., 49.
E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (University of California Press, 2004), 3334.

Ibid., 32.
Homer, The Iliad of Homer, 140141.
Strassler, The Landmark Herodotus, 391.
Ibid., 390.
Homer, The Iliad of Homer, 69.
Ibid., 137.
Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 31.
Strassler, The Landmark Herodotus, 632.