Group Theory

Alonso Castillo Ramirez

May 30, 2010

Revision

All groups in this notes will be considered nite.

Proposition 1 Let G be a group and H

G. If [G : H] = 2 then H C G.

Proof. We need to show that Hg = gH for every g 2 G. For g 2 H this is

obvious. Take g 2 G n H. Then gH 6= H. We know that gH \ H = ; and
G = H [ gH, since there are just two cosets, so gH = G n H. For the same
reason, Hg = G n H so the result follows.
Example 1 Since [Sn : An ] = 2, An C Sn . Similarly Cn C D2n .
Theorem 2 (First Isomorphism Theorem) Let G and H be groups and f :
G ! H an homomorphism. Then,
i) Im (f )

ii) ker (f ) C G
iii) G= ker (f ) ' Im (f )
1

Proof. Let f (a) ; f (b) 2 Im (f ). Then f (a) f (b)

= f ab 1
so Im (f )
H. Let a; b 2 ker (f ). Then f ab 1 = f (a) f (b)
1
ab 2 ker (f ). To prove normality, observe that for any g 2 G, f
1
1
f (g) f (a) f (g) = f (g) f (g) = e, so gag 1 2 ker (f ). Consider
Im (f ) dened as (g ker (f )) = f (g). It is easy to check that is
phism.

2 Im (f ),
= e, so
gag 1 =
: G= ker (f ) !
an isomor1

Theorem 3 (Second Isomorphism Theorem) Let G be a group and N CG.

The subgroups of G=N are given by M=N where M is a subgroup of G containing
N . If M1 6= M2 (N
M1 ; M2 ) then M1 =N 6= M2 =N . Moreover M=N C G=N
if and only if M C G and if so then
G=N
' G=M
M=N
1

Proof. Clearly if N M G, then N CM because N CG. Let aN; bN 2 M=N .

Then (aN ) b 1 N = ab 1 N 2 M=N so indeed M=N
G=N . Let K be any
subrgoup of G=N and dene
M = fg 2 G : gN 2 Kg
This is clearly a subrgoup of G, and it contains N because for any n 2 N ,
nN = N 2 K so n 2 M . Clearly if mN 2 M=N then mN 2 K because m 2 M .
If kN 2 K, then k 2 M and so kN 2 M=N . Hence M=N = K.
Now suppose M1 =N = M2 =N for some M1 ; M2 containing N . Let m1 N 2
M1 =N . Then m1 N = m2 N for some m2 2 M2 and m1 = m2 n for some
n 2 N
M2 . Hence m1 2 M2 and M1
M2 . Similarly M2
M1 . Thus
M1 = M2 .
Suppose M C G. Let gN 2 G=N and mN 2 M=N . Then
gN mN (gN )

= gmg

N 2 M=N

So M=N CG=N . Conversely, suppose that M=N CG=N . Then gmg

so gmg 1 N = m1 N for some m1 2 M . Hence
gmg

= m1 n for some n 2 N

N 2 M=N ,

Thus gmg 1 2 M and M C G.

For the last part consider f : G=N ! G=M dened as f (gN ) = gM for
any g 2 G. If g1 N = g2 N , then g1 g2 1 2 N
M and so g1 M = g2 M , so it
is well dened. Clearly it is a surjective homomorphism. Note that ker (f ) =
fgN : g 2 M g = M=N . Thus, by the First Isomorphism Theorem
G=N
' G=M
M=N

Example 2 Consider G = S4 and K = C2 C2 formed by the double transpositions. Then S4 =K = S3 . Now S3 has subgroups A3 ; B = fe; (12)g ; C = fe; (12)g
and D = fe; (12)g. By the Second Isomorphism Theorem, these subgroups
must correspond to subgroups of S4 ; A3 = A4 =K, B = B 0 =K, C = C 0 =K
and D = D0 =K. In particular this shows that S4 must contain at least three
di erent subgroup of order 8.

Group Actions

Denition 1 (Group Action) Let G be a group and

is a map : G
! subject to the following:
1. e a = a for every a 2 .
2

a set. A group action

2. g1 (g2 a) = g1 g2 a for every g1 ; g2 2 G, a 2 .

We say that G acts on

Example 3 (Action: Left Multiplication) The group Sn acts on = f1; 2; :::; ng

in the obvious way. The group D2n acts on
=regular n-gon. The grouop
GLn (F ) acts on V = F n of column vectors. Any group G acts on = G by
left (or right) multiplication.
Example 4 (Action: Conjugation of Elements) Take g 2 G and a 2
G. Dene g a = gag 1 = g a. This is called the action by conjugation.
Denition 2 (Orbit) Given a 2

the set

(a) = fg a : g 2 Gg
is called the orbit of a.
Proposition 4 The orbits form a partition of

Proof. Note that the relation in dened as a b if exists g 2 G such that

b = g a, is an equivalence relation and the orbits are the equivalence classes.
Denition 3 (Transitive Action) The action of G on
there is only one orbit of G on .
Denition 4 (Stabilizer) If G acts on

is called tansitive if

, then for any a 2

the set

stab (a) = fg 2 G : g a = ag
is called the stabilizer of a.
Theorem 5 (Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem) Let G act on
stab (a) G and if the action is transitive

, a 2

. Then

j j = [G : stab (a)]
Proof. The proof that stab (a) G is routine. Let H = stab (a). To prove the
second part consider f : G=H ! dened as f (gH) = g a for g 2 G. Well
check that this is well dened. If g1 H = g2 H, g1 = g2 h for some h 2 H. Then
f (g1 H) = g1 a = g2 h a = g2 a = f (g2 H). Since G is transitive, any element
of can be represented as g a for some g 2 G, so gH is the preimage of that
element. This means that f is surjective. Finally if g1 a = g2 a implies that
g2 1 g1 a = a so g2 1 g1 2 H. Hence f is a bijection and the result follows.
Denition 5 (Group of Symmetries) The group of symmetries of a set
is
sym ( ) = ff : ! : f is bijectiveg
If

is nite (j j = n), then sym ( ) = Sn .

3

If G acts on , we can dene a map f : G ! sym ( ) as f (g) = g , g 2 G,

where g (a) = g a, a 2 . Note that this is well dened since g is indeed
a bijection (with inverse g 1 ). Also note that f is an homomorphism since
g1 g2 = g1 g2 . The kernel of this homomorphism is
ker (f ) = fg 2 G : g a = a for every a 2 g
Denition 6 (Faithful Action) A group G acting on
ever ker (f ) = feg.

is called faithful when-

A group acting faithfully on

is called a permutation group on
ker (f ) = feg implies that G ' Im (f ) sym ( ).

, since

Theorem 6 (Cayley) Every nite group is isomprphic to a subrgoup of Sn

for some n 2 N.
Proof. Consider the action of G over itself by left multiplication. This action
is faithful since ga = a for every a 2 G implies g = e. Then G ' Im (f )
sym (G) = SjGj , where f is the homomorphism dened above.
Lemma 7 For any given g 2 G, the map
Proof. g (xy) = gxyg 1 = gxg
1
lows since ( g ) = g 1 .

gyg

: x ! g x is an isomorphism.

g
1

Corollary 8 If g; x 2 G, then o (x) = o (g x). If H

a subgroup of G isomorphic to H.

(x)

(y). Bijectivity fol-

G, then gHg

= g H is

Denition 7 (Automorphism) An isomorphism f : G ! G is called an automorphism.

Aut (G) = ff 2 sym (G) : f is homomorphismg
This is a subgroup of sym (G).

The conjugation action induces a homomorphism h : G ! Aut (G), h (g) =

where g (a) = g a, a 2 G.

Denition 8 (Inner Automorphism) The Im (h) is called the group of inner

automprphisms of G, and is a subrgoup of Aut (G).
Im (h) = ff 2 Aut (G) : f =

for some g 2 Gg

Denition 9 (Centre) The ker (h) is called the centre of G and denored Z (G).
ker (h) = fg 2 G : ga = ag for all a 2 Gg
Example 5 If G = C3 , since G is abelian Z (G) = G and G has no inner automorphisms di erent from the identity. However, there is another automorphism
dened as i (a) = a2 . In this case Aut (G) ' C2 .
4

Denition 10 (Centralizer) Given a 2 G, the stabilizer stab (a) of G acting

by conjugation is called the centralizer of a.
stab (a) = CG (a) = fg 2 G : ag = gag
Denition 11 (Conjugacy Class) Given a 2 G, the orbit
conjugation is called the conjugacy class.
G

a of G acting by

a = fg a : g 2 Gg

Note that by the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem

G

a = [G : CG (a)]

Example 6 The conjugacy classes of D8 = a; b : a4 = b2 = e; bab = a3 are

feg, a2 , a; a3 , b; ba2 and ba; ba3 .
Remark 1 (Class Equation of G) Since the conjugacy classes are orbits, they
form a partition of G. Then G = C1 [C2 [:::[Ck . Note that if Ci is a conjugact
class with a single element a, then g a = a for all g 2 G implies that a 2 Z (G).
Hence Z (G) = C1 [ ::: [ Cl , where the Cj s are all the conjugacy classes with a
single element. So
k
P
jGj = jZ (G)j +
jCi j
i=l+1

where the Ci s are the conjugacy classes with more than one element.

Proposition 9 Let G be a group of order pk where p is prime and k 2 N. Then

Z (G) 6= feg.
Proof. Suppose jZ (G)j = 1. Since jCi j j jGj for all i, we must have that
jCi j = pki , ki 1. Then by the Class Equation
pk
p p

k
P

i=l+1

ki 1

1+

k
P

pk i

i=l+1

So p j 1, which is impossible. Hence jZ (G)j =

6 1.
Corollary 10 Let G be a group with jGj = p2 , where p is prime. Then G is
abelian.
Proof. Let Z = Z (G). Since Z 6= feg we must have that jZ (G)j = p2
or p. Suppose jZ (G)j = p. Then jG=Z (G)j = p, and so is cyclic. Suppose
G=Z (G) = haZ (G)i for some a 2 G. Let g1 ; g2 2 G. Then g1 Z = an1 Z for
some n1 and so g1 = an1 z1 with z1 2 Z. Similarly g2 = an2 z2 . Thus
g1 g2 = an1 z1 an2 z2 = an2 z2 an1 z1 = g2 g1

This implies that G is abelian and contradicts that jZ (G)j = p. Therefore

jZ (G)j = p2 , and G is abelian.
5

Example 7 (Action: Conjugation of Subgroups) A group G acts on its

subgroups by conjugation in the following way. If H
G, then g H = g H =
1
1
gHg
= ghg : h 2 H . The stabilizer of an element H in this action is
called the normalizer of H in G
NG (H) = g 2 G : gHg

=H

This is a subgroup of G that contains H (clearly, if g 2 H then gHg

Observe that H C NG (H) since gHg 1 = H for all g 2 NG (H).
Remark 2 Let H

= H).

G. Then H C G if and only if NG (H) = G.

Remark 3 Observe that if G H is the orbit of H under the action described

before, the by the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem
G

H = [G : NG (H)]

Example 8 Let G = S4 and A3 = h(123)i. Now NG (A3 ) = S3 . Indeed,

A3 C S3 so S3
NG (A3 ). But now, jNG (A3 )j = jGj = G A3 = 24=4 = 6,
G
because A3 = 4 as can be checked by direct calculation.
Example 9 (Action: Multiplication of Cosets) Let H G and dene =
fxH : x 2 Gg. We dene the action of G on
as g (xH) = gxH. This action is well dened since, if xH = yH then y = xh, for some h 2 H, and so
gy = gxh. This implies that gxH = gyH.

2.1

Conjugacy Classes in Sn

Lemma 11 Let ;

2 Sn with

= (b1 :::bk ). Then

= ( (b1 ) ; :::; (bk )).

Proof. Let = ( (b1 ) ; :::; (bk )). Suppose that (bs ) = bs . Then xes
1
(bs ) because it is in a 1-cycle. But observe that
( (bs )) = (bs ),
1
so
xes (bs ) as well. Suppose that (bi ) = bi+1 . Then ( (bi )) =
1
1
(bi+1 ) and
( (bi )) = (bi+1 ). Hence and
agree on all symbols
1
of the form (bi ). Since is a surjection, it follows that =
.
Proposition 12 Let
same cyclic shape.

2 Sn be. Then

Sn

if and only if

and

have the

Proof. Previous Lemma show that if and are conjugates, they have the
same cyclic shape. Suppose and have the same cyclic shape. Then
=
=

(a1 :::ak1 ) (b1 :::bk2 ) :::

a01 :::a0k1 b01 :::b0k2 :::

Let be the permutation sending a0i to ai , b0i tobi , etc. Then, by last Lemma
= .
6

Proposition 13 Let 2 An and let

exactly one of the following happens:

Sn

be its conjugacy class in Sn . Then,

1.

Sn

= An stays as a single conjugacy class in An if and only if CSn ( )

contains an odd permutation.

2.

= An a[ An 0 splits into two conjugacy classes of equal size if and

only if CSn ( ) An .
Sn

Sn
Proof. It is clear that An
. Suppose that
1
1
Sn
permutation. Let
2 a. If is even,
2
1

=(

) (

2 CSn ( ) is an odd
. If is odd, then

An

An

Because
is even. Therefore Sn = An . Now suppose that CSn ( )
Then CSn ( ) = CAn ( ) and by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem,
Sn

Hence An =
An
a[ An 0 .

1 Sn
2

2 jAn j
jSn j
=
=2
jCSn ( )j
jCAn ( )j

. Take

Sn

An

. So

An

An .

An

1 Sn
2

and

Sn

Example 10 Consider A5 . Obviously, feg remains as one conjugacy class.

The conjugacy class of double transpositions S5 (12) (34) remains as one conjugacy class in A5 since the element (12) (34) commutes with the odd permutation
(12). The conjugact class of three cycles S5 (123) remains as one conjugacy class
in A5 since the element (123) commutes with the odd permutation (45). Finally,
the conjugact class S5 (12345) splits as two conjugacy classes of 12 elements in
A5 since the element (12345) does not commute with any odd permutation. In
this case S5 (12345) = A5 (12345) [ A5 (12354).

Sylows Theorems and Applications

The converse of Lagranges Theorem is not true.

Example 11 jA4 j = 12, 6 j jA4 j but A4 has no subgroup of size 6.
Theorem 14 (Cauchy) Let G be an abelian group. If p is prime and p j jGj
then G has an element of order p.
Proof. The proof is by induction. If jGj = 2, then G is cyclic and contains an
element of order 2. Suppose that the statement is true holds for any abelian
group of order jGj < n. Assume now that G is an abelian group with jGj = n.
Let g 2 G, g 6= e, jgj = k. If p j k, then the element g k=p has order p.
7

Otherwise, suppose p - k. Consider

G
hgi

G=

(Clearly hgi C G because G is abelian). Since p is prime, gcd (p; k) = 1, so

p j G . Observe that G is also abelian and
n
<n
k

G =

Hence, by induction hypothesis, G contains an element of order p, say a hgi 2 G.

r
Let jaj = r. Since the map a 7! a hgi is a sirjective homomorphism, (a hgi) = e,
so p j r. Hence, the element ar=p has order p.
Denition 12 (Commutator of Elements) Let G be a group and x; y 2 G.
Then the commutator of x and y is dened as [x; y] = xyx 1 y 1 .
Proposition 15 Let G be a group with A C G and B C G such that A \ B = feg
and G = AB. Then G ' A B.
Proof. Dene
: A B ! G as (a; b) = ab. This map is clearly well
dened and is also surjective since G = AB. Suppose (a; b) = e. Then
a = b 1 2 A \ B = feg. Hence a = b. Observe that for any a 2 A, b 2 B,
[a; b] = aba

= a

bb

2B

because B C G. Similarly, since A C G,

[a; b] = aba
Hence aba

2A

2 A \ B = feg, and ab = ba for any a 2 A, b 2 B. Now

(a1 a2 ; b1 b2 )

Thus

= a1 a2 b1 b2
= a1 b1 a2 b2
=
(a1 ; b1 ) (a2 ; b2 )

is an isomorphism.

Remark 4 The hypothesis that A C G, B C G can be droped if we can guarantee

that ab = ba for any a 2 A, b 2 B.
Proposition 16 Let G be a group and A; B

G. Then jABj = jAj jBj = jA \ Bj.

Proof. Consider A B. Dene the following equivalence relation for a; a0 2 A

and b; b0 2 B, (a; b) (a0 ; b0 ) if ab = a0 b0 . Clearly, there are jABj equivalence
classes in this equivalence relation. Observe that (a; b)
(a0 ; b0 ) if and only
0
0
1
0
a = ac and b = c b for c 2 A \ B. Indeed, if a = ac and b0 = c 1 b then
(a; b)
(a0 ; b0 ) because a0 b0 = acc 1 b = ab. On the other hand, if (a; b)
8

(a0 ; b0 ), then ab = a0 b0 so a 1 a0 = b (b0 ) = c 2 A \ B. Hence a0 = ac and

b0 = bc 1 . Also, if (a1 ; b1 ) ; (a2 ; b2 ) 2 [(a; b)] (the equivalence class of (a; b)),
then (a1 ; b1 ) = (a2 ; b2 ) if and only if c1 = c2 . Hence each equivalence class has
exactly jA \ Bj elements. Thus
jABj =

jAj jBj
jA \ Bj

Theorem 17 (First Sylow Theorem) Let pk be a prime power and G a nite group such that pk j jGj. Then G has a subgroup of order pk .
Proof. We will use induction on jGj. The statement is trivially true for jGj = 2.
Assume it is true for all groups of size less than m. Let jGj = m. Consider the
class equation of G
k
P
jGj = jZ (G)j +
jCi j
i=l+1

where Ci is a conjugacy class of G with more than one element.

Case 18 (1) Suppose that p j jZ (G)j. Since G is abelian, by Cauchys Theorem

there exists z 2 Z (G) with jzj = p. Clearly hzi C G, so let G = G= hzi. Observe
that
jGj
G =
< jGj
p
and that pk 1 j G . Then, by induction hypothesis, G contains a subgroup H
of size pk 1 . By the Second Isomorphism Theorem, there exists hzi H
G
such that
H = H= hzi
Then jHj = pk and the theorem follows.

Case 19 (2) Suppose that p - jZ (G)j. Therefore, there exists a conjugacy class
Ci = G gi with jCi j > 1 and p - jCi j. By the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem
jCi j =

jGj
jCG (gi )j

Since pk j jGj but p - jCi j, then pk j jCG (gi )j. Also jCG (gi )j < jGj because
jCi j > 1. By induction hypothesis, CG (gi ) has a subgroup of size pk , and so G
does.

Denition 13 (Sylow p-Subgroup) Let p be a prime and pm j jGj but pm+1 jGj. If H is a subgroup of G of size pm , H is called a Sylow p-subgroup.
Proposition 20 Let H; S be subgroups of G, jHj = pk , k 2 N, and S is a Sylow
p-subgroup of G. Then H g S for some g 2 G.
9

Proof. Consider the action of H on G=S = fgS : g 2 Gg by left multiplication.

(Note that since S is not necesarily normal, G=S is not necesarily a group).
Since the orbits O1 ; :::; Or of the action form a partition of G=S,
jG=Sj = jO1 j + ::: + jOr j
Also, by the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem, the jOi j divides jHj = pk for all i. Hence
jOi j = pmi for 0
mi
k. Observe that p - jG=Sj because S is a Sylow psubgroup. Thus, there must exists one orbit of size 1. Let jO1 j = jfgSgj = 1
for g 2 G. Then for any h 2 H, hgS = gS and so hg = gs for some s 2 S. This
implies that h = gsg 1 2 gSg 1 = g S for any h 2 H, and H g S.
Theorem 21 (Second Sylow Theorem) If H
H is contained in a Sylow p-subrgoup.

G, jHj = pm , p prime, then

Proof. Observe that if S is a Sylow p-subgroup of G, then g S is also a Sylow

p-subgroup of G for any g 2 G because jSj = jg Sj. Hence, the Theorem follows
inmediatly from last Proposition.
Theorem 22 (Third Sylow Theorem) The Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugated to each other. Furthermore, if S is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and n is
the number of all Sylow p-subgroups, then
n = [G : NG (S)] and n = 1 mod p
Proof. Let S1 and S2 be two Sylow p-subgroups. Apply Proposition 20 to
observe that S1 g S2 . But jS1 j = jS2 j so S1 = g S2 . In other words, this means
that the Sylow p-subgroups form one orbit under conjugation.
Let = fS F : S is a Sylow p-subgroup of Gg. Consider the action of G
on by conjugation. Then, the action is transtive and by the Orbit-Stabilizer
Theorem
n = j j = jG : NG (S)j
where S 2 . For the last part consider the action of S on by conjugation.
Note that if s 2 S then sSs 1 = S, so fSg is an orbit of size 1.
Claim 1 S has a unique orbit of size 1.
Suppose fP g is another orbit of size 1 of S. Then sP s 1 = P for any s 2 S,
so S NG (P ). It is also clear that P
NG (P ). Since P and S are Sylow psubgroups of G so they are of NG (P ). By the rst part of Third Sylow Theorem
applied to NG (P ), S = hP h 1 for some h 2 NG (P ). Then S = P . The claim
follows.
If O1 = fSg ; O2 ; :::; Or are all the orbits of S then
j j=1+

r
P

i=2

jOi j

Since jOi j j jSj = pk , jOi j =

6 1 then p j jOi j for i = 2; :::; r. Thus n = 1 mod p.
10

Remark 5 S is the unique Sylow p-subrgoup G if and only if S C G.

Proof. If S is unique if and only if 1 = jG : NG (S)j if and only if NG (S) = G
if and only if S C G.
Example 12 Consider A4 . Its Sylow 3-subgroups are h(123)i, h(234)i, h(134)i
and h(124)i. The group of double transpositions V4 is the unique Sylow 2subgroup, and therefore is normal.
Example 13 If jGj = 15 then G is cyclic.
Proof. By the First Sylow Theorem, G has a subgroup A of size 3 and a
subrgoup B of size 5. Let n1 be the number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G and n2
the number of Sylow 5-subgroups of G. Then
n1

n2

jGj
= 5 since A
jAj
jGj
= 3 since A
jBj

jGj
jNG (A)j
jGj
jNG (B)j

NG (A)
NG (A)

Also n1 ; n2 j jGj = 15. So n1 = 1 or 5 and n2 = 1 or 3. But also we must have

n1
n2

= 1 mod 3
= 1 mod 5

So n1 = 1 and n2 = 1. This implies that A C G and B C G by last Remark.

Since A \ B is a subgroup of both A and B, its order must divide jAj and jBj.
Then A \ B = feg. It is also clear that G = AB because
jABj =
By Proposition 15, G = A

jAj jBj
= 15 = jGj
jA \ Bj

B = C3

C5 = C15 .

Example 14 If jGj = 14, then G = C14 or G = D14 .

Proof. By First Sylow Theorem, there exists a subgroup C = hgi of order 7
and a sugroup A = hai of order 2. Since jG : Cj = 2 then C C G. Consider
a
g 2 G. By normality we must have a g 2 C, so a g = g k for some k 2 Z. Since
jaj = 2,
g

=
=

a2

g=

a a

( g) =

(a g) = g k

gk

Hence k 2 = 1 mod 7, so either k = 1 mod 7 or k = 1 mod 7.

Suppose k = 1 mod 7. Then a g = g, this is ag = ga. Note also that AC = G,
A \ C = feg, so by Proposition 15 (see Remark 4), G = A C = C2 C7 = C14 .
Suppose k = 1 mod 7. Then a g = g 1 . So G = hg; ai with g 7 = a2 = e and
aga = g 1 . Hence G = D14 .

11

Semidirect Products

Denition 14 (Semidirect Product) Let A and B be two groups and let B

act on A by automorphisms (there is a homomorphism : B ! Aut (A)). The
semidirect product of A and B with the action , denoted by A o B, is the set
f(a; b) : a 2 A, b 2 Bg
with multiplication
(a1 ; b1 ) (a2 ; b2 ) = a1 'b1 (a2 ) ; b1 b2
Notation 23 Denote by 'b (a) = b a.
Proposition 24 G = A o B is a group.
Proof. The identity element in G is (eA ; eB ). The inverse of (a; b) 2 G is
b 1
a 1 ; b 1 because
(a; b)

;b

=
=

; bb

(eA ; eB )

It remains to check associativity. Let (ai ; bi ) 2 G, i = 1; 2; 3. Then

((a1 ; b1 ) (a2 ; b2 )) (a3 ; b3 )

=
=
=

a1

b1

a1

b1

a1

b1

a2 ; b1 b2
a2

b 1 b2

a2

b2

(a3 ; b3 )

a3 ; (b1 b2 ) b3

a3 ; b1 (b2 b3 )

= (a1 ; b1 ) a2 b2 a3 ; b2 b3
= (a1 ; b1 ) ((a2 ; b2 ) (a3 ; b3 ))

Example 15 If the action of B on A is trivial, then A o B = A

B.

Proposition 25 If G = A o B and
A0
B0

= f(a; eB ) : a 2 Ag
= f(eA ; b) : b 2 Bg

Then B = B0
G, A = A0 C G, A0 \ B0 = f(eA ; eB )g, G = A0 B0 and the
conjugation action of B0 on A0 coincides with the action ' of B on A.
Proof. It is clear that B = B0
G, A = A0 , A0 \ B0 = f(eA ; eB )g and
G = A0 B0 . Consider the second projection homomorphism 2 : G ! B,

12

2 (a; b) = b. Then ker 2 = A0 so A0 C G. For the last part observe that

for any a0 = (a; eB ) 2 A0 , b0 = (eA ; b) 2 B0

b0 a0 b0 1

=
=
=

(eA ; b) (a; eB ) (eA ; b)

( b (a) ; b) eA ; b 1
( b (a) ; eB )

Observe that conjugation is indeed a well dened action of B0 on A0 by automorphisms since a0 ! b0 a0 2 A0 since A0 C G.
Proposition 26 Let G be a group, B G, A C G. Assume that AB = G and
A \ B = feg. Then G = A o' B where ' is the conjugation action of B on A.
Proof. First of all, note that conjugation of B on A is well dened since A C G.
Dene f : A o B ! G as f (a; b) = ab 2 G. Then, f is clearly surjective since
G = AB. Also
f ((a1 ; b1 ) (a2 ; b2 ))

= f a1

b1

a2 ; b1 b2

= a1 b1 a2 b1 1 (b1 b2 )
= a1 b1 a2 b2
= f (a1 ; b1 ) f (a2 ; b2 )
So f is a homomorphism. To prove injectivity, suppose (a; b) 2 ker f . Then
ab = e so a = b 1 2 A \ B = feg and (a; b) = (e; e). Thus, f is an isomorphism.
Example 16 Consider D2n . Consider the subrgoups A = h i = Cn , and B =
h i = C2 . Clearly A C B, A \ B = feg and D2n = AB. Then
D2n = A o B = Cn o C2
where the action of B on A is

for any k 2 Z.

Example 17 Consider S4 . Let V = fe; (12) (34) ; (13) (24) ; (14) (23)g and let
B = stab (4) = S3 . Clearly, V C G because it is the union of conjugacy classes
in S4 . Also V \ B = feg and S4 = V B since jV Bj = 24. Then, by Proposition
26
S4 = V o B = V o S3
where S3 acts on V by conjugation. Note that this action can be seen as the
usual action of S3 on fx = (12) (34) ; y = (13) (24) ; z = (14) (23)g.
Theorem 27 Let p be a prime and G = Cp ::: Cp , where there are k copies
of Cp . Then G = (V; +), where V = Fpk is a vector space and
Aut (G) = Aut (V; +) = GL (V )

13

Proof. It is clear that G = (V; +) because Cp = (Fp ; +), the additive group
of the nite eld of p elements. Also GL (V )
Aut (G) because for any f 2
GL (V ), f (v + w) = f (v) + f (w) for all v; w 2 V . Now let h 2 Aut (G). It
is clear that h (v + w) = h (v) + h (w) for any v; w 2 V . Let 2 Fp . Then
= n mod p with n 2 Z, so
v = v + v + ::: + v (n times)
Thus h ( v) = h (nv) = nh (v) = h (v). Since h is also invertible, h 2 GL (V ).
Corollary 28 Aut (Cp ) = Fp .
Proof. Take k = 1 in last Theorem. Observe that GL (Fp ) = Fp .
Example 18 Aut (C5 ) = F5 = f1; 2; 3; 4g.
Proposition 29 There are 5 groups of order 20.
Proof. Let G be a group of size 20. If G is abelian then G = C20 or G =
C2 C2 C5 . Suppose now that G is non-abelian. By Sylow 1, G has a
subgroup A = hai of size 5. The total number of Sylow 5-subgroups is
jG : NG (A)j = n j 20
Since A NG (A) we have that n jG : Aj = 4. Also, by Sylow 3, n = 1 mod 5.
Hence n = 1, i.e. A C G. Similarly,G has a subgroup B of size 4. Observe
that A \ B = feg because hcf (jAj ; jBj) = 1, and G = AB because jABj =
jAjjBj
jA\Bj = 20. Then by Proposition 26, G = A o' B. It remains to determine all
possible actions of B on A. By Previous Corollary, Aut (A) = C4 with generator
f 2 Aut (A), f ak = a2k (note that f 4 = id).
Case 30 B = C2 C2 and ' : C2 C2 ! C4 = Aut (A). We know that '
is not trivial, because otherwise G = A B is abelian. Since B 2 = feg, then
Im ' has exponent two. So Im ' = f 2 = C2 . Choose b1 ; b2 2 B such that
' (b2 ) = f 2 and b1 2 ker '. Now, b2 2
= hb1 i so B = hb1 i hb2 i. The action of '
is the following for any a 2 A
b1

a = a;

b2

a = f 2 (a) = a

Hence G = D20 = C10 o'0 C2 where C10 = ha; b1 i with generator ab1 and
1
b2
(ab1 ) = a 1 b1 = (ab1 ) .
Case 31 B = hbi = C4 and ' : C4 ! C4 . Again ' is not trivial.
i) Suppose Im ' = C4 = hf i. Without loss of generality, suppose ' (b) = f .
1 x
Then ' is determined uniquely as b a = a2 and G =
: x; y 2 GF (5) , y 6= 0 .
0 y
ii) Suppose Im ' = C2 =
di erent group.

f 2 . Then b a = a

. This case determines a

Thus, there are precisely 3 non-abelian groups of order 20.

14

Composition Series

Denition 15 (Simple Group) A group G is called simple if the only normal

subgroups of G are feg and G.
Example 19 The groups Cp for p prime are simple. The groups An for n 5,
and the group of permutations of the Fano plane, P SL (3; 2), are also simple.
Denition 16 (Composition Series) Let G be a nite group. A composition
series for G is a sequence of subgroups
feg = Gk C ::: C G2 C G1 = G
such that Gi+1 6= Gi , and Gi =Gi+1 is simple for any i = 1; :::; k 1. The length
k 1
of the composition series is k 1 and the quotients fGi =Gi+1 gi=1 are called the
composition factors of the series.
Example 20 1 C K = fe; (12) (23)g C V C A4 C S4 where V is the subgroup
of double transpositions. Observe that
A4
V
H
S4
= C2 ;
= C3 ;
= C2 ,
= C2
A4
V
H
1
The composition factors are C2 , C3 , C2 and C2 .
Proposition 32 Any nite group has a composition series.
Proof. Use induction on jGj. It is true for jGj = 1; 2; 3. Suppose the statement
is true for all groups of size up to n. Let jGj = n + 1. If G is simple, then
1 C G is a composition series. If G is not simple, there exists N C G, N 6= G; 1.
Clearly, jN j < jGj so by induction hypothesis N has a composition series
1 = Nk C ::: C N2 C N1 = N

Also, jG=N j < jGj, so G=N has a composition series

1 = Gl C ::: C G2 C G1 = G=N

By the Second Isomorphism Theorem

Gi

= Gi =N for some N Gi G
Gi+1 C Gi means Gi+1 C Gi

Since Gl = 1, Gl = N . Consider the following series

1 = Nk C ::: C N2 C N = Gl C ::: C G2 C G1 = G
Where Ni =Ni+1 is simple and
Gi =Gi+1 =

Gi =N
Gi
=
is simple
Gi+1 =N
Gi+1

15

Remark 6 If N C G then G has a composition series with a member equal to

N . Also the composition factors of that series are the union of the composition
factors of a series for G=N together with a series for N .
Theorem 33 (Third Isomorphism Theorem) Let G be a group, A
N C G. Then AN = N A is a subgroup of G. Also N \ A C A and

G,

NA
A
=
N \A
N

Proof. Take a 2 A, n 2 N . Then an = ana 1 a = a na 2 N A. So clearly we

can get AN = N A. To show that AN G, observe that e 2 AN and
(a1 n1 ) (a2 n2 )

= a1 n1 n2 1 a2 2 AN N A = AN A = AAN = AN

Let f : A ! AN=N dened as f (a) = aN for any a 2 A. We know that : G !

G=N , (g) = gN , is a homomorphism, so f = jA is also a homomorphism.
Observe that
Im f
ker f

= faN : a 2 Ag = AN=N
= fa 2 A : aN = N g = A \ N

Hence, by the First Isomorphism Theorem

AN
A
=
N \A
N
Theorem 34 (Jordan-Holder) Any two composition series for a nite group
have the same length and same composition factors up to reordering.
Proof. Use induction on jGj. For jGj = 1; 2; 3 is clear. Assume the Theorem is
true for all groups of size up to n. Let jGj = n + 1. Take two composition series
for G
1) 1 = Gs C ::: C G2 C G1 = G
2) 1 = Hl C ::: C H2 C H1 = G
s

Case 35 If G2 = H2 then fGi gi=2 and fHi gi=2 are two composition series for
s 1
G2 = H2 . Hence, by induction hypothesis s 2 = l 2 and fGi =Gi+1 gi=2 and
l 1
fHi =Hi+1 gi=2 up to permutation. Then s = l and add G=G2 = G=H2 to the
colection. The Theorem follows.
Case 36 Suppose G2 6= H2 .
Claim 2 G2 H2 = G
Proof. Either G2 * H2 or H2 * G2 . Assume H2 * G2 . Then G2 ( G2 H2 .
By the Third Isomorphism Theorem G2 H2
G. Also G2 H2 C G (since for
any g 2 G, g (G2 H2 ) = g G2 g H2 = G2 H2 because G2 C G and H2 C G). If
G2 H2 6= G, then G2 H2 =G2 is a non-trivial proper normal subgroup of G=G2
by the Second Isomorphism Theorem. But G=G2 is presumed simple. This is a
contradicion. Hence G2 H2 = G.
16

Let K = G2 \ H2 , K C G (since g K = g G2 \ g H2 = G2 \ H2 = K). Let

3) 1 = Kt C ::: C K2 C K1 = K
be a composition series for K. Since K C G2 and K C H2 ,
4) 1
5) 1

= Kt C ::: C K C G2 C G
= Kt C ::: C K C H2 C G

Are also composition series for G because by the Third Isomorphism Theorem
G2 =K

H2 =K

G2
G 2 H2
= G=H2 is simple
=
G2 \ H 2
H2
G 2 H2
H2
= G=G2 is simple
=
G2 \ H 2
G2

( )

Observe that series 1) and 4) have both second factor G2 . By Case 1, it follows that s = t and the composition factors of 1) and 4) are the same up to
permutation. Similarly for 2) and 5) we have that l = t and they have the same
composition factors up to permutation. Hence s = l. By ( ), G2 =K = G=H2
and H2 =K = G=G2 . Then the series 4) and 5) have the same composition
factors and thus, the series 1) and 2) have the same composition factors.

Example 21 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetics) Let G = Cn = hai.

Then suppose n = p1 p2 :::pk = q1 q2 :::ql for some primes pi , qj . For i =
2; 3; :::; k + 1 let Gi = hap1 :::pi 1 i, G1 = G. For j = 2; 3; :::; l + 1 let Hj =
haq1 :::qj 1 i, H1 = G. Then
1 = Gk+1 C ::: C G2 C G1 = G
1 = Hk+1 C ::: C H2 C H1 = G
where
Gi =Gi+1 = Cpi and Hi =Hi+1 = Cqi
The above are two composition series for G. Hence, by Jordan-Holder Theorem,
k = l and p1 ; :::; pk must be a permutation of q1 ; :::; ql .
Denition 17 (Soluble) A nite group G is called soluble if it has only abelian
composition factors (i.e. cyclic groups of prime order).
Example 22 1 C A3 C S3 where A3 =1 = C3 and S3 =A3 = S2 . Then S3 is
soluble. By a previous example, S4 is also soluble.
Example 23 Any abelian group is soluble.
Example 24 The group S5 is not soluble because it has composition factors C2
and A5 , but A5 is not abelian.
17

Proposition 37 If G is a group with N C G, then the composition factors

of G comprise the union of the composition factors of N and G=N (counted
repetitions).
Proof. It follows from Proposition 32.
Corollary 38 Let N C G. Then N and G=N are soluble if and only if G is
soluble.

5.1

Derived Series

Proposition 39 Let S G. Suppose g S = S for any g 2 G (i.e. S is a union

of conjugacy classes). Then hSi C G.
Proof. Let x 2 hSi and g 2 G. Then x = s1 :::sk , k 2 N, si 2 S [ S 1 . Then
g
x = g s1 :::g sk where g si 2 g S[ g S 1 . Since g S = S, g x 2 hSi. Hence hSi C G.
Denition 18 (Derived Group) Let G be a group. The derived subgroup of
G, denoted G0 is the subgroup generated by all commutators of G
G0 = h[x; y] : x; y 2 Gi
Since S = f[x; y] : x; y 2 Gg is invariant under conjugation (g S = S for any
g 2 G), it follows from Proposition 39 that G0 C G.
Example 25 Obviously, G is an abelian group if and only if G0 = feg.
Example 26 Let G = S4 . If x; y 2 S4 then [x; y] = xyx 1 y 1 = (x y) y 1 is
always an even permutation, so G0 A4 . Now if ; ; are 3 distinct elements
of f1; 2; 3; 4g, [( ) ; ( )] = ( ) ( ) = (
). Then G0 contains a 3-cycle.
Since the 3-cycles generate A4 we have that G0 = A4 . In general, Sn0 = An .
Lemma 40 If N C G then G=N is abelian if and only if G0
is the largest abelian image of G.

N . Hence, G=G0

Proof. Take aN; bN 2 G=N . Observe that

[aN; bN ]

= (aN ) (bN ) a
= aba

1 1

b N = [a; b] N

Now, G0
N if and only if [a; b] N = N if and only if G=N is abelian. The
Lemma follows.
Corollary 41 G=G0 is abelian.

18

Denition 19 (Derived Series) The derived series G(i)

G(1) = G, G(2) = G0 and G(k+1) = G(k)

1
i=1

of G is dened

for k = 1; 2; :::

Example 27 For G = S4 we know that G(1) = S4 , G(2) = A4 . We will

show that G(3) = A04 = V = fe; (12) (34) ; (13) (24) ; (14) (23)g. Observe that
V . Note that for any double
An =V = C2 so by Lemma 40 we have that A04
transposition ( ) ( ) = [(
);(
)], so V
A04 . Finally, G(4) = V 0 = feg
because V is abelian.
Theorem 42 A nite group G is soluble if and only if G(k) = feg for some k.
k

Proof. Assume G is soluble. Let fGi gi=1 be a composition series for G, where
Gi+1 C Gi , Gi =Gi+1 is a cyclic group of prime order, G1 = G and Gk = feg.
We will show by induction that G(i) Gi . For i = 1, G(1) = G = G1 . Assume
it is true for i = j. Let i = j + 1. Since Gj =Gj+1 is abelian, by Lemma
40 G0j
Gj+1 . It is easy to see that for any groups A
B we have that
0
0
(j)
(j+1)
A
B . By assumption we have that G
Gj , so G
= G(j)0
G0j .
(j+1)
(k)
(k)
Hence G
Gj+1 . In particular, G
Gk = feg, so G = feg.
Now assume that G(k) = feg for some k. We will prove by inducion on k
that G is soluble. If k = 1, G = feg and if k = 2, G(2) = feg, so G is abelian
and hence soluble. Assume the statement is true fo k = n. Let k = n + 1 and
suppose G(n+1) = feg. Let H = G(2) = G0 . Note that H (i) = G(i+1) for all i,
so H (n) = feg. By induction hypothesis H is soluble. But H C G is soluble
and G=H is abelian, hence soluble. Thus, by Corollary 38 G is soluble.
Remark 7 This formulation of soluble groups works for innite goups too.
Proposition 43 Let H

G. If G is soluble then H is soluble.

Proof. By Theorem 42, G(k) = feg for some k. Observe that H (i) G(i) for
all i 2 N because H G implies H 0 G0 . Then H (k) = feg and H is soluble.
Theorem 44 (Burnside) If jGj = pn q m for some primes p and q, then G is
soluble.
Theorem 45 (P. Hall) If jGj is not divisible by a square di erent than 1, then
G is soluble.

Nilpotent Groups

Denition 20 (Commutator of Subrgoups) If A and B are subgroups of

G then
[A; B] = h[a; b] : a 2 A, b 2 Bi
Observe that [A; B] = [B; A] since [a; b]

19

= [b; a].

Remark 8 If A C G, B C G then [A; B] C G.

Proof. Let S = f[a; b] : a 2 A, b 2 Bg. For any g 2 G, g [a; b] = [g a;g b] 2 S, so
g
S S. Since jg Sj = jSj we must have that g S = S. Hence hSi = [A; B] C G
by Proposition 39.
Example 28 Let A = S3 and B = A3 . Clearly [S3 ; A3 ] A3 because [a; b] =
(a b) b 2 A3 for any a 2 S3 , b 2 A3 . Now [(12) ; (123)] = (123) 2 [S3 ; A3 ]. Hence
A3 = h(123)i [S3 ; A3 ]. This shows that [S3 ; A3 ] = A3 .
Denition 21 (Lower Central Series) The lower central series of a group
G is dened as follows
(G) = G
0
2 (G) = [G; G] = G
i+1 (G) = [ i (G) ; G] for i 2 N
1

Example 29 The lower central series of S3 is

(S3 ) = S3
2 (S3 ) = A3
3 (S3 ) = [A3 ; S3 ] = A3
k (S3 ) = A3 for any k
1

3:

Example 30 Let Q8 = f 1; i; j; kg, the group of units in the quaternions.

The product rules are ij = ji = k, jk = kj = i, ki = ik = j. We will
show that Q08 = f 1g. Since Z (Q8 ) = f 1g = Z C Q8 , Q8 =Z is group of
2
size 4 and hence abelian. Then Q08 Z by Lemma 40. Now 1 = k 2 = (ij) =
ij ( i) ( j) = [i; j] 2 Q08 so Z Q08 . Therefore Z = Q08 .
(1)

Example 31 The derived series for Q8 is: Q8

Z 0 = feg. The lower central series for Q8 is:
3 (Q8 ) = [Z; Q8 ] = feg.

(2)

(3)

= Q8 , Q8 = Z, Q8 =
1 (Q8 ) = Q8 ,
2 (Q8 ) = Z,

Denition 22 (Nilpotent Group) We say that a group G is nilpotent if

feg for some k 2 N.

(G) =

Example 32 S3 is not a nilpotent group but Q8 is. All abelian groups are
nilpotent because 2 (G) = feg.

Proposition 46 G(k)
is soluble.

(G) for any k 2 N. In particular, a nilpotent group

Proof. We will use induction on k. If k = 1, G(1) = 1 (G) = G. Suppose

G(i)
A1 and B
B1 we have that [A; B]
i (G). Observe that if A
[A1 ; B1 ]. Then
h
i
G(i+1) = G(i)0 = G(i) ; G(i)
[
[

(G) ; i (G)]
i (G) ; G] = i+1 (G)

20

In particular, if G is nilpotent then

Hence G is soluble.

(G) = feg for some k, so G(k) = feg.

Denition 23 (Central Series) A series of subgroups

feg = Gk < ::: < G2 < G1 = G
such that Gi C G and
Gi
Gi+1

Z (G=Gi+1 ) for i = 1; :::; k

is called a central series for G.

Remark 9 The condition
Gi
Gi+1

Z (G=Gi+1 ) for i = 1; :::; k

in the central series si equivalent to [Gi ; G]

Gi+1 .

Proof. Observe that [Gi ; G] Gi+1 if and only if [xGi+1 ; yGi+1 ] = [x; y] Gi+1 =
Gi+1 for any x 2 Gi , y 2 G, if and only if Gi =Gi+1 Z (G=Gi+1 ).
Proposition 47 A group G is nilpotent if and only if G has a central series.
Proof. Suppose that G is nilpotent, so k (G) = feg for some k 2 N. Take
Gi = i (G). We are going to show that i (G) C G using induction on i. For
i = 1, 1 (G) = G is clear. If i (G) C G then i+1 (G) = [ i (G) ; G] C G
(because, if A C G and B C G then [A; B] C G). Also, Gi =Gi+1 Z (G=Gi+1 )
because [Gi ; G] = [ i (G) ; G] = i+1 (G) = Gi+1 and the previous Remark
applies. Hence G has a central series.
k
Conversely, suppose that G has a central series fGi gi=1 . We will show that
Gi for i = 1; :::; k. By induction, if i = 1, 1 (G) = G = G1 . Assume
i (G)
that i (G) Gi . Then i+1 (G) = [ i (G) ; G] [Gi ; G] Gi+1 by the previous
Remark. This completes the induction. In particular, k (G)
Gk = feg, so
k (G) = feg and hence G is nilpotent.
Remark 10 Suppose : G ! H is a homomorphism of groups. If A; B
G
then ([A; B]) = [ (A) ; (B)]. Indeed, ([A; B]) = (h[a; b] : a 2 A, b 2 Bi).
Observe that if S G, then (hSi) = h (S)i (because (s1 :::sn ) = (s1 ) ::: (sn )).
Then ([A; B]) = h [a; b]i = h[ (a) ; (b)]i = h[x; y] : x 2 (A) , y 2 (B)i =
[ (A) ; (B)].
Denition 24 (p-Group) A p-group is a group of size pk where p is a prime
and k 2 N.
Proposition 48 A p-group is nilpotent.

21

Proof. Let G be a p-group. Dene Zi G as follows: Z1 = feg, Z2 = Z (G),

1
Zi =
(Z (G=Zi 1 )) under the map : G ! G=Zi 1 . Observe that
Zi =Zi

= (Zi ) =

(Z (G=Zi

1 ))

= Z (G=Zi

1)

Clearly, Z1 ; Z2 C G. Suppose Zi 1 C G. We know that Zi =Zi 1 = Z (G=Zi 1 )

is normal in G=Zi 1 . Then Zi C G by the Second Isomporphism Theorem.
Hence, by induction Zi C G for all i 2 N. Let z 2 Zi 1 . Then zZi 1 =
1
Zi 1 2 Z (G=Zi 1 ) so z 2
(Z (G=Zi 1 )) = Zi . Hence Zi 1 Zi . In fact, if
Zi 1 6= G, Zi 1 6= Zi because Zi =Zi 1 = Z (G=Zi 1 ) 6= feg by Proposition 9.
We have constructed a central series for G, so G is nilpotent by Proposition 47.
Lemma 49 Let : G ! H be a homomorphism of groups. Then
i ( (G)) for any i 2 N.

(G)) =

Proof. We will use induction on i. For i = 1 it is clear. Suppose it is true for

i = j. Then
j+1

(G)

(G) ; G

(G) ; (G)

=
=

( (G)) ; (G)
j+1 ( (G))
j

The Lemma follows.

Proposition 50 A quotient G=N with N C G, or a subrgoup H
G of a
nilpotent group is nilpotent. Further, if A and B are nilpotent groups then so is
A B.
Proof. Consider the surjective homomorphism
: G ! G=N dened as
(g) = gN . If G is nilpotent then k (G) = feg so ( k (G)) = k ( (G)) =
G
k (G=N ) = feg by Lemma 49. Hence G=N is nilpotent. To show that H
we can easily show using induction that i (H)
(G).
Then
if
(G)
=
feg,
i
k
k (H) = feg.
For the last part just observe that i (A B) = i (A)
i (B).
Remark 11 It is not ture that if N C G and G=N are nilpotent then G is nilpotent. For example, A3 = C3 and S3 =A3 = C2 are abelian and hence nilpotent,
but S3 is not nilpotent.
Example 33 Let n 2 be an integer. Let Fq be a nite eld with q elements.
Let
Un (Fq ) = f(aij ) 2 M atn (Fq ) : aii = 1; aij = 0 for i > jg
For example,

80
9
1
< 1 x y
=
U3 (Fq ) = @ 0 1 z A : x; y; z 2 Fq
:
;
0 0 1
22

Note that jUn (Fq )j = q 2 , where n2 is the number of elements above the
diagonal. In particular, Un (Fq ) is a p-group because q is a prime power, so
Un (Fq ) is nilpotent. It is possible to show that if G is a p-group for some prime
p, then there exists n 2 N such that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Un (Fp ).
Denition 25 (Maximal Subgroup) A maximal subgroup of a group G is a
subgroup H < G such that if H M G, then H = M or M = G.
Lemma 51 Let G be a nilpotent nite group.
(a) If H < G then H < NG (H).
(b) The maximal subgroups of G are normal and have index a prime number
in G.
(c) The Sylow subgroups of G are normal in G. (i.e. for any prime p, G has a
unique Sylow p-subgroup).
(d) If G 6= feg then Z (G) 6= feg.
Proof.
(a) Suppose H < G. Take l to be the smallest positive integer such that
H (this l must exist because k (G) = feg for some k). Also
l (G)
l 6= 1 since H 6= G. Now l 1 (G) H but l 1 (G) NG (H). Indeed,
take g 2 l 1 (G) and h 2 H. Then
g

h=

hh

h = [g; h] h

Now [g; h] 2
H. Therefore g h = [g; h] h 2
l 1 (G) ; G =
l (G)
H and l 1 (G)
NG (H). Obviously, H
NG (H) so H l 1 (G)
NG (H). Since l 1 (G)
H, we have that H
H l 1 (G). Therefore
H NG (H).
(b) Let M < G be a maximal subgroup. By part (a), M
NG (M ), so
NG (M ) = G by maximality. This implies that M C G. Let G = G=M .
Observe that this group has no subgroups except feg and G. Take x 2 G,
x 6= e, so hxi = G. If o (x) = ab, for a; b 6= 1, then hxa i =
6 hxi = G and
hxa i =
6 feg. This contradicts that G has no non-trivial proper subrgoups.
Hence o (x) is prime and G = jG : M j is prime.
(c) Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Let H = NG (P ). Suppose H 6= G.
By part (a), NG (H) 6= H. We will show that NG (H) = H, which is a
contradiction, so H = G and P C G. Take g 2 NG (H). Then g H = H.
g
Observe that since P H, g P
H = H, so P and g P are two Sylow psubgroups of H. By the Third Sylow Theorem, P and g P are conjugated in
H, this is P = h (g P ) = hg P for some h 2 H. Therefore hg 2 NG (P ) = H,
which implies that g 2 H. Thus NG (H) = H.
23

(d) Since G is nilpotent, choose k 2 N such that k (G) = feg but k 1 (G) 6=
feg. Then k 1 (G) ; G = k (G) = feg, so k 1 (G)
Z (G). This
shows that Z (G) 6= feg.

Example 34 Observe that Z (S3 ) = feg, so S3 is not nilpotent by part (d) of

the previous Lemma.
Example 35 The group Q8

U3 (F7 ) is nilpotent.

Theorem 52 A nite group is nilpotent if and only if it is isomorphic to the

direct product of its Sylow subgroups.
Proof. Suppose G = P1 ::: Pk where Pi is a pi -group for all i, pi prime.
By Proposition 48, the groups Pi are nilpotent, and by Proposition 50 G is
nilpotent.
Suppose G is nilpotent and let jGj = pn1 1 :::pnk k where the pi s are distinct
primes, ni 2 N. Let Pi be the unique Sylow pi -subgroup of G (See part (c) of
previous Lemma). For i = 1; :::; k, let Ti = P1 :::Pi . We will prove by induction
that Ti C G and that Ti = P1 ::: Pi . For i = 1 this is true because P1 C G.
Suppose it is true for i = j. Then Tj+1 = Tj Pj+1 . Since Tj C G and Pj+1 C G
we have that Tj+1 C G. Because
jTj j = jP1 j ::: jPj j
n
= pn1 1 :::pj j
n

j+1
because Tj = P1 :::Pj , and jPj+1 j = pj+1
, we can see that gcd (jTj j ; jPj+1 j) =
1, so Tj \ Pj+1 = feg. This shows that Tj+1 = Tj Pj+1 . Induction follows. In
particular,
Tk = P1 ::: Pk

So jTk j = jGj and Tk = G. The Theorem follows.

Corollary 53 A nite group is nilpotent if and only if it is the direct product
of various p-groups (maybe several di erent primes p).
Example 36 Suppose G is nilpotent and jGj = 100. We claim that G must be
abelian. Observe that jGj = 22 52 , so, by previous Theorem, G = P1 P2
where jP1 j = 22 and jP2 j = 52 . By Corollary 10, P1 and P2 are abelian. Hence
P1 2 fC4 ; C2 C2 g and P2 2 fC25 ; C5 C5 g, so there are just four abelian
possibilities for G.

24

The Frattini Subgroups

Denition 26 (Frattini Subgroup) Let G be any group. The Frattini subgroup (G) is the intersection of all maximal subgroups of G.
Remark 12 For any g 2 G,
g

( (G)) =g (\M ) = \ g M =

(G)

since g M is maximal in G if and only if M is maximal in G.

Theorem 54 Let G be a p-group with p prime. Then
(G) = h[x; y] ; z p : x; y; z 2 Gi = G0 Gp
Proof. Since G is a p-group it is nilpotent. By Lemma 51, part (b), we know
that if M is maximal in G, M C G and G=M = Cp , for p prime. Then G0 M
p
since G=M is abelian. Take z 2 G. Now (zM ) = M , so z p 2 M for any z 2 G.
Thus G0 Gp M for all maximal subrgoups of G. Hence G0 Gp
(G).
For the reverse inclusion, consider G = G=G0 Gp (note that G0 Gp C G because G0 C G and Gp C G). Observe that
G = Cp

:::

Cp
p

because G is abelian (as G0 G0 Gp , Lemma 40) and (zG0 Gp ) = G0 Gp for all

z 2 G. Suppose there are d 2 N copies of Cp in the decomposition of G. For
each i = 1; :::; d, dene
M i = Cp

:::

feg

:::

Cp

T
Now M i is a maximal subgroup of G because G : M i = p. Also M i =
feg. By the Second Isomorphism Theorem, M i = Mi =G0 Gp , where Mi is a
subgroup of G containing G0 Gp . Furthermore, jG : Mi j = G : M i = p, so Mi
T
T
is maximalTfor all i.TSince M i = feg, we know that Mi = G0 Gp . Thus
(G) =
M
Mi = G 0 G p .
M m ax

Corollary 55 If G is a p-group, with p prime, then

G= (G) = Cp

:::

Cp

Example 37 If G is an abelian p-group, G0 = feg, so

p
fz p : z 2 Gg (as z1p z2p = (z1 z2 ) ).

(G) = Gp = hz p : z 2 Gi =

Example 38 Let G = U3 (Fp ). Note that jGj = p3 and

20
1 0
13 0
1 x 0
1 0 0
1
4@ 0 1 0 A ; @ 0 1 z A5 = @ 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
0
25

that
1
0 xz
1 0 A
0 1

Dene

Then Y

G0

80
< 1
Y = @ 0
:
0

9
1
0 y
=
1 0 A : y 2 Fp
;
0 1

(G). Consider the map f : G ! Fp

0
1
1 x y
f @ 0 1 z A = (x; z)
0 0 1

Fp dened as

An easy calculation shows that f is a surjective homomorphism where ker (f ) =

Y . Therefore G=Y = Fp Fp is abelian, G0
Y and so G0 = Y . Let g 2 G
p
and consider gY 2 G=Y = Fp Fp . Since (gY ) = Y , we have that g p 2 Y for
all g 2 G. Thus Gp Y and (G) = Y .
Lemma 56 Let G be a group and H

G. If G = H (G) then H = G.

Proof. Suppose H 6= G. Then there exists a maximal subgroup M of G such

that H
M . As (G)
M , we have that G = H (G)
M . This is a
contradiction. Therefore H = G.
Remark 13 If S is a subset of G such that G= (G) is generated by fs (G) : s 2 Sg
(i.e. the image of S in G= (G) generates it) then G = hSi. To see this let
H = hSi. Now
G= (G) = hs (G) : s 2 Si if and only if G = H (G)
By Lemma 56, H = G.
Proposition 57 Let G be a p-group, p prime, and G= (G) = Cp ::: Cp
where there are d cyclic groups on the right hand side. Then d is the minimal
size for a generating set of G.
Proof. Select d elements g1 ; :::; gd of G such that their images in G= (G)
generate it. By the previous Remark we have that hg1 ; :::; gd i = G. Suppose
that hg1 ; :::; gs i = G for s < d. Then g1 (G) ; :::; gs (G) generate G= (G).
This is a contradiction because G= (G) = Cp ::: Cp cannot be generated by
less than d elements. This shows that d is minimal.
Theorem 58 (Frattini) If G is a nite group then

(G) is nilpotent.

Proof (Sketch). Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of (G). Must show that

P C (G) (in fact P C G). The Frattini Argument says that G = (G) NG (P ),
so G = NG (P ) by the previous Lemma.56. (To prove the Frattini Argument,
let g 2 G. Now g P; P are two Sylow subgroups of (G), hence P = hg P for
some h 2 (G). Thus hg 2 NG (P )).

26

Permutation Groups

Recall that G is a permutation on

faithfully on .

if G

Sym ( ), or equivantely, it G acts

Denition 27 (Degree) The degree of the permutation group on

is just j j.

Example 39 The same group can act in many di erent ways on di erent sets
. For example, A5 acts by even permutations on the set f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g but also
acts as the rotations of the regular dodecahedron or a regular icosahedron (12
vertices, 20 faces, 30 edges). The group S4 acts by permutations on f1; 2; 3; 4g
but also acts by rotation on the four main diagonals of a cube. The group D12
acts on the vertices of a regular hexagon but also acts on the 3 diagonals of the
hexagon. The group S5 acts by permutations on f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g but also acts by
permutations on the Petersen graph.

8.1

k-Transitive Actions

Denition 28 (k-transitive) Let G be a group acting on . Let k 2 N.

We say that G is k-transitive if given any two k-tuples (a1 ; :::; ak ) 2 k and
(b1 ; :::; bk ) 2 k , ai 6= aj , bi 6= bj for i 6= j, then there exists g 2 G such that
g ai = bi for i = 1; :::; k. If k = 1 we simply say that the action is transitive.
Example 40 Sn acting on f1; :::; ng is n-transitive.
Proposition 59 An acting on f1; :::; ng is (n
transitive.

2)-transitive but not (n

1)-

Proof. Let (a1 ; :::; an 2 ), (b1 ; :::; bn 2 ) be two n 2-tuples of distinct elements.
We know there is
2 Sn such that (ai ) = bi , i = 1; :::; n 2. If
2 An
we are done. If 2
= An , then dene 0 =
(an 1 an ) where fan 1 ; an g =
f1; :::; ngnfa1 ; :::; an 2 g. Now 0 2 An since is odd. Then 0 (ai ) = (ai ) = bi
for i = 1; :::; n 2.
Example 41 Consider A5 as rotations of icosahedron. The action of A5 on
the 12 vertices is transitive but not 2-transitive.
Theorem 60 The only 6-transitive nite groups are Sn (n
acting on f1; :::; ng.

6) and An (n

8)

Proof. Ommited.
Example 42 The nite geometry with 7 points and 7 lines shown in the next
gure is called the Fano plane.

27

Let be the group of automorphisms of the Fano plane (permutations of vertices

1,2,...,7 which send lines to lines). We are going to show that is transitive on
the set of vertices of the plane. Observe that the following permutations are in
:
Klein four group on f1; 2; 6; 7g : (17) (26) ; (16) (27) (12) (67)
Klein four group on f2; 3; 4; 7g : (27) (34) ; (23) (74) ; (24) (37)
Klein four group on f4; 5; 6; 7g : (67) (45) ; (65) (47) ; (64) (75)
(For example, the permutation (17) (26) sends the line f3; 6; 7g to the line f1; 2; 3g,
etc). Each Klein four group is transitive in its set of points. Hence, note that
the sets f1; 2; 6; 7g, f2; 3; 4; 7g and f4; 5; 6; 7g are in the same orbit of because
7 is a common element. Hence all the vertices are in the same orbit and
is transitive. Now, by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem j j = 7 jStab (1)j. Let
H = Stab (1). Now H acts on f2; 3; :::; 7g, and this action is also transitive
because the sets f2; 3; 4; 7g and f4; 5; 6; 7g are in the same orbit under H. Again
by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem, jHj = 6 jStabH (2)j. Clearly, L := StabH (2) =
Stab (1) \ Stab (2). The action of L on the vertices must x 3 because it
must send lines into lines. Hence L acts on f4; 5; 6; 7g. By inspection we can
see that L = fe; (67) (45) ; (65) (47) ; (64) (75)g (so L is the Klein four group on
f4; 5; 6; 7g). Therefore j j = 7 6 4 = 168.
Lemma 61 Let G be transitive on
and let a 2 , k 2 N. Then G is ktransitive if and only if StabG (a) is (k 1)-transitive on n fag.
Proof. Assume G is k-transitive on . Let H = StabG (a). Let (x1 ; :::; xk 1 )
and (y1 ; :::; yk 1 ) be two (k 1)-tuples of distinct elements of n fag. Then
(a; x1 ; :::; xk 1 ) and (a; y1 ; :::; yk 1 ) are two k-tuples of distinct elements, so
there exists g 2 G such that g a = a and g xi = yi for all i. In particular,
g 2 H, so H is (k 1)-transitive.
Conversely, assume that H is (k 1)-transitive on n fag. Dene an equivalence relation on k ,
(a1 ; :::; ak ) (b1 ; :::; bk )

28

if there is g 2 G such that g ai = bi for all i. Let (x1 ; :::; xk ), (y1 ; :::; yk ) 2 k ,
with xi 6= xj and yi 6= yj . Since G is transitive, there exist g; g 0 2 G suh that
g x1 = a and g 0 y1 = a. Observe that
g

(x1 ; x2 ; :::; xk )
(y1 ; y2 ; :::; yk )

g0

(a; gx2 ; :::; gxk )

(a; g 0 y2 :::; g 0 yk )

Hence (gx2 ; :::; gxk ) and (g 0 y2 ; :::; g 0 yk ) are two distinct (k 1)-tuples of distinct
elements from nfag (it is not possible that gxi = a = gx1 ). Since H is (k 1)transitive on n fag, there exists h 2 H such that h (gxi ) = g 0 yi for all i and
h a = a (since H = StabG (a)). Therefore
(a; gx2 ; :::; gxk )
Since

(a; g 0 y2 :::; g 0 yk )

is an equivalence relation,
(x1 ; x2 ; :::; xk )

This implies that G is k-transitive on

(y1 ; y2 ; :::; yk )
.

Example 43 The group of automorphisms of the Fano plane

because H = Stab (1) is transitive on f2; 3; :::; 7g.

8.2

is 2-transitive

Equivalent Acions

Denition 29 (Equivalent Actions) Let G1 be a group acting on 1 and let

G2 be a group acting on 2 . Two actions are equivalent whenever there exists
an isomorphism i : G1 ! G2 and a bijection f : 1 ! 2 such that, for any
g 2 G1 , ! 2 1 ,we have
f (g !) = i (g) f (!)
In this case, we say that the map f is an equivalence of actions.
In particular if G1 = G2 we can take i as the identity map, so the condition
of equivalence of actions becomes f (g !) = g f (!).
Example 44 Let G = Cn act on 1 = Cn by left multiplication and on 2 =
fvertices of regular n-gong by rotations. These two actions are equivalent. For
example, let n = 3, C3 = hai, 1 = e; a; a2 . Then a acts as the premutation
e; a; a2 on 1 and a2 acts as the permutation e; a2 ; a on 1 . Let 2 =
fv0 ; v1 ; v2 g be the vertices of a regular triangle. Then a acts as a 120 rotation.
Dene f : 1 ! 2 as f (e) = v0 , f (a) = v1 and f a2 = v2 . It is easy to
check that this is an equivalence of actions.
Example 45 The action of A5 on the 12 vertices of the regular icosahedron is
equivalent to the action of A5 on the 12 cosets of its subgroup C5 .
29

Theorem 62 (Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem Revisted) Let G be a group acting transitively on . Let a 2 and H = StabG (a). Then the action of G on
is equivalent to the action of G on G=H = fgH : g 2 Gg by left multiplication.
Proof. Let 0 = G=H and dene f : 0 ! by f (xH) = x a 2 . Observe
that xH = yH if and only if y 1 x 2 H if and only if x a = y a, so f is
well-dened and injective. Also, f is surjective because G is transitive on . To
show that f is an equivalence of actions, let xH 2 0 , g 2 G. Then,
f (g xH)

=
=
=
=

f (gxH)
gx a
g (x a)
g f (xH)

The Theorem follows.

8.3

The Projective Space

Let F be a eld. Let GLn (F ) be the General Linear Group; this is, group
of n n non-singular matrices with entries in F , or equivalently, the group
of bijective linear transformations T : F n ! F n . Observe that V = F n is a
n-dimensional vector space over F . Then GLn (F ) acts on V by denition.
Denition 30 (Projective Space) The projective space P (V ) = P n
is te collection of all one dimensional subspaces of V = F n .
Notation 63 If v 2 V write [v] = f v :
f[v] : v 2 V n f0gg.

2 F g. With this notation P n

(F )

(F ) =

Example 46 P 1 (R) is the collection of all lines passing through the origin in
the plane R2 .
Now GLn (F ) acts on P n 1 (F ) as follows. Let g 2 GLn (F ), [v] 2 P n 1 (F ),
then g [v] = [g v]. This is well dened because if [v] = [v 0 ] then v 0 = v for
some 2 F n f0g and then g v 0 = g v = (g v), so [g v] = [g v 0 ].
Proposition 64 Let n 2. Consider the group homomorphism
Aut P n 1 (F ) . Let Z be the set of scalar matrices,
Z = f In :

: GLn (F ) !

2 F n f0gg

Then Z = ker .
Proof. Clearly, Z ker because z [v] = [v] for any [v] 2 P n 1 (F ). To show
the reverse inclusion, let g 2 ker . Then g [v] = [v] for all [v] 2 P n 1 (F ). Take
v1 ; v2 to be two linearly independent vectors of V = F n . Since g [v1 ] = [v1 ] and
g [v2 ] = [v2 ] we have that gv1 = 1 v1 and gv2 = 2 v2 for some 1 ; 2 2 F n f0g.
30

Also g [v1 + v2 ] = [v1 + v2 ], so g (v1 + v2 ) = v1 + v2 for 2 F n f0g. Hence

v1 + v2 , so
= 1 = 2 because v1 and v2 are linearly
1 v1 + 2 v2 =
independent. Now we can extend v1 ; v2 to a basis v1 ; :::; vn for V and repeat
the process for the rest of the elements (v1 and v3 , v1 and v4 , etc.) This shows
that g = In 2 Z. Therefore Z = ker .
Denition 31 (Projective General Linear Group) The projective general
linear group is P GLn (F ) = GLn (F ) =Z with Z = ker .
The group P GLn (V ) acts faithfully on P n

(F ) by

gZ [v] = [gv]
for any gZ 2 P GLn (F ), [v] 2 P n

(F ).

Example 47 Let n = 3 and F2 = f0; 1g. In this case Z = fI3 g so P GL3 (F2 ) =
GL3 (F2 ). The projective space P 2 (F2 ) is the set of non-zero vectors in V = F23 .
In this case, [v] = fv; 0g for v 2 V n f0g. Dene e1 = [(1; 0; 0)], e2 = [(0; 1; 0)]
and e3 = [(0; 0; 1)]. We can identify the vertices of the Fano plane with the
elements of P 2 (F2 ) in this way:
1
4
6

e1 , 2 e1 + e2 , 3 e2
e2 + e3 , 5 e3 ,
e1 + e3 , 7 e1 + e2 + e3

The group P GL3 (F2 ) is isomorphic to a subgroup of the group of automorphisms

of the Fano plane . However, jP GL3 (F2 )j = jGL2 (F2 )j = 168 = j j. Hence
P GL3 (F2 ) = .
Proposition 65 Let F be a eld.
(a) For n

2 the action of P GLn (F ) on P n

(F ) is 2-transitive.

(b) The action of P GL2 (F ) on P (F ) is 3-transitive.

(c) If n > 2, then P GLn (F ) is not 3-transitive on P n

(F ).

Proof.
(a) Let e1 ; e2 be two linearly independent elements of F n . Consider ([e1 ] ; [e2 ])
and ([x1 ] ; [x2 ]) where [x1 ] 6= [x2 ]. This previous condition implies that
x1 and x2 are also linearly independent. Dene g 2 P GLn (F ) to be the
linear thansformation sending ge1 = x1 and ge2 = x2 . This implies that
the action is two transitive.
(b) Let e1 ; e2 be a basis for F 2 . We will show that the triad ([e1 ] ; [e2 ] ; [e1 + e2 ])
can be sent to any other triad ([a] ; [b] ; [c]) of distinct elements. Since
[a] 6= [b], a; b are also a basis for F 2 so c = a + b. Moreover, and
are non-zero because [c] is distinct from [a], [b]. Dene g 2 P GLn (F )
as the linear thansformation sending ge1 = a and ge2 = b. Then
g (e1 + e2 ) = ge1 + ge2 = a + b = c. This shows that the action is
3-transitive.
31

(c) The vector space V = F n has at least 3 vectors linearly independent because
n 3, say e1 ; e2 ; e3 . Consider
([e1 ] ; [e2 ] ; [e1 + e2 ])
([e1 ] ; [e2 ] ; [e3 ])
There is no linear transformation that sends the rst triple to the second
because
dim Span fe1 ; e2 ; e1 + e2 g =
dim Span fe1 ; e2 ; e3 g =

2
3

And linear transformations preserve dimensions.

Denition 32 (Mbius Transformation) Let F be a eld. Dene the action

of GL2 (F ) on F [ f1g by
8 az+b
< cz+d for z 6= 1; dc
a b
a
z=
if z = 1
c d
: c
1
if z = dc

When F = C, the map z 7!

az + b
is called the Mbius transformation.
cz + d

Proposition 66 The action of G = GL2 (F ) on P 1 (F ) is equivalent to the

action of G on F [ f1g by Mobius transformations.
Proof. Let f : F [ f1g ! P 1 (F ) be dened for z 2 F [ f1g as
8
z
>
>
if z 6= 1
<
1
f (z) =
1
>
>
if z = 1
:
0

It is easy to check that f is a bijection. Take z 6= 1; d=c, and g =

a b
c d

GL2 (F ). Then
g f (z)

=
=
=

a b
c d

z
1

az + b
cz + d
az+b
cz+d

= f (g z)
When z = 1 or
of actions.

d=c the calculation is similar. Therefore f is an equivalence

32

8.4

Primitive and Imprimitive Actions

Denition 33 (Trivial Partition) A partition of a set

either all parts have size 1 or if there is only one part.

is called trivial if

Denition 34 (Imprimitive Action) Let G act transitively on . The action is called imprimitive if there exists a non-trivial partition = B1 [ ::: [ Bk
such that G preserves the partition, i.e. gBi 2 fB1 ; :::; Bk g for all i and g 2 G.
The parts B1 ; :::; Bk are called blocks of the imprimitivity.
Let be an equivalence relation on where G acts on . We say that is
non-trivial if the partition given by the equivalence classes of
is non-trivial.
We say that G preserves
is x y implies gx gy for any x; y 2 , g 2 G.
With this new notation, we can also say that the action of G on is imprimitive
if G preserves some non-trivial equivalence relation on .
Example 48 Consider the group GLn (F ) acting on F n n f0g when n > 1 and
jF j > 2. Say v
w if [v] = [w]. This is a non-trivial equivalence relation
preserved by GLn (F ). Hence the action is imprimitive in this case.
Denition 35 (Primitive Action) Let G act transitively on
is called primitive if it is not imprimitive.
Lemma 67 Any 2-transitive action of G on

. The action

is primitive.

Proof. Suppose G is imprimitive, so G preserves a non-trivial partition B1 ; :::; Bk

of . Take any part, say B1 with jB1 j > 1. Take x 6= y elements of B1 . Since
k > 1, B1 6= we can choose z 2 n B1 . Consider the pairs (x; y) and (x; z).
Because G is 2-transitive there exists g 2 G such that gx = x and gy = y. The
partition is preserved so gB1 must be one of B1 ; :::; Bk . As x 2 gB1 , we must
have that gB1 = B1 . However, z 2 gB1 but z 2
= B1 . This is a contradiction.
Therefore the action is primitive.
Example 49 Consider GLn (F ) acting on P n 1 (F ). This action is always
primitive. If n = 1, P n 1 (F ) = 1 so there are no non-trivial partitions. If
n 2, by Lemma 65, the action is 2-transitive and hence primitive.
Proposition 68 Let p be a prime. If j j = p.and G acts transitively on
then the action is primitive.

Proof. Suppose the action is imprimitive and let B1 ; :::; Bk be the blocks of
imprimitivity. Observe that jgB1 j = jB1 j for any g 2 G. Since G is transitive,
fgB1 : g 2 Gg = fB1 ; :::; Bk g
Hence jB1 j = jBi j for all i, so
= k jB1 j = p. This implies that k = 1 or
jB1 j = 1, contradicting that the partition is non-trivial. Therefore the action is
primitive.
33

Example 50 Consider G = h(12:::p)i acting on f1; 2; :::; pg, with p prime.

Clearly G is transitive, so by previous Proposition the action is primitive. Observe that G is not 2-transitive if p > 2 (for example, we cannot send 1 ! 1
and 2 ! 3 at the same time).
Theorem 69 Let G be a group acting transitively on . Let a 2 . Then G
acts primitively on if and only if StabG (a) is a maximal subgroup of G.
Proof. Let H = StabG (a). Suppose H is maximal. For sake of contradiction
assume G is imprimitive. Let B1 ; :::; Bk be the blocks of imprimitivity. Without
loss of generality, assume a 2 B1 . Since G is transitive, jB1 j = jBi j for all i (see
the proof of the previous Proposition). Dene
M = fg 2 G : gB1 = B1 g
Claim 3 H M G
Proof. Obviously, M
G. As jB1 j > 1, take y 2 B1 , y 6= a. Since G is
transitive there exists g 2 G such that ga = y. Now y 2 B1 \ gB1 , so B1 = gB1 .
Hence g 2 M and this shows that M is non-empty. Observe that ga 6= a, so
g2
= H, H 6= M . Let h 2 H. Note that a 2 hB1 \ B1 so hB1 = B1 . Therefore
h 2 M , so H
M . Finally, since B1 6= , let z 2 n B1 , and take g 0 2 G
0
such that g a = z. Clearly z 2 g 0 B1 but z 2
= B1 , so B1 6= g 0 B1 . Thus g 0 2
= M,
M G. This proves the claim.
The claim contradicts that H is maximal. Hence G is primitive.
To show the converse, suppose G is primitive on . Suppose H is not
maximal. Then H
M
G for some group M . We are going to dene an
equivalence relation on
preserved by G. Let g1 ; g2 2 G. Say g1 a
g2 a if
g1 M = g2 M (this denes indeed a relation in all
because G is transitive).
The relation is reexive because if g1 a = g2 a, then g1 1 g10 2 H < M so g1 M =
g10 M . Symmetry and transitive are easy to check. To prove that the relation
is preserved by G, suppose g1 a
g2 a, g1 ; g2 2 G. Then g1 M = g2 M and
gg1 M = gg2 M for any g 2 G. Therefore g (g1 a) g (g2 a) for any g 2 G. To
prove that the relation is non-trivial, take m 2 M n H. As M = mM , ma a
but ma 6= a. Therefore, the equivalence class of a has at least 2 elements. Now
take g 2 GnM . Then M 6= gM so a ga. Thus, there are at least 2 equivalence
classes.
This contradict that G is primitive and the Theorem follows.
Proposition 70 Let G be a group acting on . Let a 2 . Then StabG (g a) =
g
StabG (a) for any g 2 G.
1

xg a = a i

Proposition 71 Let G be a nilpotent group acting primitively on

is prime.

. Then j j

Proof. Let x 2 G. Then x 2 StabG (g a) i xg a = g a if g

g 1 xg 2 StabG (a) i x 2 gStabG (a) g 1 = g StabG (a).

34

Proof. Let a 2
and H = StabG (a). By Theorem 69, H is a maximal
subrgoup of G because the action is primitive and by Lemma 51, H C G and
jG : Hj = p a prime, because G is nilpotent. By the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem
j j = jG : Hj = p (as G is transitive).
Remark 14 The nilpotent primitive permutation groups consist of just Cp , with
p prime, acting in the obvious way by cycles of length p on f1; :::; pg. To show
this let H = StabG (a). As G is transitive, the stabilisers of all elements in
are of the form g H, g 2 G. However, H C G by the proof of the previous
Proposition, so g H = H for all g 2 G. This implies that H is the kernel of the
action of G on . Observe that G=H = Cp because jG : Hj = p is prime. If
G is a permutation group, it acts faithfully (its kernel is trivial, H = feg), so
G = G=H = Cp .
Denition 36 (Regular) A permutation group G acting transitively on
is
called regular (or simply transitive) if StabG (a) = feg for some (and hence for
all) a 2 .
Example 51 The group Cn = h(12:::n)i acting on f1; 2; :::; ng is regular for
any n 2 N.
Example 52 The Klein four group V = fe; (12) (34) ; (13) (24) ; (14) (23)g acting on f1; 2; 3; 4g is regular.
Example 53 Any group G acting on itself by left multiplication is regular. Note
that by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem Revisted, the action of a regular group G
is equivalent to its action on G= feg = G by left multiplication. So this example
in fact consists of all possible examples (up to equivalence).
Remark 15 From the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem follows that if G is regular,
j j = jG : StabG (a)j = jGj
Theorem 72 Let G be a permutation group on . Suppose G has a regular
and normal subgroup N . Let a 2 and H = StabG (a). Then
G=No H
where is the conjugation action of H on N . This action of H on N is equivalent to the action of H on .
Proof. Consider H \ N = StabN (a) = feg since N is regular on . By the
Second Isomorphism Theorem, N H G since N C G. If j j = 1, G = feg and
everything is trivial. Assume j j > 1, so j j = jN j > 1 as N is regular. Hence
jN Hj =

jN j jHj
= jN j jHj > H
jN \ Hj

Hence H N H. We are going to show that G = N H. Let g 2 G. Then, as N

is transitive, there exists n 2 N such that g a = n a. Therfore n 1 g 2 H and
35

so g 2 N H. Since g was arbitrary, G = N H. By Proposition 26, G = N o H

where the action of H on N is conjugation.
It remains to show that the actions of H on N and on
are equivalent.
Let f : N !
be dened as f (n) = n a, n 2 N . If n1 a = n2 a, then
n2 1 n1 2 H \ N = feg, so n2 = n1 . Since j j = jN j, this is a bijection. Now,
for any h 2 H, n 2 N ,
f hnh

= hnh

= hn a, since h
= h f (n)

2 H = StabG (a)

Thus f is an equivalence of actions.

Example 54 Let G = S4 acting on f1; 2; 3; 4g. Observe that V is a regular
normal subgroup of G. Let H = Stab (4) = S3 . By previous Theorem we know
that S4 = V o' S3 , where S3 acts by conjugation on V , and this is equivalent
to the action of S3 on f1; 2; 3; 4g. Indeed, S3 on V xes e and permutes the
other 3 elements in the natural way of S3 . Similarly, S3 on f1; 2; 3; 4g xes 4
and permutes the other 3 elements in the natural way of S3 .
Theorem 73 Let G be a primitive permutation group on . Suppose N 6= feg
is a normal subgroup of G. Then N must be transitive on .
Proof. Let O1 ; :::; Ok be the orbits of N on . Suppose N is not transitive, so
k > 1. Let n 2 N n feg. As G is faithful, there exists x 2 such that n x 6= x.
Then x and nx are two distinct elements of the same orbit of N on . This
implies that O1 ; :::; Ok is a non-trivial partition of . We are going to show that
this partition is preserved by G.
Suppose Oi is the orbit of x 2 under N . Take any g 2 G, and suppose Oj
is the orbit of gx under N . Then,
gOi

=
=
=
=

fgn x : n 2 N g
fg n gx : n 2 N g
fn gx : n 2 N g since g N = N
Oj

This shows that G preserves a non-trivial partition of , which is a contradiction

because G is primitive. Therefore, N is transitive.

36