ANATOMY

1.

ANATOMICAL POSITION & REGIONS OF ABDOMEN

define, significance
line that divide the abdomen in 9 regions

Answer:
Anatomical Position:
The person is
body erect
upper limbs by the sides
face and palms of the hands direct forward
Significance:
The anatomical position is of importance in anatomy because it is the position of reference for anatomical nomenclature. Anatomical terms
such as anterior and posterior, medial and lateral and so on apply to the body when it is in the anatomical position.
Abdominal Regions
The abdomen can be divided into nine arbitrary regions by the subcostal and transtubercular planes and the two midclavicular planes
projected onto the surface of the body.
Vertical Lines
Two paramedian planes
which are projected from the midclavicular line (also sometimes called the lateral or the mammary line)
passes through the midpoint of the clavicle, crosses the costal margin just lateral to the tip of the ninth costal cartilage, and passes
through a point mid way between the anterior superior iliac spine and the symphysis pubis.
Horizontal Lines
Subcostal plane
is a line joining the lowest point of the costal margins, formed by the tenth costal cartilage on each side
it usually lies at the level of the body of the third lumbar vertebra, the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery from the aorta, and
the third part of the duodenum, although this varies with posture
Transtubercular plane
joins the tubercles of the iliac crests and usually lies at the level of the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra near its upper border
it indicates, or is just above, the confluence of the common iliac veins and marks the origin of the inferior vena cava.
Nine Regions formed:
1. epigastrium
2. right hypochondrium
3. left hypochondrium
4. central or umbilical
5. right lumbar
6. left lumbar
7. hypogastrium or suprapubic
8. right iliac fossa
9. left iliac fossa
Importance of the regions:

used in practice for descriptive localization of the position of a mass or the localization of a patients pain

used in the description of the location of the abdominal viscera

2.

SKULL
-

Middle Cranial fossa

Posterior Cranial fossa
- foramina
- 2 structure passing through it

Answer:
Posterior Cranial Fossa

Structure

Hypoglossal Canal

Hypoglossal nerve (XII)

Internal acoustic meatus

Facial nerve (VII)

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Labyrinthine artery

External opening of vestibular aqueduct

Endolymphatic duct

Mastiod foramen (inconstant)

Emissary vein (and occasional branch of occipital artery

Condylar canal

Emissary vein
Meningeal branch of ascending pharyngeal artery

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Middle Cranial Fossa

Optic canal

Structure
Optic nerve (II)
Opthalmic artery

Superior Orbital fissure

Oculomotor nerve (III)

Trochlear nerve (IV)
Lacrimal, frontal, & nasociliary branches of ophthalmic nerve (V1)
Abducent nerve (VI)
Superior ophthalmic vein

Foramen Rotundum

Maxillary nerve (V2)

Foramen Ovale

Mandibular nerve (V3)

Accessory meningeal artery
Lesser petrosal nerve (occasionally)

Foramen lacerum

Greater petrosal nerve

Jugular foramen

Inferior petrosal sinus

3.

FONTANELLES (median fontanelles)

shape
Location/bones involved
closure
clinical importance

Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)

Answer:
FONTANELLE
unossified membranous intervals at the margins of the cranial bones in the infant.
Median fontanelles (anterior & posterior fontanelle) are most important clinically.
Shape
Location/bone involved
Closure

Anterior fontanelles
Diamond
Lies between the frontal bone in front and the two
parietal bone behind
The fibrous membrane forming the floor of this
fontanelle is replace by bone and is closed by 18
months of age

Posterior fontanelles
Triangular
Lies between the two parietal bone in front and the
occipital bone behind
By the end of the 1st year, the fontanelle is usually
close and can no longer be palpated

Clinical Significance:
Palpation of the fontanelles enables the physician to determine the progress of growth in the surrounding bones, the degree of
hydration of the baby (e.g. if the fontanelles are depressed below the surface, the baby is dehydrated), and the state of the
intracranial pressure (a bulging fontanelle indicates raised intracranial pressure).
Samples of cerebrospinal fluid can be obtained by passing a long needle obliquely through the anterior fontanelle into the
subarachnoid space or even into the lateral ventricle.
Clinically, it is usually not possible to palpate the anterior fontanelle after 18 months, because the frontal and parietal bones have
enlarged to close the gaps.
4.

KNEE JOINT
type/classification
participating structure
ligaments
movements

5.

HIP & SHOULDER JOINT

participating structure
stability
factors stabilizing (ligaments)

Answers 4 & 5:
STABILITY OF A JOINT depends on 3 factors:
1. shape, size, and arrangement of the articular surfaces
2. the ligaments
3. tone of the muscles around the joint
KNEE JOINT
the largest synovial joint in the body.
Articulation:
above rounded condyles of the femur
below condyles of the tibia and their cartilaginous menisci
front between the lower end of the femur and the patella
* the articular surfaces of the femur, tibia and patella are covered by hyaline cartilage.
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Classification: Diarthroses ( movable joints)

Type/variety: hinge joint joint between the femur & tibia
gliding joint joint between the patella and femur
Ligaments:
Extracapsular Ligaments
Ligamentum patellae
is attached above to the lower border of the patella and below to the tuberosity of the tibia
continuation of the quadriceps femoris tendon inferior to the patella
Fibular (lateral) collateral ligament
cord-like and is attached superiorly to the lateral femoral epicondyle just above the groove for the popliteus tendon and
inferiorly to the depression on the lateral surface of the fibular head.
Tibial collateral ligament
broad and flat band, and is attached superiorly to the medial femoral epicondyle just inferior to the adductor tubercle
and descends anteriorly to attach to the medial margin and medial surface of the tibia above and behind the attachment
of sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus tendons.
It is firmly attached to the edge of the medial meniscus.
Oblique popliteal ligament
a tendinous expansion derived from the semimembranous muscle
strengthens the posterior aspect of the capsule
Intracapsular Ligaments
*Cruciate ligament
main band between the femur & tibia troughout the joints range of movement
Anterior cruciate ligament
attaches to a facet on the anterior part of the intercondylar area of the tibia and ascends posteriorly to attach to a facet
at the back of the lateral wall of the intercondylar fossa of the femur
crosses lateral to the posterior cruciate ligament as they pass through the intercondylar region
prevents posterior displacement of the femur on the tibia
prevents the tibia from being pulled anteriorly (during flexion)
Posterior cruciate ligament
attaches to the posterior aspect of the intercondylar area of the tibia and ascends anteriorly to attach to the medial wall
of the intercondylar fossa of the femur
prevents anterior displacement of the femur on the tibia
prevent the tibia dfrom being pulled posteriorly (during flexion)
*Menisci
are fibrocartilaginous C-shaped cartilages, in the knee joint, one medial (medial meniscus) and the other lateral (lateral
meniscus)
Both are attached at each end to facets in the intercondylar region of the tibial plateau.
are interconnected anteriorly by a transverse ligament of the knee.
medial meniscus
is attached around its margin to the capsule of the joint and to the tibial collateral ligament whereas the lateral
meniscus is unattached to the capsule
lateral meniscus
connected to the tendon of the popliteus muscle, which passes superolaterally between this meniscus and the
capsule to insert on the femur.
is more mobile than the medial meniscus.
Movement:
Flexion
produced by bicep femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles, assisted by the gracilis, sartorius, and popliteus
muscles
limited by the contact of the posterior of the leg with the thigh.
Extension
produced by quadriceps femoris
limited by the tension of all the major ligaments of the joints
Medial rotation -produced by sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus muscle
Lateral rotation - produced by bicep femoris

The stability of the knee joint depends on the tone of the strong muscles acting on the joint and the strength of the ligaments.
HIP JOINT
Articulation: between the spherical head of the femur and the lunate surface of the acetabulum of the pelvic bone
Classification: Diarthroses ( movable joints)
Type: synovial ball-and-socket joint - designed for stability and weightbearing at the expense of mobility
Ligaments:
Iliofemoral ligament
is anterior to the hip joint and is a strong, inverted Y-shaped ligament
its apex is attached to the ilium between the anterior inferior iliac spine and the margin of the acetabulum
its base is attached along the intertrochanteric line of the femur
prevents overextension during standing
Pubofemoral ligament
is anteroinferior to the hip joint and is triangular in shape
its base attached medially to the iliopubic eminence, adjacent bone, and obturator membrane
its apex attached inferiorly to the lower part of the intertrochanteric line of the femur
limits extension and abduction
Ischiofemoral ligament
sphiral shaped
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attached medially to the ischium, just posteroinferior to the acetabulum, and laterally to the greater trochanter deep to the
iliofemoral ligament.
limits extension
Transverse acetabular ligament
formed inferiorly by the acetabular labrum as it bridges the acetabular notch
converts the notch into a foramen through which the blood vessels and nerves enter the joint
Ligament of the head of the femur
flat band of delicate connective tissue and triangular in shape
attaches at one end to the fovea on the head of the femur and at the other end to the acetabular fossa, transverse
acetabular ligament, and margins of the acetabular notch
Movement:
Flexion performed by the iliopsoas, rectus femoris, and sartorius and also by the adductor muscles
Extension performed by the gluteus maximus and the hamstring muscles
Abduction performed by the gluteus medius and minimus, assisted by the sartorius, tensor fasciae latae, and piriformis
Adduction performed by the adductor longus & brevis and the adductor fibers of the adductor magnus, assisted by the pectineus
and
gracilis
Lateral rotation performed by the periformis, obturator internus and externus and quadratus femoris, assisted by gluteus maximus
Medial rotation performed by the anterior fibers of gluteus medius and minimus and the tensor fasciae latae
Circumduction combination of the previous movements

The extensor group of muscles is more powerful than flexor group, and the lateral rotators are more powerful than medial rotators.
-

SHOULDER JOINT
Articulation: between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Classification: Diarthroses (movable joints)
Type: synovial ball-and-socket joint - provided at the cost of skeletal stability
Ligaments:
Glenohumeral ligaments (superior, middle, inferior)
anterosuperiorly between the superomedial margin of the glenoid cavity to the lesser tubercle and inferiorly related
anatomical neck of the humerus
strengthen the front of the cupsule
Coracohumeral ligament
superiorly between the base of the coracoid process and the greater tubercle of the humerus
strengthens the capsule and bridges the gap between the two tuberosity
Transverse humeral ligament
between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus
this holds the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle in the intertubercular sulcus
strengthens the capsule above and stretches from the root of the coracoid process to the greater tuberosity of the humerus
Movement:
Flexion & Extension
Abduction & Adduction
Lateral & Medial rotation
Circumduction
JOINT STABILITY:
provided by surrounding muscle tendons (rotator cuff muscles) and a skeletal arch formed superiorly by the coracoid process and
acromion and the coraco-acromial ligament
tendons of the rotator cuff muscles (the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis muscles) blend with the joint
capsule and form a musculotendinous collar that surrounds the posterior, superior, and anterior aspects of the glenohumeral joint.
This cuff of muscles stabilizes and holds the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity of the scapula without compromising the
arm's flexibility and range of motion.
6.

ATYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

differentiation
level

Answer:
First cervical vertebrae (Atlas)
ring-shaped view from above
no body and spinous process
has anterior & posterior arches
has lateral mass on each side with articular surfaces:
upper - articulation with the occipital condyles (atlanto-occipital joint)
lower - articulate with the axis (atlanto-axial joint)
superior articular surfaces are bean shaped and concave
inferior articular surfaces are almost circular and flat.
Second cervical vertebrae (Axis)
has dens peg-like odontoid process that projects from the superior surface of the body (representing the body of the atlas that has
fused with the body of the axis
Seventh cervical vertebrae (Vertebrae prominens)
longest spinous process & not bifid
large transverse process but small transverse foramen
transmits vertebral veins only

HISTOLOGY
7.
st

MEIOSIS

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what is?
Importance
stages of phrophase I

Answer:
MEIOSIS
occurs only in the development of ova and spermatozoa (sex cells)
two successive divisions and 1 replication of the chromosomes
1st Divison / Reduction - members of each homologous pair separates & go to opposite poles thus reducing the # of
chromosomes
in daughter cells by
2nd Division / Equational - genetic material is equally distributed
- results in 4 daughter cells are haploid number of chromosomes
final product are daughter cells with haploid number of chromosomes (23 chromosome per cell)
Importance:

Ensures constancy of chromosome number from generation to generation by producing haploid male & female gametes

Creates genetic diversity by crossing over of chromosomes

- randomness distribution of the homologues to the daughter nuclei during 1st division
Stages of the Prophase I
a. Leptotene
- chromosomes become visible in nucleus
b. Zygotene
- homologous chromosomes begin to come together in close lateral opposition
- Synapsis occur = pairing of chromosomes
- tetrad formation
c. Pachytene
- chromosomes coil becoming shorter & thicker
- homologous chromosomes may give erroneous impression they are single chromosome due to very close apposition
d. Diplotene
- chromosomes separate along their length & each of them has replicated & is double-stranded
- each chromosome pair consists of 4 chromatids
- crossing over of homologous chromosomes occurs in the chiasmata = site of segment interchange
- fragments recombine resulting to exchange of segments
e. Diakinesis
- shortening & thickening of chromosomes continues
- chromosomes tend to clump together in the center of nucleus
- nucleolus fragments & later disappears
8.

EPITHELIAL SURFACE SPECIALIZATION

function
location
organ found

Answer:
Functional Surfaces of Epithelial Cells (simple - all 3; stratified - 1&2 only)
I. Free Surface
Non-motile processes - Microvilli
Location/organ found
1. Striated border

(GIT) Lining epithelium of small & large intestines

2. Brush border

(kidney) Proximal tubule

3. Stereocilia

pseudostratified columnar epithelium of Ductus

epididymis

4. Sensory hairs

Sensory organs - organ of corti

Function
- Absorption
- increase both the digestive & absorptive
efficiency of the epithelium by greatly amplifying
the area of membrane exposed to nutrients in
the intestinal lumen
Absorption
- Absorption
- provide increased surface which contributes to
the efficiency of the epithelium in concentrating
the seminal plasma during its passage
throughout the epididymal duct
Sensory reception

Motile processes
Cilia

Lining epithelium of the respiratory tract

Flagella

With lumen - Renal tubules, ducts of some glands,

rete testis, non-ciliated cells of the uterine epithelium

Condensed border
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- transport of fluid or a film of mucus over the

surface of an epithelium
- agitation of the fluid in the lumen of these
organs

No lumen - anterior lobe of the hypophysis, cells of

islets of Langerhans of the pancreas, amacrine cells
of the retina

- vestigial flagellum projects into the intercellular

clefts or into the connective tissue stroma
- abortive flagella - smooth muscle cells &
stromal cells of the endometrium

transitional epithelium of urinary system

- prevents entry of hypotonic fluid on epithelial

cells

II. Lateral Surface

A. Junctional complex
1. Zonula occludens / Tight Junction
- appears as fusiform dark spots on each lateral boundary that functions primarily as permeability barrier
2. Zonula adherens
- band-like specialization of the membrane & subjacent cytoplasm that encircles the apex of adjoining cells
- strongly bondsthe cells together
3. Macula adherens / Desmosomes
- do not form a continuous band encircling the cell apex
- bipartite structures consisting of a subplasmalemmal dense plaque on the cytoplasmic side of the opposing
membranes
- functions as a site of cell attachment and contribute the structural stability of the epithelium
- calcium-dependent
B. Nexus / Gap Junction / Communication Junction
- permit spread of excitation from 1 cell to the next
- region of intimate cell contact that is undetected with the light microscope
- permits passage of small molecules between cells, coordinating the activities of an epithelium
- calcium-dependent
CELL ADHESION MOLECULES OR INTEGRINS (ICAMs)
- play a role in:
1. mutual recognition & aggregation of cells of the same type during embryonic development
2. Epithelial cell cohesion & attachment to substrate in postnatal life
- prerequisite for the development of other cohesion devices because specific blocking of their function prevents formation of
the
junctional
- ssential for cell migration during tissue repair
III. Basal Surface
Basement Membrane
serves assupporting structure of the epithelial cells
serves as a passive molecular seive or ultrafilter
Ruffled Border
are applications or infoldings of the cell membrane which participates in water metabolism
9.

BONE VS CARTILAGE
BROWN FAT VS WHITE FAT
Answer:
SIMILARITIES

Cartilage

Bone

1. Outer covering - dense fibrous tissue

Perichondrium

Periosteum

2. Cells lodged in lacuna

Chondrocytes

Osteocytes

3. CT fibers in the matrix

Type-II collagen fibers

Type-I collagen fibers

DIFFERENCES

Cartilage

Bone

1. Cell arrangement

Tend to form cell families

Occur singly or arranged in definite pattern

2. Blood supply

Avascular

Vascular

3. Growth mechanism

either appositional or interstitial

appositional

4. canalicular system

Absent

Present

5. Mechanism of nutrition

Via diffusion through matrix

Through canalicular system

6. Matrix

- solid but pliable due to organic compounds

- solid & rigid due to inorganic constituents

- more flexible
White fat
Color
Distribution
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Colorless to yellow
(fat deposit: carotenoids)
Widely distributed

Brown fat
Brown to reddish brown
(vascularity &mitochondria: cytochrome)
Localized to specific areas

Vascularity
Effect of fat saturation
Fat droplets
Biochemical roles
Precursor

Less vascular

Highly vascular

Easily lost

Not lost

Unilocular - will unite or coalesce

Multilocular - do not unite or coalesce

Storage of fat, insulator, secondary fat

formation
Fusiform cell

Heat production, primary fat formation

Epitheloid cell

10. OSSIFICATION
endochondral ossification in metaphysic
Answer:
11. AXON VS. DENDRITES
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
Answer:
Axon
Number
Length
Size & shape
Branching
Presence of Nissl bodies
Contour/outline

One in each neuron

Longer
Small, cylindrical
Occurs at right angles
Absent
Smooth and uniform

Sheath/bundles

Sheath is present and may form bundles

CNS: fiber tracts
PNS: nerves
Cellulifugal (away from the cell body)

Direction of impulse production

Serous
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Size of lumen it surrounds
Intercellular Canaliculi
Secretion produced
Staining
Examples

Dendrites
Multiple
Shorter
Big, broad base with tapering ends
Occurs at acute angles
Present
Rough due to gemmules (point of contact for
synapsis)
Sheath is absent and does not form bundles
Cellulipetal (towards the cell body)
Mucous

round

flat

granular

reticulated

small

large

present

absent

watery

mucoid/slimy

acidophilic

basophilic

parotid gland, pancreas, serous

gland of Von Ebner

deep esophageal gland

pyloric gland

PHYSIOLOGY
12. CELL MOVEMENT (ameboid movement)
define
elaborate
Answer:
Ameboid Movement
is the movement of an entire cell in relation to its surroundings
initiated by the process of chemotaxis, results from the appearance of certain chemotactic substance in the tissue
Mechanism of Ameboid Movement :
-

begins with protrusion of pseudopodium from one end of the cell

attachment of the pseudopodium to the surrounding tissues becomes fixed in its leading position
effected by receptor proteins that line the insides of the exocytotic vesicles

2 effects
vesicular part of the pseudopodial membrane opens
receptors protrude to the outside & attach to ligands in the surrounding tissues
results continual exocytosis
formation of new cell membrane at the leading edge of the pseudopodium
remainder of the cell body is pulled forward toward the point of attachment
st

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effected by the presence of the energy needed to pull the cell body in the direction of the pseudopodium
ATP energized the filamentous network (G-actin) from the polymerized actin of the cell by binding with myosin
contraction of the filamentous network & ectoplasm of the cell body occurs
results continual endocytosis or absorption of the membrane in the mid and rear portions of the cell
Types of Cells :
White blood cells they move out blood into the tissues in the form of tissue macrophages
Fibroblasts move into damaged area to help repair the damage
Germinal cells move toward a cut area to repair the rent
Embryonic cells migrate long distances from their sites of origin to new areas during development of special structures
13. MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT (hydrogen ions & Na+ Co-transport of AA/Glc
type
energy source
transport
function
location
Answer:
1.
2.

Active Transport is divided into two types according to the energy source used for tansport.
Primary Active Transport
energy is derived directly from breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or of some other high-energy phosphate compound
Secondary Active Transport
energy is derived secondarily from energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration differences of secondary molecular
or ionic substances between the two sides of a cell membrane, created originally by primary active transport
transport depends on carrier proteins that penetrate through the cell membrane, which is capable of imparting energy to the transported
substance to move it against the electrochemical gradient

Primary Active Transport of Hydrogen Ions

This occurs at two places in the body through:

deep-lying parietal cells of the gastric glands

have most potent primary active mechanism for transporting hydrogen ions of any part of the body
this is the basis for secreting hydrochloric acid in the stomach digestive secretions
at secretory end, the hydrogen ion concentration is increased as much as millionfold and then released into the stomach along with
chloride ions to form hydrochloric aid

intercalated cells of the late distal tubules and cortical collecting ducts of the renal tubules
large amounts of hydrogen ions are secreted from the blood into the urine for the purpose of eliminating excess hydrogen ions from
the body fluids
hydrogen ions can be secreted into the urine against a concentration gradient of about 900-fold

Secondary Active Transport - Co-Transport of Glucose and Amino Acids along with Sodium Ions
This occurs especially through:

epithelial cells of the intestinal tract

renal tubules of the kidney

to promote absorption of these substances

(glucose, amino acids) into the blood

Sodium-Glucose Co-Transport
the transport carrier protein has two binding sites on its exterior side, one for sodium and one for glucose
the concentration of sodium ions is very high on the outside and very low inside, which provides energy for the transport
for transport to occur:

a glucose molecule has to attach to the transport protein for a conformational change to occur, which will then allow
sodium movement to the interior of the cell

the conformational change takes place automatically when both sodium and glucose attach to the transport protein

then, the sodium and glucose are both transported intracellularly at the same time
Sodium-Amino Acid Co-Transport
occurs the same way as for glucose, except that it uses a different set of transport proteins
each five amino acid transport proteins have been identified, is responsible for transporting one subset of amino acid with specific
molecular characteristics
14. FACTORS
membrane permeability
Answer:
Factors That Affect Net Rate of Diffusion
1. Effect of Concentration Difference on Net Diffusion through a Membrane
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2.

a cell membrane with a substance in high concentration on the outside and low concentration on the inside
the rate at which substance diffuses inward is proportional to the concentration of molecules on the outside, because this
concentration determines how many molecules strike the outside of the membrane each second
conversely, the rate at which molecules diffuse outward is proportional to their concentration inside the membrane

Effect of Membrane Electrical Potential on Diffusion of Ions The Nerst Potential

the electrical charges of the ions can cause movement into the membrane even though no concentration difference exist
example:
the concentration of negative ions is equal on both sides of the membrane, but a positive charge is applied to the right
side of the membrane, it creates an electrical gradient across the membrane
the positive charge attracts the negative ions, whereas the negative charge repels them
therefore, net diffusion occurs from left to right

3.

Effect of Pressure Difference Across the Membrane

pressure difference develops between the two sides of a diffusible membrane
example:
at the blood capillary membrane in all tissues of the body
the pressure is about 20 mmHg greater inside the capillary than outside
Pressure is defined as the sum of all the forces of the different molecules striking a unit surface area at a given instant
In most instances, this is caused by greater numbers of molecules striking the membrane per second on one side than on the other
side resulting increased amount of energy are available to cause net movement of molecules from the higher-pressure toward
the lower pressure side
Other Factors:

Amount of substance available

the number and sizes of openings in the membrane
Hydrostatic pressure gradient across the membrane
increased pressure will increase the rate and force of the collision between the molecules and the membrane
Temperature
increased temperature will increase particle motion and thus increase the frequency of collision between external particles and the
membrane

15. HOMEOSTASIS
define
positive feedback (child birth)
negative feedback (CO2)
Answer:
Homeostasis
maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment
Control Systems of the body are essential for Homeostasis
operate within the organs to control functions of the individual parts of the organ
others operate throughout the entire body to control the interrelations between the organs
1.

Positive Feedback
also known as a viscous cycle
a control system that has initiating stimulus causes more of the same response
example: Childbirth
when uterine contractions become strong enough
the babys head begin pushing through the cervix
initiates stretching of the cervix
stretching sends signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the uterus
causing more powerful contraction
thus, uterine contractions stretch the cervix
cervical stretch causes stronger contraction
when a contraction is powerful enough, the baby is born

2.

Negative Feeback
most control systems of the body
a control system which consist of a series of changes that return the factor toward a certain mean value if some factor becomes deficient or
excessive, thus maintaining homeostasis
example: Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the Extracellular Fluid
Carbon dioxide
is a major end product of the oxidative reactions in cells
if all the carbon dioxide formed in the cells continued to accumulate in the tissue fluids
mass action of the carbon dioxide itself would soon halt all energy-giving reactions of the cells
Regulation of Carbon dioxide concentration

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a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood

excites the respiratory center
increases pulmonary ventilation
causing a person to breathe rapidly and deeply
increases expiration of carbon dioxide
removes excess carbon dioxide from the blood and tissue fluids
decreases the extracellular fluid carbon dioxide concentration
process continues until the concentration returns to normal

any stimulus that changes the carbon dioxide concentration is counteracted by a response that is negative to the initiating stimulus
conversely, if the carbon dioxide concentration falls too low, this causes feedback to increase the concentration

16. TEMPERATURE REGULATION

bacterial infection ----- fever?
Temperature-decreasing mechanisim
Aspirin? To alleviate the fever (mechanism)
Skin, deep receptors, anterior hypothalamus-preoptic & posterior hypothalamus (location, organ found, receptors found,
predomination)
Answer:
Temperature Regulation
the temperature of the body is regulated almost entirely by nervous feedback mechanisms and almost all these operate through
temperature-regulating centers located in the hypothalamus
Temperature-Decreasing Mechanism
1.
2.

3.

Vasodilation of skin blood vessels

caused by inhibiyion of the sympathetic centers in the posterior hypothalamus that causes vasocntriction
full vasodilation can increase the rate of heat transfer to the skin as much as eightfold
Sweating
the effect of increased body temperature, increase the rate of evaporation heat loss resulting from sweating when the body core
temperature rises above the critical level of 37oC
an additional 1 oC increase in the body temperature causes sweating to remove 10 times the basal rate of the body heat
temperature
Decrease in heat production
the mechanism that causes excess heat production, such as shivering and chemical thermogenesis, are strongly inhibited

Mechanism of Action of Pyrogen in Causing Fever

Fever which means a body temperature above the usual range of normal, can be caused by abnormalities in the brain itself or by toxic
substances that affect the temperature-regulating center
-

when the bacteria or breakdown products of bacteria (lipopolysaccharide toxin) are present in the tissues or blood
they are phagocytized by the blood leuocytes, by tissue macrophages, and by large granular killer lymphocytes
all these cells digest the bacterial products
releasing a substance interleukin- 1 (leukocyte pyrogen or endogenous pyrogen) in the body fluids
which induces formation of one of the prostaglandins, mainly prostaglandin E 2
acts in the hypothalamus
activate s the process to produce fever

Aspirin antipyretic/ anatgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet

action: irreversibly bonds with the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase (COX) 1 & 2, thereby inhibiting conversion of arachidonic acid to
prostaglandin
thus, aspirin reduces fever
Area of Receptors:
Anterior Hypothalamic-Preoptic Area
contain neurons that function as temperature sensors for controlling the body temperature

Heat-sensitive neurons
increase their firing rate 2- to 10-fold in response to a 10 oC increase in body temperature
contain large number of neurons compared to cold-sensitive neurons

Cold-sensitive neurons
increase their firing rate when the body temperature falls
1st bimonthly oral exam 09
Prepared by Onang group 16

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When the preoptic are is heated (by the use of thermode)

The skin all over the body immediately breaks out in a profuse sweat
The skin blood vessels over the entire body become greatly dilated
Causes the body to lose heat
Helping the body temperature return toward the normal level

therefore, it has the capability to serve as a thermostatic body temperature control center

Posterior Hypothalamus
intergrates the central and peripheral temperature sensory signals

Peripheral Receptors
has many temperature sensory signals that contribute to body temperature control mainly through posterior hypothalamus
approximately at the level of the mamillary bodies
the temperature sensory signals from the anterior hypothalamic-preoptic area are also transmitted in this area
the signals from the preoptic area and the signals from elsewhere in the body are combined and integrated to control the heat-producing and
heat-conserving reactions of the body
Skin
-

is endowed with both cold and warmth receptors

more cold receptors then warmth receptors (10 times as many parts of the skin
peripheral detection of temperature mainly concern detecting cold and cold instead of warm temperature
When the skin is chilled over the entire body, immediate reflex effects are invoked and begin to increase temperature of the body by:
1. providing a strong stimulus to cause shivering, with a resultant increase in the rate of body heat production
2. inhibiting the process of sweating
3. promoting skin vasoconstriction to diminish loss of body heat from the skin
prevent hypothermia that is, preventing low body temperature

Deep Body Tissues

1. spinal cord
2. abdominal viscera
3. great veins in the upper abdomen and thorax
has deep receptors that are exposed to the body core temperature rather then the body surface temperature
detects mainly cold rather then warmth
prevent hypothermia that is, preventing low body temperature
BIOCHEMISTRY
17. CHEMOTAXIS
stages
GP involved
Answer: Stages
BASELINE
neutrophil do not adhere to the vessels
ROLLING
slowing or rolling of the neutrophils within the vessel mediated by selectins
ACTIVATION & FIRM ADHESION
activation occurs, resulting in neutrophils firmly adhering to the surfaces of the endothelial cells
assumed a flattened shape
requires interaction of activated CD18 integrins on neutrophils with ICAM-1 on the endothelium
TRANSMIGRATION
neutrophil migrate through the junctions of endothelial cells into the interstitial tissue
requires Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1)
18. GLYCOPROTEIN SECRETORY MUCIN
structural characteristics
function
Answer:
MUCIN
high content of O-linked oligosaccharide
presence of repeating amino acid sequences (tandem repeats) rich in serine, threonine, praline
both secretory and membrane-bound mucins
SECRETORY MUCIN
found in Gastrointestinal, Respiratory, Reproductive tract
have an oligomeric structure & have very high molecular weight
linked by disulfide bond
exhibits a high viscosity
forms a gel
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high content of O-glycans

undergo steric interactions between their GalNac moieties & adjacent amino acid
result in chain-stiffening effect
forming rigid rod-like extended structure
intermolecular noncovalent interaction between various sugars on neighboring glycan chain
gel formation

high content of NeuAc and sulfate residues

confers negative charge

FUNCTION
help lubricate and form protective physicsl barrier on epithelial surfaces
membrane-bound mucins participate in various cell-cell interactions
Offers resistance to proteases due to the density of oligosaccharide chains
Tend to mask certain surface antigens (cancer cells for excessive amounts of mucins protecting them from immune surveillancer)
Carry carrier-specific peptide and carbohydrate epitopes (an eiptope is a site on an antigen recognized by an antibody, also called
antigenic determinant). Some pf these epitopes have been used to stimulate an immune response against cancer cells.
19. COLLAGEN (inta & extracellular process in synthesis)
stages
Answer:
Newly synthesized collagen undergoes extensive posttranslational modification before becoming part of amature extracellular collagen fiber.
There are two phases of collagen synthesis. (Intracellular & Extracellular)
INTRACELLULAR:
1. Collagen is synthesized on ribosomes as preprocollagen (precursor form) that contains a leader or signal sequence that directs the
polypeptide chain into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, where cleavage of the signal peptide occurs.
2. Still in the endoplasmic reticulum, hydroxylation of prolyl and lysyl residues and glycosylation of hydroxylysyl residues in the
procollagen molecule.
3. Formation of intrachain and interchain disulfide bonds in extension peptides.
4. Due to the formation of the disulfide bonds the procollagen molecule form a triple helix.

After, the procollagen molecule is secreted out of the cell via the golgi complex.
EXTRACELLULAR:
1. Cleavage of amino and carboxyl terminal propeptides via the used of extracellular enzymes, the procollagn aminoproteinase and
procollagen carboxyproteinase.
2. After the cleavage, the triple helical collagen molecule assembles itself into a quarter-staggered alignment.
3. Then, subsequent oxidative deamination of e-amino groups of lysyl and hydroxylysyl residues to aldehydes via the action of lysyl oxidase.
4. Lastly, formation of intra- and interchain cross-links via Schiff bases and aldol condensation products.

You have now a mature collagen molecule.

20. RIBOZYMES
what are?
2 examples
Mechanism of action
Answer:
Ribozymes
an RNA molecules that have intrinsic catalytic activity
involved in the cleavage of the nucleic acid
generally, involve transesterification reactions, and most are concerned with RNA metabolism ( splicing and endoribonuclease)
2 examples:
1. Small Nuclear RNA (snRNA)
a subset of the small RNAs, significantly involved in mRNA processing and gene regulation
U1, U2, U4, U5 ,U6 sNRNA = involved in intron removal and the processing of hnRNA into mRNA
U1 = binds first by base pairing to the 5 exon-intron boundary
U2 = binds by base pairing to the branch site and this exposes the nucleophilic A residues
U5, U4, U6 = mediates an ATP-dependent protein-mediated unwinding that results in disruption of the base-paired U4-U6
complex with the release of U
U6 = interact first U2, then U1, this serve to approximate the 5 splice site
U5 = enhanced the alignment that results in the formation of the loop or lariat structure
U2-U6 = cleaved the two ends
U7 snRNA = involved in production of the correct 3 ends of histone mRNA which lacks a poly(A) tail
2. Peptidyltransferases
a component of the 28S RNA of the 60S ribosomal subunits
direct role for RNA in protein synthesis
hydrolyze aminoacyl ester and thus to play a central role in peptide bond formation
catalyzed the formation of the peptide bond wherein the @-amino group of the of the amino-acyl-tRNA in the A site carries out
a nucleophilic attack on the esterified carboxyl group of the peptidyl-tRNA on the P site
1st bimonthly oral exam 09
Prepared by Onang group 16

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21. ENZYMES
regulation (allosteric & covalent)
catalysis (4)
Answer:
REGULATION:
ALLOSTERIC REGULATION
regulate certain enzyme activity
Feedback Inhibition
inhibition of an enzyme in a biosynthetic pathway by an end product of that pathway
the end product binds at an allosteric site spatially distinct from the catalytic site of the target enzyme
the effect of an excess of two or more end product may be strictly additive or alternatively, may be greater than their individual effect
(cooperative feedback inhibition)
feedback inhibitors
negative allosteric effectors
typically bear little or no structural similarity to the substrates of the enzymes they inhibit
may be competitive, noncompetitive, partially competitive or mixed
inhibit the first committed step in a particular biosynthetic sequence
Allosteric enzyme
Whose activity at the active site may be modulated by the presence of effectors at an allosteric site
2 classes of regulated enzymes:
K-series the substrate saturation are competitive on the sense that Km is raised without an effect on Vmax
V-series the allosteric inhibitors lowers Vmax without affecting the Km
Second Messenger
specialized allosteric effectors
Nerve impulses ( the primary or first messenger) and binding of hormones to cell surface receptors elicits changes in the rate of
enzyme-catalyzed reactions within cells by inducing the release or synthesis of the second messengers
Examples:
3, 5 cAMP synthesized from ATP by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase in response to hormone epinephrine
Calcium stored inside the endoplasmic reticlulum with nerve impulse as primary messenger
3, 5 cGMP
Polyphosphoinositol produced by the hydrolysis of inositol phospholipids by hormone-regulated phospholipases
COVALENT MODIFICATION
Partial Proteolysis
irreversible modification, because cells lack the ability to reunite the twp portions of a protein produced by hydrolysis of a peptide
bond
proteases are synthesized and secreted as inactive precursor proteins known as proproteins = proenzymes or zymogens
purpose:
*to protect tissue of origin from autodigestion (pancreatic enzymes)
*for rapid response to a pressing pathophysiologic demand as compared to secretion process or new synthesis of
required proteins
selective proteolysis
- converts a proprotein by one or more successive proteolytic clips to a form that exhibits the characteristics activity of the
mature protein
- results in conformational change that create the catalytic site of an enzyme
Phosphorylation
reversible modification process
ENZYME CATALYSIS
Catalysis by Proximity
For reaction to occur, molecules must come within bond-forming distance of one another.
The higher the concentration of the molecules, the more frequently they will encounter one another and the greater will be the rate
of their reaction.
As enzyme binds substrate molecules at its active sites, it creates a region of high local substrate concentration and also orients the
substrate molecules spatially in a position ideal for them to interact resulting in rate enhancement of at least a thousand fold.
Acid-Base Catalysis
The ionizable functional groups of aminoacyl side cahins and of prosthetic groups contribute to catalysis by acting as acid or bases.
Can be specific or general.
SPECIFIC ACID or BASE CATALYSIS
- means only protons (H3O+) or OH- ions.
- the reaction is sensitive to changes in the concentration of protons but independent of the concentration of other acids
(proton donors) or bases (proton acceptor) present in solution or at the active site.
GENERAL ACID or BASE CATALYSIS
- reactions whose rate are responsive to all acids or bases present.
Catalysis by Strain
Employed by enzymes catalyze lytic reactions that involve breaking a covalent bond.
The enzymes bind their substrate in a conformation slightly unfavorable for the bond that will undergo cleavage.
The resulting strain stretches or distorts the targeted bond, weakening it and making it more vulnerable to cleavage.
Covalent Catalysis
involves the formation of a covalent bond between enzyme and one or more substrates
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introduces a new reaction pathway whose activation energy is lower and therefore is faster
modified enzyme becomes a reactant
this chemical modification of the enzyme is only transient
on completion of the reaction, the enzyme returns to its original unmodified state
catalyze group transfer reactions
cysteine or serine and occasionally histidine = residues on the enzyme that participate in this catalysis
follows ping-pong mechanism = first substrate bound and its product is released before binding of the second substrate

22. HYPERURICEMIA
importance? Enzymes
PRPP synthetase
Abnormalities
HGPRTase
Answer:
Hyperuricemias
may be differentiated based on whether patients excrete normal or excessive quantities of total urates
reflects specific enzyme defects
others are secondary to diseases such as cancer that enhance tissue turnover
Lesch-Hyhan Syndrome
an overproduction hyperuricemia characterized by frequent episodes of uric acid lithiasis and a bizarre syndrome of self-mutilation
defects in Hypoxanthine-quanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRTase)
an enzyme of purine salvage which converts hypoxantine & guanine into IMP & GMP
when deficient, enzyme causes rise in intracellular PRPP results in purine overproduction
mutations that decrease or abolish this enzyme include deletion, frameshift mutations, base substitutions and aberrant
mRNA splicing
Von Gierkes Disease
purine overproduction and hyperuricemia
defect in glucose-6-phosphatase
occurs secondary to enhanced generation of the PRPP precursor ribose 5-phosphate
associated lactic acidosis elevates the renal threshold for urate, elevating total body urates
Gout
genetic defects in PRPP synthetase
an elevated Vmax, increased affinity for ribose 5-pjosphate, or resistance to feedback inhibition (sensitive to AMP, ADP, GMP, GDP)
results in overproduction and overexcretion of purine catabolites
reflects abnormalities in renal handling of uric acid
- Symptoms: pain in joints due to deposition of urates ib the synovial area of joints

1st bimonthly oral exam 09

Prepared by Onang group 16

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