4th Bimonthly Oral Exam QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

NERVOUS SYSTEM
1.

Brachial Plexus:
a. Cords formation

The five roots are the five anterior rami of the spinal nerves (C5-T1)

These roots merge to form three trunks:

b.

2.

"superior" or "upper" (C5-C6)

"middle" (C7)

"inferior" or "lower" (C8-T1)

Each trunk then splits in two, to form six divisions:

anterior division of the upper, middle and lower trunks

posterior division of the upper, middle, and lower trunks

These six divisions will regroup to become the three cords. The cords are named by their position
in respect to the axillary artery.

The lateral cord is the anterior divisions from the upper and middle trunks (C5-C7)

The posterior cord is formed from the three posterior divisions of the trunks (C5-T1)

The medial cord is simply a continuation of the anterior division of the lower trunk (C8-T1)

Branches of each cord

LATERAL: lateral pectoral nerve , musculocutaneous nerve , lateral root of the median nerve.

POSTERIOR: upper subscapular nerve , lower subscapular nerve , thoracodorsal nerve, radial
nerve, axillary nerve ,

MEDIAL: medial pectoral nerve , medial root of the median nerve , medial cutaneous nerve of the
arm , medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm , ulnar nerve.

Circle of Willis
a. Branches that form it:
Encircles optic chiasma, tuber cinerium and interpeduncular region

ANTERIOR: Anterior cerebral artery (left and right) and Anterior communicating artery

LATERAL: Internal carotid artery (left and right)

POSTERIOR: Posterior cerebral artery (left and right) and Posterior communicating artery (left and
right)

b.

Importance

It equalizes blood flow to various parts of the brain, but normally there is little exchange of blood
between the right and left halves of the arterial circle because of the equality of BP.

The arrangement of the brain's arteries into the Circle of Willis creates redundancies in the
cerebral circulation. If one part of the circle becomes blocked or narrowed (stenosed) or one of
the arteries supplying the circle is blocked or narrowed, blood flow from the other blood vessels
can often preserve the cerebral perfusion well enough to avoid the symptoms of ischemia.

Common site for saccular cerebral aneurysms

c.

Trace CSF from SECRETION DURAL SINUSES

3.

Lateral Ventricle Interventricular Foramen of Monro 3rd Ventricles Cerebral Aqueduct of

Sylvius 4th Ventricle Foramen of Magendie (median aperture) and Foramina of Luschka (two
lateral apertures) Cerebellomedullary Cistern Subarachnoid Space Venous dural sinuses

Corticospinal Tract
a. Trace from origin termination
b. Specific location in different parts of segments of the CNS, points of decussation
Originate mainly from AREA 4 (Motor Area for Skilled Movements)

Fibers pass through Corona Radiata

Converge and pass through POSTERIOR LIMB of INTERNAL CAPSULE

Descend through the Brainstem

MIDBRAIN: the tract occupies middle 2/3 of BASIS PEDUNCULI

PONS: in the PARS BASALIS (scattered fibers due to the nuclei pontis)
MEDULLA: in the VENTRAL PORTION, forming the pyramids

LOWER part of medulla:

80-90% CROSSES the midline at the PYRAMIDAL

DECUSSATION

Spinal Cord occupying lateral funiculus as the

LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

VENTRAL HORN CELLS in ALL segments of the spinal

cord (but 50% in the cervical region)

4.

Corticobulbar Tract
a. Trace from origin medulla
b. Specific location in different parts of segments of the CNS

c.

5.

10-20% does NOT CROSS the medulla

Spinal cord up to midthoracic level as the

VENTRAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

Cross midline 1-2 segments before terminating in the

VENTRAL HORN CELLS
(up to upper thoracic segment only)

Mainly from AREA 4

Fibers pass through CORONA RADIATA

Converge to pass through the GENU of the INTERNAL CAPSULE

Descend in brainstem, terminate in different

MOTOR CRANIAL NERVES

Manner of termination in ff. cranial nerve nuclei: IV, VI, VII, XII, Ambiguus

IV: Ipsilateral

VI: Mainly contralateral

VII: Bilateral (only upper half of face), Contralateral (lower half of face)

XII: Mainly contralateral

Ambiguus (IX, X, XI): Bilateral (those that supply the pharynx and larynx), Contralateral (uvula)

Relay Nuclei of the Thalamus

a. Connections and functions:

Ventral
posteromedi
al
Ventral

AFFERENT CONNECTIONS
Dorsal and ventral trigeminal
tracts

EFFERENT CONNECTIONS
Thalamocortical tract to Area 31-2

Medial leminiscus

Thalamocortical radiations to

FUNCTIONS
Pain and Thermal sense
Pressure
Touch proprioception
(upper face area/upper half
of the body)
Proprioception

posterolatera
l

Lateral spinothalamic tract

Ventral spinothalamic tract

Area 3-1-2

Medial
geniculate
Ventral
lateral
Ventral
anterior

Lateral lemniscus

Geniculotemporal tract to Area

41
Thalamocortical tract to Area 4
and 6
Thalamocortical tract to Areas
23, 24, and 32

6.

Dentatorubrothalamic
Thalamic Fasciculus
Mamilothalamic tract of Vicq d
Azyr

Cerebellar and Basal

ganglia relay
Relay for limbic system

Cortical Areas
b. Functions, ablations

Areas 5 & 7, 39, 9 12, 43, 19; Areas 3,1,2, 41; Areas 22, 6, 44 & 45

NUMBER/LOCATION
Area 5 & 7
Superior Parietal Lobe
Pre-cuneus
Area 39
Angular Gyrus

NAME
Sensory Association
Areas of Parietal Lobe

FUNCTION
For body scheme or
image

Visual Speech Center

Understanding of
WRITTEN language
and symbols that are
seen

Areas 9 - 12
Remaining Superior and Middle
Frontal gyri

Pre Frontal Areas

Thinking, judgment,
and other complex
activity

Subcentral Area 43 (?)

Area 19
Occipital Lobe
Lingual gyrus, Cuneus

Gustatory Cortical Area

Occipital Eyefield

Area 3,1,2
Post central gyrus
Paracentral lobule

Somesthetic Area or
Primary Cortical Center
for Sensation

Area 41
Primary cortical center for
audition
Area 22
Superior temporal gyrus

Primary Cortical Center

for Audition

For taste sensation

Conjugate eye
movement for
vertical plane, eye
fixation
Receive complex
sensory perception
such as
discriminative senses
(stereognosis, spatial
recognition, 2-point
discrimination,
grades of
temperature)
Receive auditory
impulses

Auditory Speech
Center

Comprehension of
sounds heard

Area 6
Precentral gyrus
Caudal part of superior and
middle frontal gyri

Pre motor Area

Area 44 & 45
Pars opercularis
Pars triangularis

Speech Areas of Broca

Control large group

of muscles for mass,
unskilled, crude,
stereotyped
movements on
opposite side
Controls apparatus
for speech

2.

Pain and Thermal sense

Touch and Pressure (body
and lower limbs)
Relay auditory impulses

ABLATION
Loss of body image (cant
determine parts of the body
belonging to himself)
Visual Receptive / Sensory
Aphasia Word Blindness
-person is not blind, can see
whats written but cant
understand, agraphia (cant copy
words), alexia(cant read)
On one side does not produce
defect; on both sides causes
changes in personality and
behavior FRONTAL LOBE
SYNDROME
NYSTAGMUS loss of conjugate
eye movts and fixation
(optokinetic type)
Severe impairment of sensations
on OPPOSITE side

Partial bilateral deafness, worse

on opposite side
Auditory Receptive Aphasia
Word Deafness (cant
understand what others are
talking about, cant take down
notes)
Spasticity of muscles on the
opposite side and hyperactivity
of deep tendon reflexes

Expressive/Motor Aphasia
Brocas Aphasia cant express
ideas but can understand,
speech muscles not paralyzed

Ascending Pathway and Visual Pathway

a. Ascending: Pain and Thermal sense pathway from body and limbs cortical areas

Important tracts, nuclei, decussation, specific receptors

Naked nerve endings, End Buld of Krause, Cylinders of Ruffini

Dorsal Root Ganglion (1st Order Neuron)

Spinal Cord

Ascend 1 or 2 segments of the spinal cord

Nucleus of Rolando (2nd Order Neurons)

Fibers CROSS midline at VENTRAL WHITE COMMISURE of spinal cord

Lateral Funiculus

Ascends as the LATERAL SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT

VENTRAL POSTEROLATERAL NUCLEI of thalamus (3rd Order Neurons)

THALAMOCORTICAL TRACT

AREA 3,1,2 of Cerebral Cortex

b.

Visual : Trace Receptors Primary visual cortex

Neurons, decussation, important structures involved

Visual Receptors: RODS AND CONES

BIPOLAR CELLS (1st Order Neurons)

AMACRINE CELLS

GANGLION CELLS (2nd Order Neurons)

Axons CONVERGE to form

Optic Nerve

Cranial cavity: through optic foramina, unite to form

OPTIC CHIASM
Partially decussate, fibers of NASAL halves cross to OPPOSITE side
TEMPORAL halves remaining uncrossed forms the

OPTIC TRACT

LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS

Small portions continue as the BRACHIUM of

Give rise to GENICULOCALCARINE TRACT
SUPERIOR COLLICULUS

Pass through the RETROLENTICULAR part

SUPERIOR COLLICULI (Tracking of visual stimuli)
of INTERAL CAPSULE
and

PRETECTAL AREA (Pupillary light reflex)

Forms OPTIC RADIATIONS

CALCARINE SULCUS of AREA 17

(Upper loop/dorsal fibers terminate in the upper lip,
Meyers loop/ventral fibers terminate in the lower lip)

3.

Extraocular muscles
a. Name 4 and describe
Muscle
Origin
Levator palpebrae
Lesser wing of
superioris
sphenoid anterior to
optic canal
Superior rectus
Inferior rectus
Medial rectus
Lateral rectus
Superior oblique

4.

5.

Superior part of
common tendinous
ring
Inferior part of
common tendinous
ring
Medial part of
common tendinous
ring
Lateral part of
common tendinous
ring
Body of sphenoid,
superior and medial
to optic canal

Insertion
Anterior surface of
tarsal plate; a few
fibers to skin and
superior conjunctival
fornix
Anterior half of
eyeball superiorly

Innervation
Oculomotor nerve
[III]- superior branch

Function
Elevation of upper
eyelid

Oculomotor nerve
[III]- superior branch

Anterior half of
eyeball inferiorly

Oculomotor nerve
[III]- inferior branch

Anterior half of
eyeball medially

Oculomotor nerve
[III]- inferior branch

Elevation,
adduction, medial
rotation of eyeball
Depression,
adduction, lateral
rotation of eyeball
Adduction of
eyeball

Anterior half of
eyeball laterally

Abducent nerve [VI]

Abduction of
eyeball

Outer posterior
quadrant of eyeball

Trochlear nerve [IV]

Depression,
abduction, medial
rotation of eyeball

Accomodation Reflex
a. Define, nerve signals that control it

Mechanism that focuses the lens system of the eye, essential for a high degree of visual acuity.

Controlled almost entirely by PARASYMPATHETIC nerve signals transmitted to the eye through the
2rd cranial nerve from the 3rd CN nucleus of the brainstem.

Sympathetic nerve signals have an additional WEAKER effect in relaxing the ciliary muscle
b.

Relationship between ciliary muscle activity and refractive power of eye

Ciliary muscles: meridonial and circular fibers

Stimulation Muscle CONTRACTS RELAXES the lens ligaments lens thickens, INCREASE in
REFRACTIVE POWER as curvature increases Enable to focus on NEAR objects

c.

4 clues that help lens change its length and explain

CHROMATIC ABBERATION red light rays focus slightly less posteriorly to blue light rays because
the lens bends blue rays more than red. They eyes are able to detect which of the two rays is in
better focus then this clue relays info to the accommodation meachanism whether to make the
lens stronger or weaker.

CONVERGENCE CAUSES A SIMIULTANEOUS SIGNAL TO STRENGTHEN THE EYE LENS this is

because when the eyes fixate on a near object, the eyes must converge and the neural
mechanism responsible for convergence also strengthens the lens

Because the fovea lies in a hollowed-out depression that is slightly deeper than the remainder of
the retina, the CLARITY OF FOCUS IN THE DEPTH OF THE FOVEA IS DIFFERENT FROM THE
CLARITY OF FOCUS ON THE EDGES - this also gives clues about which way the strength of the
lens needs to be changed.

THE DEGREE OF ACCOMMODATION OF THE LENS OSCILLATES SLIGHTLY all the time at a
frequency up to twice per second. The visual image becomes clearer when the oscillation of the
lens strength is changing in the appropriate direction and becomes poorer when the lens strength
is changing in the wrong direction. This could give a rapid clue as to which way the strength of
the lens needs to change to provide appropriate focus.

Pupillary light reflex

a.
b.

6.

Trace from Receptor Eye

Important structures, crossing
Visual Receptors: RODS AND CONES

BIPOLAR CELLS (1st Order Neurons)

AMACRINE CELLS

GANGLION CELLS (2nd Order Neurons)

Axons CONVERGE to form

Optic Nerve

Cranial cavity: through optic foramina, unite to form

OPTIC CHIASM
Partially decussate, fibers of NASAL halves cross to OPPOSITE side
TEMPORAL halves remaining uncrossed forms the

OPTIC TRACT

PRE TECETAL NUCLEI (Bilaterally)

Nucleus of EDINGER-WESTPHAL

Oculomotor Nerve

Ciliary Ganglion

Ciliary Nerve

CONSTRICTOR PUPILLAE MUSCLE

Auditory System
a. Trace pathway
Receptor: ORGAN OF CORTI

COCHLEAR Nerve

Spinal Ganglion

Dorsal and Ventral Cochlear Nuclei

Dorsal Acoustic Stria

Intermediate
Acoustic Stria

CROSS midline, ascend as the

Dorsally, crosses midline together
LATERAL LEMNISCUS
with DAS

Nucleus of INFERIOR COLLICULUS

Fibers arise; pass through

BRACHIUM of inferior colliculus

MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY

GENICULOTEMPORAL TRACT

AREA 41

Ventral Acoustic Stria

Superior Olivary
Nucleus, Trapezoid
Body (SAME SIDE)

Most fibers CROSS

midline passing the
trapezoid body

Superior Olivary
Nucleus, Trapezoid
Body (OPPOSITE
SIDE)

LATERAL LEMNISCUS

Nucleus of INFERIOR COLLICULUS

Fibers arise; pass through BRACHIUM of

inferior colliculus

MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY

GENICULOTEMPORAL TRACT

AREA 41

b.

2 types of DEAFNESS as to CAUSE

caused by impairment of the cochlea or impairment of the auditory nerve, which is usually
classified as nerve deafness,

caused by impairment of the physical structures of the ear that conduct sound itself to the
cochlea, which is usually called conduction deafness.
If either the cochlea or the auditory nerve is destroyed, the person becomes permanently deaf.
However, if the cochlea and nerve are still intact but the tympanum-ossicular system has been
destroyed or ankylosed (frozen in place by fibrosis or calcification), sound waves can still be
conducted into the cochlea by means of bone conduction from a sound generator applied to the skull
over the ear.

7.

Attenuation Reflex
a. Mechanism

LOUD SOUND Ossicular System CNS Attenuation Reflex: Stapedius muscle contracts and
to a lesser extent also the Tensor Tympani (TT) muscle TT muscle pulls handle of malleus
inward, Stapedius muscle pulls the Stapes outward Opposing forces Ossicular system
develops rigidity Reduces ossicular conduction of LOW FREQUENCY sound (below 1000
cycles/sec)
b. 2 fold function

Protect cochlea from damaging vibrations caused by VERY loud sounds

Mask low frequency sounds in loud environments removes background noise and allows a
person to concentrate on sounds above 1000 cycles/second where voice communication is
transmitted.
Another function of the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles is to decrease a persons hearing
sensitivity to his or her own speech. This effect is activated by collateral nerve signals transmitted to
these muscles at the same time that the brain activates the voice mechanism.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1.

Hypophysis Cerebri
a. 2 major division: embryonic origin / anlage, subdivision, supporting cells
DIVISION

EMBRYONIC ORIGIN /
ANLAGE

Adenohypophysis
/ Anterior Pituitary

dorsal evagination
from roof of embryonic
pharynx/Rathkes
pouch/oral ectoderm

SUBDIVISION
- Pars distalis (anterior
lobe)

SUPPORTING CELLS
Chromophobes and
chromophils

- Pars tuberalis (pars

infundibularis)
- Pars intermedia
(rudimentary in adult)

Neurohypophysis/
Posterior Pituitary

Neural
ectoderm/downgrowth
from hypothalamus

- Median eminence

Pituicytes

- Infundibular stem
- Infundibular process

b.

Anterior pituitary: cell types based on staining and hormone secreted

Type Based on Staining
Chromophilic

Based on Hormones Secreted

- Acidophils

Somatotropes STH/Growth hormone

Mamotropes/Lactotropes Prolactin

- Basophils

Thyrotropes thyroid-stimulating hormone

Corticotropes ACTH/Corticotrophin
Gonadotropes FSH, LH

Chromophobes
2.

Thyroid Gland
a. Iodide metabolism: Important biochemical process and reactions involved

Concentration of Iodide: Concentrated against strong electrochemical gradient, energy

dependent, linked to ATPase-dependent Na-K pump, though THYROIDAL IODIDE TRASPORTER or
small amount through DIFFUSION

Oxidation of Iodide: Obligatory step, involves THYROPEROXIDASE which requires H2O2 as

oxidizing agent, occurs at luminal surface of follicular cell, inhbited by thiourea drugs

Iodination of Tyrosine / Organification: Oxidized iodide reacts with TYROSYL RESIDUES in

TGB, 3 position of aromatic first, then 5 position to form MIT and DIT (may also involve
thyroperoxidase), once it occurs iodine does not readily leave the thyroid

Coupling of Iodotyrosyls: DIT + DIT = T4 or thyroxine, DIT + MIT = T3 or triiodothyronine

(may also involve thyroperoxidase)

Then the hormones are stored in the thyroid follicles. Release involves pinocytosis in the apical
cytoplasm. Lysosomal peroxidases act on the colloid and degrades the TGB molecule to release
T3 and T4. Then these diffuse through the base of the cell into the surrounding capillaries.
Transport involves TGB, prealbumin and albumin.

3.

Insulin Action
a. Transport of glucose across skeletal and cardiac muscles: sequence of events

Insulin promotes glucose entry into skeletal and cardiac muscle through GLUT 4 TRANSPORTER
since extra hepatic tissues are relatively impermeable to glucose. Use of this transporter is called
Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion. As glucose increases in the blood, insulin will enhance entry
of glucose

SEQUENCE:
1. Increasing the number of glucose transporters (Vmax effect) by recruiting from an
inactive intracellular pool
2. Then these transporters are moved to an active site in the plasma membrane
3. Insulin also increases HEXOKINASE II which phosphorylates glucose (converts it to
glucose 6 phosphate) and glucose metabolism in initiated.
b. Lipogenesis on adipose tissue: 3 biochemical mechanisms how insulin stimulates lipogenesis

It increases the transport of glucose into the cell increases the availability of pyruvate for fatty
acid synthesis and glycerol 3 phosphate for esterification of the newly formed fatty acids

Activates PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE in the adipose tissue but not in the liver

Activates ACETYL-COA CARBOXYLASE (involves dephosphorylation by a protein phosphatase)

Inhibits LYPOLYSIS in adipose tissue through its ability to depress the level of intracellular cAMP
reduces the concentration of plasma free fatty acids and long-chain acyl-CoA which inhibits
lipogenesis

4.

Insulin Secretion
a. Important physiologic regulator

Glucose: increase in plasma glucose concentration. Threshold for secretion is the FASTING
PLASMA GLUCOSE LEVEL (80-100mg/dl) and maximal response is obtained at glucose levels
between 300 and 500 mg/dl
b. Molecular mechanism

Increased ATP/ADP ratio inhibition of ATP-sensitive potassium efflux channels depolarization

of the B cell and activation of voltage-sensitive calcium channels inflow of calcium INSULIN
SECRETION

5.

Calcium Metabolism
a. Relationship between Parathormone and Calcitriol in maintaining calcium levels in HYPOCALCEMIA

Hypocalcemia - low serum calcium levels in the blood, causes hyperexcitement of NS TETANY

PTH influences rate of uptake of calcium from intestines by REGULATING METABOLISM of VIT D by
KIDNEYS (therefore affects activation of CALCITRIOL from calcidiol)

b.

6.

Decreased ECF Calcium Increase in PTH production (by increasing size and number or chief
cells)
a)Promotes synthesis of CALCITRIOL Increase calcium absorption of the intestine Increase
ECF calcium
b) Or the direct effects of PTH itself

Which is why in Vit D deficiency, new bone formation is slow because PTH is preventing
hypocalcemia at the expense of the bones
Biochemical effects of both on target organs

PTH:
1. Kidney- reduces renal clearance/excretion of calcium increases ECF calcium
2. Bone- increases rate of dissolution of bone including both organic and inorganic phases
moves calcium into ECF
3. Intestine- increases calcium absorption efficiency of intestine by promoting the
synthesis of Calcitriol (INDIRECT)
4. Also decreases ECF phosphate

Calcitriol on INTESTINE: promotes translocation of calcium against the concentration gradient of

the intestinal epithelium (only hormone that can do this) Increase Calcium and Phosphate in ECF

Pelvic Diaphragm and Urogenital Triangle

a. 4 muscles each and describe

Muscle
Levator ani
(pubococcygeus,
puborectalis,
iliococcygeus)

Origin
In a line around the
pelvic wall beginning on
the posterior aspect of
the pubic bone and
extending across the
obturator internus
muscle as a tendinous
arch to the ischial spine

Insertion
The anterior part is
attached to the
superior surface of
the perineal
membrane. The
posterior part meets
its partner on the
other side at the
perineal body, around
the anal canal, and
along the
anococcygeal
ligament

Innervation
Branches
direct from the
ventral ramus
of S4, and by
the inferior
rectal branch
of the
pudendal
nerve (S2 to
S4)

Function
Contributes to the
formation of the pelvic
floor, which supports the
pelvic viscera. Maintains
an angle between the
rectum and anal canal.
Reinforces the external
anal sphincter and, in
women, functions as a
vaginal sphincter

Coccygeus

Ischial spine and pelvic

surface of the
sacrospinous ligament

Lateral margin of
coccyx and related
border of sacrum

Branches from
the anterior
rami of S3 and
S4

Contributes to the
formation of the pelvic
floor, which supports the
pelvic viscera. Pulls coccyx
forward after defecation

Bulbospongiosus

In women: perineal
body
In men: perineal body,
midline raphe

In women: bulb of
vestibule, perineal
membrane, body of
clitoris and corpus
cavernosum
In men:
bulbospongiosus,
perineal membrane,
corpus cavernosum

Pudendal
nerve (S2 to
S4)

Erection of the clitoris and

penis
In men: removal of residual
urine from urethra after
urination; pulsatile
emission of semen during
ejaculation

Ischiocavernosus

Ischial tuberosity and

ramus

Crus of penis and

clitoris

Pudendal
nerve (S2 to
S4)

Move blood from crura into

the body of the erect penis
and clitoris

Superficial
transverse
perineal

Ischial tuberosity and

ramus

Perineal body

Pudendal
nerve (S2 to
S4)

Stabilize the

Deep transverse
perineal

7.

medial surface of the

ischial ramus

contralateral muscle
and perineal
body/central
tendinous point

deep branch of
perineal nerve
from pudendal
nerve

fixes and stabilizes the

perineal body/central
tendinous point

Menstrual Cycle (Histo)

a. 4 phases: describe appearance of endometrium thickness, glands, arteries, stroma
STAGE

THICKNESS

GLANDS

ARTERIES

STROMA

Proliferative
(Follicular) Phase
- starts at the end of
mens, continues for
12-14 days, declines
24h ff ovulation

Three to four-fold
increase due to repair
and growth of epi,
many cells are in
mitosis

Glands lengthen,
become sinuous and
the columnar
epithelial cells start to
accumulate glycogen

Spiral arteries are

growing in length but
do not yet extend
into the subsurface
stroma, moderately
coiled

Many cells in
mitosis,
diapedesis of
erthytocytes

Secretory (Luteal)
Phase
-after ovulation,
formation of corpus
luteum

Further thickening due

to edema of stroma
and accumulation of
secretion

Continue to grow,
become tortuous,
show sacculation,
filled with carb-rich
secretion

Spinal arteries
elongate and
convolute, still do
not reach surface

Edematous with
accumulation of
ICF and secretion
of uterine gland

Pre menstrual Phase

-hours before
menstruation,
regressed CL

Decreased thickness

Highly coiled but stop

secretion

Highly coiled,
dilation of
neighboring vein,
intermittent then
complete contraction
NECROSIS

Non edematous
more dense with
leukocytic
infiltration

Menstrual Phase
-last 3-5 days

Decreased thickness
because of sloughing
off, involution of
endometrium

Collapsed, superficial
portion lost

Superficial part:
constricted arteries
suddenly open and
rupture blood flow
(because of PG)

Invaded by
leukocytes

8.

Semen
a.

2 important glandular sources as to: characteristics and components, 2 functions

CHARACTERISTICS

COMPONENTS

Seminal
Vesicle

contributes 60% of semen

last to be ejaculated,
washes sperm through
ejaculatory duct and
urethra, secretes mucoid
material

- FRUCTOSE (nutrition)
- CITRIC ACID
- PROSTAGLANDIN (reacts with female cervical mucus to make it
more receptive to sperm mvt, causes backward, reverse peristaltic
contractions in the uterus and fallopian tubes to
move the ejaculated sperm toward the ovaries)
-FIBRINOGEN (forms weak fibrin coagulum that holds semen in the
deeper regions of the vagina)

Prostate
Gland

Contributes 30% of semen,

secretes milky fluid, slightly
alkaline characteristic
NEUTRALIZES acidity of fluid
from seminal vesicle and
vaginal fluids

-CALCIUM
-CITRATE ION
-PHOSPHATE ION
-CLOTTING ENZYME (cases the fibrin formation)
-PROFIBRINOLYSIN (becomes fibrinolysin that causes dissolution of
coagulum after ejaculation allowing sperm to become highly motile

9.

Hormones and Spermatogenesis

a. 5 hormones that stimulate spermatogenesis: name, cell and tissue source, function

Testosterone, secreted by the Leydig cells of the testes located in the interstitium of the testis,
is essential for growth and division of the testicular germinal cells, which is the first stage in
forming sperm.

Luteinizing hormone, secreted by the gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland, stimulates
the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone.
Follicle-stimulating hormone, also secreted by the gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary
gland, stimulates the Sertoli cells; without this stimulation, the conversion of the spermatids to
sperm (the process of spermiogenesis) will not occur.
Estrogens, formed from testosterone by the Sertoli cells of the testes when they are stimulated
by follicle-stimulating hormone, are probably also essential for spermiogenesis.
Growth hormone (as well as most of the other body hormones) is necessary for controlling
background metabolic functions of the testes. Growth hormone specifically promotes early
division of the spermatogonia themselves; in its absence, as in pituitary dwarfs, spermatogenesis
is severely deficient or absent, thus causing infertility.

10. Fertilization
a. Trace sperm from orgin Site of fertilization
Seminiferous tubules

Epididymis

Seminal vesicle

Ejaculatory duct

Prostate gland

Bulbourethral gland

Penile Urethra

EJACULATION

Vagina

Cervix

Uterus

Fallopian tube: Ampulla

Sperm meets ovary FERTILIZATION

b.

Capacitation and Acrosomal Reaction

Capacitation - period of conditioning in the female repro tract that lasts for 7 hours. The
glycoprotein coat and seminal plasma proteins are removed from the plasma membrane that
overlies the acrosome of the sperm. Only capacitated sperm can pass through the corona cells
and undergo the acrosome reaction.

Acrosomal Reaction Occurs after binding to the zona pellucida and is induced by zona
proteins. This releases enzymes needed to penetrate the zona pellucida like acrosin and trypsinlike substances.

11. Hormone and Pregnancy

a. 4 hormones for normal pregnancy, 2 functions each

Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin

1. weak actions similar to those of growth hormone, causing the formation of protein
tissues in the same way that growth hormone does
2. Decreases insulin sensitivity and decreased use of glucose in the mother large
amounts available to fetus growth
3. Release of free fatty acid stores from the mother alternative source of energy during
pregnancy

Progesterone
1. Cause decidual cells to develop in the unterine endometrium for nutrition
2. Decrease contractility of uterus prevents spontaneous abortion due to uterine
contractions

3.

12. Aging
a.

Increase secretions of the fallopian tubes and uterus even before implantation
nutrition of morula and blastocyst and for cleavage
Prepares the moms breast for lactation

4.
Estrogen
1. enlargement of the mothers uterus
2. enlargement of the mothers breasts and growth of the breast ductal structure,
3. enlargement of the mothers female external genitalia.
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin:
1. Prevent involution of corpus luteum secrete more progesterone and estrogen
2. Prevent menstruation endometrium continues to grow (deciduas-like cells become
decidual cells) nutrition for the early devt of fetus
3. Interstitial cellstimulating effect on the testes of the male fetus production of
testosterone in fetus until birth grow male se organs causes testes to descend to
scrotum near the end of pregnancy

Discuss 2 general categories about the different theories of aging as postulated by GOLDSTEIN and co.

Accumulation of damage to informational molecules

Regulation of Specific genes

FOR EXPLANATION, JUST REFER TO THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF AGING ARTICLE (pp 641642)