Intodcution to CPI & Renwable Energy

Chemical Processing Industry - encompasses a

broad range of products, including petrochemical and
inorganic chemicals, plastics, detergents, paints and
pigments, and more
Chemical process - is a method intended to be used
in manufacturing or on an industrial scale
Unit operation is a basic step in a process. Unit
operations involve a physical change or chemical
transformation such as separation, crystallization,
evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization,
and other reactions
Arthur Dehon Little propounded the concept of
"unit operations" to explain industrial chemistry
processes in 1916
In 1923, William H.Walker, Warren K. Lewis and
William H. McAdams wrote the book The Principles
of Chemical Engineering and explained that the
variety of chemical industries have processes which
follow the same physical laws
Unit process is one or more grouped operation in a
manufacturing system that can be defined and
separated from others. Unit processes are also
referred to as chemical conversions. In simple
terms, the process which involves chemical
changes are known as Unit Processes.
Chemical processing is the basic processing in
chemical engineering.
A process flow diagram (PFD) is a diagram
commonly used in chemical and process engineering
to indicate the general flow of plant processes and
equipment. The PFD displays the relationship
between major equipment of a plant facility and does
not show minor details such as piping details and
designations. Another commonly used term for a PFD
is a flowsheet.
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy
that comes from resources which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical

direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the
photoelectric effect.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use
lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a
large area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial
concentrated solar power plants were first developed
in the 1980s.
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or
recently living organisms. It most often refers to
plants or plant-derived materials which are
specifically called lignocellulosic biomass
Wood remains the largest biomass energy source
today
Biomass - organic resources that are used to produce
energy using these processes are collectively.
Geothermal energy is from thermal energy
generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy
is the energy that determines the temperature of
matter
geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo,
meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.
Petrochem & Pulp & Paper
Petrochemicals pure, identifiable substances
derived from petroleum and used in chemical trade
distillation and selective adsorption the most
important.
Gulf of Mexico -The major production plants
developed along the coast
Sulfur by-product that has become dominant in the
market, in addition to the usual organics
isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol)
The first organic chemical made on a large scale from
a petroleum base. First produced by Standard Oil of
New Jersey in 1920
Some oil companies, for example, Shell and
Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), became
involved in chemical production much earlier than
others.

The lower members of the paraffin and olefin series

have been the preferred and most economical
sources of organic raw material for conversion
UNIT
OPERATIONS
(or
Physical
Separation
Methods)New understanding of the parameters
affecting separative processes and the application of
mathematics to such work enables better separations
with lower energy consumption.
TRANSPORTATION It is not generally recognized, but
there are many miles of pipelines carrying such
materials as ammonia and ethylene over considerable
distances at low cost. The other low-cost
transportation methods are ships, barges, and of
course railways and trucks are used for smaller
quantities.
.

PETROLEUM- is oil that is found underground.

- can be as thick and black as tar or as thin as water.
- a complex, naturally occurring liquid mixture
containing mostly hydrocarbon but containing some
compound oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.
PETROLEUM IS A FOSSIL FUEL
Petroleum is also called Fossil Fuel because it is
made from animals and plants. As the animals and
plants died, they sank to ocean floor where petroleum
gotten. To reach the gas or oil, drilled deeper than
6500m.
Residue -components of the petroleum that are not
volatile enough to be distilled.
-include asphalt, residual fuel oil, coke and petrolatum
Octane Number
-the measure of suitability of a fuel for highcompression engines, is the% of iso-octane when
added to n-heptane knocks a special test engine to
same degree as fuel being tested.
Refinery

-The function in the refinery is to distilled the

petroleum to produce a new and usable product, with
a minimum of waste, from the thousands of different
hydrocarbons in this liquid mixture.
CELLULOSE
-Major component of woody plants
-Constantly replaceable
-Its conversion to paper products is the function of the
pulp and paper industries
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
-Consumers of large quantities of chemicals
-Largest energy users in the country, for this is
energy-intensive business
lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by
chemically or mechanically separating cellulose
fibres from wood, fibre crops or waste paper. The
wood fiber sources required for pulping are, 55%
sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, and 34%
recycled paper
Cottons and linen rags once the major sources of
fibers for paper
KRAFT PULP-Made from coniferous woods.Has the
longest fibers of all the pulps.Chemicals used are not
so harsh.Makes possible the production of very strong
papers
RECOVERY OF BLACK LIQUOR
-Essential factor in the kraft process.Contains 95-98%
of the total chemicals charged to the digester.Sodium
carbonate is present, as are also small amounts of
sodium sulfate, salt, silica, and traces of lime, iron
oxide, alumina, and potash.Total solids average about
20%.Concentrated, burned, and limed
NaSO4 + 2C Na2S + 2CO2.
THOMLINSON KRAFT RECOVERY FURNACE-Unit
presently most widely used for burning concentrated

black liquor.Black liquor is concentrated to about 35%

solids
SULFITE PULPING-The production of acid sulfite pulp
proceeds similarly to kraft pulping, except that
different chemicals are used in the cooking liquor. In
place of the caustic solution used to dissolve the
lignin in the wood, sulfurous acid is employed. To
buffer the cooking solution, a bisulfite of sodium,
magnesium, calcium, or ammonium is used
Food Flavors and Food Additives;Fermentation,
Vegetable oil and Biofuel Industries;Sugar and
Starch Industries
FOOD FLAVORS
-Flavorings are intense preparations which are added
to foods in order to impart taste and/or smell.
. Flavorants are engineered and composed in ways
similar to those for industrial fragrances and fine
perfumes
FOOD ADDITIVES
-The term food additive applies broadly to chemicals
that are added to food, either intentionally or
indirectly, to facilitate processing, maintain product
consistency, extend shelf life, ensure microbiological
safety, improve or maintain nutritional value, or
enhance the organoleptic qualities (flavor, color and
texture) of the finished products.
-This report covers six major food additive product
categories, including thickeners and stabilizers,
alternative sweeteners, colors, emulsifiers,
enzymes, and shelf life extenders (including
antioxidants and preservatives).
FERMENTATION
-Fermentation can be defined as the alteration or
production
of
products
with
the
help
of
microorganisms.
-It was the method of choice to convert fresh
agricultural products into durable food items for many
thousand years.

-The word ferment is derived from the Latin verb

fervere, which means 'to boil'. The science of
fermentation is known as zymology.
VEGETABLE OILS
-The vegetable oil processing industry involves the
extraction and processing of oils and fats from
vegetable sources.
-The oils and fats are extracted from a variety of
fruits, seeds, and nuts. The preparation of raw
materials includes husking, cleaning, crushing, and
conditioning.
-Crude
oil
refining
includes
degumming,
neutralization, bleaching, deodorization, and further
refining
BIOFUEL
Biofuel is a renewable form of fuel that can be used
as a solid fuel, liquid fuel or gaseous fuel. Biofuels
include; B100, Biodiesel, Biogas, Biomethane,
E100 Ethanol, Synthesis Gas (Syngas)
E100 Ethanol can be produced from sugar cane,
sugar beets or corn.
B100 Biodiesel can be produced from practically any
vegetable oil or animal fat.
Biogas - which needs to be cleaned up to
biomethane before it can be used - can be produced
from animal manure or other organic sources, which
is converted to biogas by placing the organic
materials into "anaerobic digesters."
Synthesis Gas can be produced from recently dead
organic matter that is processed through "biomass
gasification."
SUGAR INDUSTRY
-A sugar refinery is a refinery which processes raw
sugar into white refined sugar or that processes sugar
beet to refined sugar.
-Many cane sugar mills produce raw sugar, which is
sugar that still contains molasses, giving it more
colour (and any associated nutrients) than the white
sugar which is normally consumed in households and
used as an ingredient in soft drinks and foods.

While cane sugar does not strictly need refining,

sugar from beet is almost always refined to remove
the strong, almost always unwanted, taste of beets
from it. The refined sugar produced is more than 99
percent pure sucrose
STARCH INDUSTRY
-The starch industry extracts and refines starches
from seeds, roots and tubers, by wet grinding,
washing, sieving and drying.
-Today, the main commercial refined starches are
cornstarch, tapioca, wheat, rice and potato starch. To
a lesser extent, sources include rice, sweet potato,
sago and mung bean. Historically, Florida arrow
root was also commercialized. To this day, starch is
extracted from more than 50 types of plants.
-Untreated starch requires heat to thicken or
gelatinize. When a starch is pre-cooked, it can then be
used to thicken instantly in cold water. This is referred
to as a pregelatinized starch.

Introduction to CPI & renewable Energy

Major segments of Chemical Processing include:
Petrochemicals, Industrial Organic Chemical Producers
Industrial Inorganic Chemicals (Specialty Chemicals)
Industrial Gases
Agricultural Chemical Industry
Plastics, Rubbers, and Resins Manufacturers
Pigments
Fibers
Producers of Other Chemicals
Chlor-Alkali
Surfactants.
Chemical engineering unit operations consist of
five classes:
1.Fluid flow processes, including fluids
transportation, filtration, and solids fluidization.
2.Heat transfer processes, including evaporation
and heat exchange.
3.Mass transfer processes, including gas
absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, and
drying.
4.Thermodynamic processes, including gas
liquefaction, and refrigeration.
5.Mechanical processes, including solids
transportation, crushing and pulverization, and
screening and sieving
Classification of Unit Operations
1.Fluid Flow : Concerns the principle that determine
the flow or transformation of fluids from one point to
another. The fluid can be a liquid or a gas. This unit is
entirely based on Bernoulli e's equation followed by
continuity correlation.
2.Heat Transfer : Deals with principles that govern
accumulation and transfer of heat and energy from
one place to another. The three concepts followed
here are conduction, convection and radiation.
3.Evaporation : A special case of heat transfer
which deals with the evaporation of volatile solvent
such as waste from a non-volatile solute such as salt
or any other material in the solution. The evaporation

of trichloro-ethylene a cleaning agent in the

automobile service industry and acetone in the case
of glassware in a chemical process industries follow
this unit operations.
4.Drying : An operation in which volatile liquids
(usually water) are removed from solid material.
5. Distillation: An operation where a components of
the liquid mixture are separated by boiling because of
their difference in vapor pressure.
6. Absorption : A process whereby a component is
removed from gas mixture by treatment with liquid.
7.Liq-Liq Extraction : A process in which a solute in
a liquid solution is removed by contact with another
liquid solvent that is relatively irreversible with
solution.
8.Liq-Solid Leaching: It involves treating a finely
divided solid with a liquid that dissolves and removes
a solute contain in the solid.
9.Crystallization : The removal of a solute such as a
salt from solution by precipitation in the industries for
large scale operations, electrostatic precipitation is
operated for this concept.
10. Mechanical physical separation: This involves
separation of solids, liquids or gases by mechanical
means such as filtration, settling, size reduction which
are classified as separate unit operations.
Most chemical processes consist of a
combination of various unit operations and unit
processes
1. Alkylation:
Addition of alkyl radical (CH3) with side chain final
product. This alkylation process is widely used in
organic chemicals and petroleum industries.
2. Amination by Ammonolysis:
This reaction is used in manufacture of dye stuffs,
organic chemicals and synthetic fibres.
3. Amination by Reduction:
This unit process is also used in the manufacture of
dye stuffs and organic chemicals.
4. Amino Oxidation:

This reaction is used in the manufacture of plastics

and synthetic fibres.
5. Calcination:
This reaction is used in the cement industry.
6. Carbonylation:
This is used in the manufacture of organic
chemicals.
7. Carboxylation:
This reaction is used in the organic chemical
industry.
8. Combustion
9. Condensation
10. Cracking or Pyrolysis:
This reaction is used in petroleum destruction and
distillation of coal.
Role of Chemical Engineers
1.
Chemical Process Economics
2.
Material Balance
3.
Plant Location.
4.
Construction of Plant
5.
Research and Development
Important Fundamental Chemical Processes
are:
1. NITRATION
Nitration involves the introduction of one or more
nitro groups into reacting molecules using various
nitrating agents like fuming, concentrated, aqueous
nitric acid mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid in
batch or continuous process. Nitration products find
wide application in chemical industry as solvent,
dyestuff, pharmaceuticals, explosive, chemical
intermediates.
2. HALOGENATION
Halogens involve introduction of one or more halogen
groups into a organic compound for making various
chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine organic derivatives.
In iodination iodine, hydroiodic acid and alkali
hypoiodites
3.SULPHONATION AND SULPHATION

Sulphonation involves the introduction of sulphonic

acid group or corresponding salt like sulphonyl halide
into a organic compound while sulphationinvolves
introduction of -OSO2OH or -SO4-..
4.OXIDATION
Oxidation used extensively in the organic chemical
industry for the manufacture of a large number of
chemicals. Oxidation using oxygen, are combinations
of various reactions like oxidation via
dehydrogenation using oxygen, dehydrogenation and
the introduction of oxygen and destruction of carbon,
partial oxidation, peroxidation, oxidation in presence
of strong oxidizing agent like KMnO4, chlorate,
dichromate, peroxides H2O2, PbO2, MnO2; nitric acid
and nitrogen tertra oxide, oleum, ozone.
5.HYDROGENATION
Hydrogenation involves the reaction of a substance
with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. Some of
the other reaction involving hydrogen are,
hydrodesulphurisation, hydrocracking,
hydroformylation, oxosynthesis, hydroammonylsis,
synthesis of ammonia.
6.ESTERIFICATION
Esterification is an important unit process in the
manufacture of polyethylene terephathalate, methyl
metha acrylate, cellulose ester in viscose rayon
manufacture (xanthation of alkali cellulose with
carbon disulphide), nitroglycerine.
7.HYDROLYSIS
Hydrolysis is used both in inorganic and organic
chemical industry. Typical application is in oil and fats
industry during soap manufacture where hydrolysis of
fats are carried out to obtain fatty acid and glycerol
followed by addition of sodium hydroxide to form
soap.
8.ALKYLATION
Alkylation involves the introduction of an alkyl radical
into an organic compound by substitution or
reduction. Products from alkylation find application in
detergent, lubricants, high octane gasoline,

photographic chemicals, plasticizers, synthetic

rubber, chemicals etc. Some of the alkylating agents
are olefins, alcohols, alkyl halides.
9.POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is one of the very important unit
processes which find application in manufacture of
polymer, synthetic fibre, synthetic rubber,
polyurethane, paint and petroleum industry for high
octane gasoline. Polymerisation maybe carried out
either with single monomer or withcomonomer.
Polymerisation reaction can be addition or
condensation reaction.
Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit
process will include the following:
Process piping
Major equipment items
Control valves and other major valves
Connections with other systems
Major bypass and recirculation streams
Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow
rate, density, etc.), often by stream references to a
mass balance.
Process stream names
Process flow diagrams generally do not include:
Pipe classes or piping line numbers
Process control instrumentation (sensors and final
elements)
Minor bypass lines
Isolation and shutoff valves
Maintenance vents and drains
Relief and safety valves
Flanges
How does a wind turbine work?
1.Wind (moving air that contains kinetic energy)
blows toward the turbine's rotor blades.
2.The rotors spin around slowly, capturing some of
the kinetic energy from the wind, and turning the
central drive shaft that supports them.

3.The rotor blades can swivel on the hub at the front

so they meet the wind at the best angle for
harvesting energy.
4.Inside the nacelle (the main body of the turbine
sitting on top of the tower and behind the blades), the
gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive
shaft (about 16 revolutions per minute, rpm) into
high-speed (1600 rpm) rotation fast enough to drive
the generator efficiently.
5.The generator, immediately behind the gearbox,
takes kinetic energy from the spinning drive shaft and
turns it into electrical energy.
6.Anemometers (wind-speed monitors) and wind
vanes on the back of the nacelle provide
measurements about the wind speed and direction.
7.Using these measurements, the entire top part of
the turbine (the rotors and nacelle) can be rotated by
a yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the
tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind and
captures the maximum amount of energy. If the wind
speed rises too much, brakes are applied to stop the
rotors from turning (for safety reasons).
8.The electric current produced by the generator
flows through a cable running down through the
inside of the turbine tower.
9.A substation transforms the voltage of the
electricity so it can be transmitted efficiently to
nearby communities.
10.Homes enjoy clean, green energy.
11.Wind carries on blowing past the turbine, but with
lower speed and lower energy (for reasons explained
below) and more turbulence (since the turbine has
disrupted its flow).
forms of water energy:
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved
for large-scale hydroelectric dams. The largest of
which is the Three Gorges Dam in China and a smaller
example is the Akosombo Dam in Ghana.
Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power
installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of

power. They are often used in water rich areas as a

remote-area power supply (RAPS).
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems
derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without
the creation of a large reservoir.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the
Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global
hydropower in 2010. China is the largest
hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of
production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of
domestic electricity use. There are now three
hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW: the Three
Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the
Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.
How Solar Panels Work
1.Solar panels or photovoltaic systems are made up
of dozens of solar cells. Each solar cell within the
solar panel layers is made up of electrons that jump
back and forth producing direct power for the solar
system when the Sun's rays ignite with the solar
panel.
2.The Direct Current or (DC) power is then sent to an
inverter which converts it to alternating current
known as AC power.
3.The AC power travels from the inverter to your
breaker box. The power from the electrical panel is
then distributed to any electrical items used in your
home.
4.The computerized controller regulates and controls
the system and directs any unused power back to the
utility grid.
5.The grid-connected system automatically provides
additional electricity from the utility company any
time you need it or when solar power is not produced.
An example of when a grid would automatically
produce additional electricity would be at night, bad
weather or during the day when your homes demand
for energy has exceeded the amount of solar power
your system has produced.

6.The flow of electricity in and out of the utility grid is

measured by a utility meter.
7.When your solar system generates more electricity
than your home uses (the meter on the utility meter
spins left), your extra electricity is automatically sent
to the utility company. The extra power that your
system produced is sold back to the utility company
at the same rate that it is sold to other customers. If
this happens, this is when you will receive credits for
the excess solar energy from your local utility
company.
Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be
achieved by different methods which are
broadly classified into:
Thermal
Chemical
Biochemical methods.
How does biomass produce electricity?
In a process called photosynthesis, plants capture
sunlight and transform it into chemical energy. This
energy may then be converted into electricity, heat,
or liquid fuels using a number of different energy
conversion processes. Two of these processes are as
follows: Solid biomass fuels are burned in a boiler. The
heat produced turns water to steam which is then
used to turn a turbine generator to produce electricity.
The second method involves gasifying the biomass
and then burning it.
How does Geothermal Energy Work
1. After geothermal exploration is completed and a
suitable area is found to tap the reservoir, large-scale
power plants pump hot water through an injection
well with high pressure.
2. When water from the reservoir returns to the
surface through the production well, it gets converted
into steam, facilitating the movement of turbines.
3. These turbines are connected to a generator, which
produces electricity. The steam later cools off and
condensation takes place, forming water.

4. The water that has cooled off is again pumped

down through the injection well, and the process
continues.
Petrochem & Pulp and paper
Most basic raw materials supplied by petroleum
refineries or natural gas companies:
LPG
Natural gas
Gas from cracking operations
Liquid distillate (C4 to C6)
Distillate from special cracking processes
Selected or isomerizes cyclic fractions for aromatics
MANUFACTURE OF PETROCHEMICALS
1.Alkylation,
Dealkylation,
and
Hydrodealkylation
A. the largest volume chemical alkylations are:
benzene by ethylene to form ethylbenzene on the
way to becoming styrene; and the benzenepropylene alkylation to form cumenefrom which
phenol and acetone are derived
B.Cumene (isopropyl benzene)- made by reacting
benzene with propylene over a catalyst such as a
phosphoric acid derivative at 200oC and 700 kPa
C.Ethylbenzene made from benzene and
ethylene using several modifications of the older
mixed liquid-gas reaction system using aluminum
chloride as a catalyst
D.Dealkylation and Hydrodealkylation practiced
quite extensively to convert available molecules into
others more desired.
E.Tetraethyl lead prepared commercially by two
processes. The first and older process involves the
reaction between ethyl chloride and a sodium-lead
alloy
2.Cracking or Pyrolysis
-Cracking has been used to produce carbon black
-Olefins and diolefins are made, mainly by catalytic
cracking of various hydrocarbons
. ethylene - most important product, produced at a
rate of 12.7 X 10 9 kg/year with by-product propylene

produced at a rate of 5.9 X 10 9 kg/year. Made by

cracking at 760 to 860oC w/ very short residence time
Acetylene made by cracking; used in substantial
quantities

- Olefins used in manufacturing

detergents. Made by cracking heavy paraffins, but

many are made by oglimerization of lighter
hydrocarbons (ethylene), and others by the Alfol
process or the Ziegler process.
3.Dehydration
- commonly used in the production of ethers by
dehydration of alcohols
- much diethyl ether is made by dehydrating ethanol
w/ sulfuric acid as dehydrating agent
- vapor phase dehydration over catalyst such as
alumina is also practiced
-hydration of olefins to produce alcohols over an
acidic catalyst produces substantial quantities of
ethers as by-products
-the reverse reaction, ethers to alcohols, can be
accomplished by recycling the ethers over a catalyst
4.Esterification with Inorganic Acids
- A variety of solvents, monomers, medicines,
perfumes, and explosives are made from esters of
nitric acid.
5. Esterification of Organic Alcohols and Acids
ethyl acetate has been an important solvent,
particularly for lacquers, for many years. Ester
synthesis is relatively simple:
unsaturated
vinyl
esters
for
use
in
polymerization is made by esterification of olefins
- Vinyl acetate manufactured by reacting ethylene
with acetic acid in the vapor phase over a supported
palladium catalyst
- Chloroprene the monomer used in making
neoprene

- Esters of allyl alcohol (e.g. diallyl phthalate)

used as bifunctional polymerization monomers
6. Halogenation and Hydrohalogenation
- Ethane Chlorination ethane can be chlorinated
under conditions very similar to those for methane to
yield mixed chlorinated ethanes. Ethyl chloride has
been used mainly for making TEL, and can be
made by any on of the three methods:
(1)Traditional chlorination
(2) Friedel-Crafts olefin saturation to use up HCl from
reaction 1
(3) oxychlorination
- Ethylene Dichloride- when chlorine is added to
olefins such as ethylene, many and mixed derivatives
are formed: ethylene dichloride, dichloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethane, chloromethanes,
and higher chloromethanes all form
- Perchloroethylene used for textile cleaning and
vapor degreasing
- Chlorinolysis used to dispose of unwanted
chlorinated hydrocarbons with one to three carbon
atoms
7. Hydration and hydrolysis
Hydration-combination of water and another
substance to produce a single product.
- It is the opposite of dehydration.
2 ways of producing ethanol
- by fermentation
- by hydration of ethylene
Hydration of synthetic ethyl alcohol may be
-indirect
-direct
Isopropanol (isopropyl alcohol)
-the first industrial chemical synthesized from a
petroleum-derived olefin (1920)
- The first petrochemical
manufactured from hydration of propylene
4 Processes of Isopropanol Production:
1.sulfuric acid process

2.gas-phase hydration using a fixed-bed-supported

phosphoric acid catalyst
3.mixed-phase reaction using a cation exchange resin
catalyst
4.liquid-phase hydration in the presence of a dissolve
tungsten catalyst
8.Hydrogenation, dehydrogenation
Hydrogenation
-chemical
reaction
between
molecular hydrogen and an element or compound,
ordinarily in the presence of a catalyst
Dehyrogenation -a chemical reaction that involves
the removal of hydrogen from a molecule
-reverse process of hydrogenation
-under lower pressures and higher temeratures but
same catalyst as hydrogenation
Uses of Hydrogenation
1.Yields many useful chemicals
2.Used to eliminate other elements from a molecule
(oxygen, nitrogen, halogens & sulfur
3.Cracking in the presence of hydrogen is particularly
effective in desulfuring heavy petroleum fractions,
thus producing high-quality products
Methanol-manufactured by procedures very similar
to those used for ammonia, using CO and H2 from
synthesis gas raw materials and copper-based
catalyst
Styrene -is a liquid (b.p. 145.2C) that polymerizes
easily when initiated by a free radical or when
exposed to light
-is produced from ethylbenzene by dehydrogenation
-Dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene occurs
over a wide variety of metal oxide catalysts (Fe, Cr,
Si, Co, Zn, or their mixtures)
-Typical reaction conditions for the vapor-phase
process are 600700C, at or below atmospheric
pressure.
Aliphatic Ketones
-Acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone

Acetone-Today, most acetone is obtained via a

cumene hydro peroxide process where it is
coproduced with phenol.
-Acetone is produced from isopropanol by a
dehydrogenation, oxidation, or a combined oxidation
dehydrogenation route.
9.Nitration
- a general class of chemical process for the
introduction of a nitro group into an organic chemical
compound
- Makes unreactive paraffins into reactive substances
without cracking
- Is always accompanied by oxidation
Nitrobenzene -most important nitration product
Nitroparaffins -can be brought about by uncatalyzed
contact between a large excess of hydrocarbon and
nitric acid vapor at around 400C, followed by
quenching
10.Amination
-process by which an amine group is introduced into
an organic molecule
-ammonia or substituted ammonias (amines) react
directly to form amines
Ethanolamine
A mixture of mono-, di-, and triethanolamines is
obtained by the reaction between ethylene oxide (EO)
and aqueous ammonia. The reaction conditions are
approximately 3040C and atmospheric pressure:
Methylamine
Made by reacting gaseous methanol with a catalyst at
50 to 400C and 2 Mpa, then distilling the reaction
mixture
Dimethylamine is the most widely used of thethree
amines. The main use of dimethylamine is the
synthesis
of
dimethylformamide
and
dimethylacetamide, which are solvents for acrylic and
polyurethane fibers.
Monoethylamine is used in the synthesis of Sevin,
an important insecticide. Trimethylamine has only one

major use, the synthesis of choline, a high-energy

additive for poultry feed.
11.Oxidation
- reactions in which an element combines with oxygen
- All oxidation reactions are extremely exothermic.
Air most readily available oxidant
V2O5 commonest catalyst which is effective at
about 400C
Phenol
-Oxidation of cumene to cumene hydroperoxide,
followed by decompostion to phenol and acetone
- Oxidation of toluene to benzoic acid, followed by
decomposition to phenol
Benzoic acid
-Liquid-phase toluene oxidation over a cobalt
naphthenate catalyst with air as the oxidizing agent
Halogenation of toluene to benzotrichloride and its
decomposition into benzoic acid
Maleic acid
Oxidation of xylenes and naphthalenes to form
phthalic acids
Partial oxidation of benzene over V2O5 catalyst
Formic acid
Oxidation of formamide
By-product of the liquid-phase oxidation of n-butane
to acetic acid
Acetaldehyde
-has a brisk sale as a precursor of acetic acid, 1,3butylene glycol,glyoxal, pentaerythritol, peracetic
acid and pyridines
-Hydration of acetylene
-Wacker process developed by Hoechst
-Passing ethyl alcohol over a copper or silver gauze
catalyst
-Lower molecular weight paraffin hydrocarbon are
oxidized
noncatalytically
to
produce
mixed
compounds.
Acetic acid is widely used and is converted to
acetic anhydride

Ethylene gycol
-used in antifreeze
-major petrochemical
-Made by reacting chlorine and water with ethylene to
form the chlorohydrin, which was then then
hydrolyzed to yield glycol
-Purification of ethylene oxide, then convert it to
glycol by hydration
Aromatic products by oxidation
-Phthalic acid from xylenes or naphthalene
-Vanillin from eugenol
-Toluene to benzaldehyde and benzoic acid
-Cumene to cumene hydroperoxide
-Benzene to maleic acid and anhydride
12. Hydroformylation
-also known as oxo synthesis or oxo process
-important homogeneously
catalyzed industrial
process for the production of aldehydes from alkenes
-converts alpha-olefins to aldehydes and/or alcohols
containing an additional carbon atom
13.Polymerization
-any process in which relatively small molecules,
called monomers, combine chemically to produce a
very large chainlike or network molecule, called a
polymer. The monomer molecules may be all alike, or
they may represent two, three, or more different
compounds.
14.Miscellaneous
-MTBE produced by the reaction of methanol and
isobutene:
-By reacting a mixed butene-butane fraction with
CH3OH in the liquid phase on a fixed bed of ionexchange resin catalyst and the reaction are:
Carbon disulfide
- used for the manufacture of rayo
Manufacture of Petroleum to Polyethylene
1.Petroleum is drilled, extracted and then transported
to refineries.

2.Crude oil and natural gas are refined into ethane,

propane, or hundreds of other petrochemical
products.
3.Through cracking, with the help of high-temperature
furnaces, ethane and propane turns into ethylene and
propylene.
3.A catalyst is combined to the resulting monomer
from cracking long chain hydrocarbons into a reactor
resulting to a fluff (powdered material polymer).
4.Fluff is combined with additives in a continues
blender.
5.Polymer is fed to an extruder where it is melted and
cooled then it is fed to a pelletizer.
6,.Cuts would result to small pellets called nurdles.
7.Using processes like extrusion,injection molding,
and blow molding, plastic is shaped into products.
COMPONENTS OF PETROLEUM
1.Aliphatic or Open Chain Hydrocarbons
Alkanes or n-Paraffin Series, Iso-alkane, Olefins or
Alkene Series
2.Ring Compounds
-Cycloalkenes, Aromatic or Benzenoid Series
3.Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Asphalts
Component of Residue
Asphalt
- black, tarry residue used as a road-paving material,
for water proofing structures and in roofing material.
Hard asphalt is used as briquetting binder.
Petroleum Coke
-used commercially in making electrodes, in
manufacture of calcium carbide and ceramics and in
paints.
Early Refineries used the following in distilling
Petroleum:
1.Batch Stills- produces gases, gasoline then series
of oil increasing until a heavy lubricating oil or asphalt
remained.
2.Small Horizontal Cylinder
3.Condenser
PROCESSES USED IN REFINERIES

1. Cracking or Pyrolysis
- decomposition of a large hydrocarbon molecules
into smaller molecules by the action of heat alone.
2. Polymerization
- joining together of many small molecules to form
very large molecule.
3. Alkylation
- the union of an olefin with an aromatic or paraffinic
hydrocarbon to produce high octane synthetic fuels.
- the product contains no olefin but has a higher
octane number by the use of an acid (catalyst).
4. Hydrogenation
- addition of hydrogen in an olefin.
5. Hydrocracking
- carried out in the presence of a catalyst and
hydrogen at high pressure and much lower
temperature.
6. Isomerization
-changes straight chain alkenes with branched-chain
one without changing the number of atoms.
7. Reforming
-forming new molecule of a size similar to the original
ones.
-conversion of napthas, gasoline, and natural gasoline
to obtain products of higher octane number by
subjecting them to a high-temperature catalytic
treatment, in the presence of hydrogen.
8. Coking
-used on low value residuals, avoiding catalyst fouling
by asphalts which would otherwise
make fluid catalytic cracking difficult.
9. Oxidation
-increase in oxygen, decrease in hydrogen or both.
Products of refining
1. Acetylene 2.Ethylene 3.Propylene 4.Butene
5.Benzene
6. Toluene 7.Xylenes 8.Napthalene
Chemical Treatment
-Improvement of color and odor

-Removal of sulfur compounds, gums, resins, and

asphaltic materials
-Improvement of stability to light and air
-Improved susceptibility to additives
MAJOR PROCESSES of paper
1.Sulfate or kraft process
- Impregnation Cooking - Recovery process- Blowing
Screening Washing Bleaching - Process chemicals
2.Groundwood and thermochemical process
3.Semichemical process
4.Sulfite process
Types of Sulfite Pulping
1.Calcium-based
2.Ammonia-based
3.Magnesium-based
4.Sodium-based
Types of pulping
1.Neutral Sulfite Semichemical (NSSC) Pulping
In this method, wood chips are cooked in a neutral
solution of sodium sulfite and sodium carbonate.
Sulfite ions react with the lignin in wood, and the
sodium bicarbonate acts as a buffer to maintain a
neutral solution.
2.Thermomechanical Pulp
Thermomechanical pulp is pulp produced by
processing wood chips using heat (thus thermo-" and
a
mechanical
refining
movement
(thus
"mechanical")..
This process gives a high yield of fibre from
the timber (around 95 percent) and as the lignin has
not been removed, the fibres are hard and rigid.
3.Secondary Fiber Pulping
Paper recycling processes can use either chemical or
mechanical pulp. By mixing with water and applying
mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper
can be broken and fibres separated again.

Recycled pulp is also called deinked pulp (DIP).DIP

is recycled paper which has been processed by
chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other
unwanted elements and freed the paper fibres
4.Rag Pulping
The oldest material used for making paper, and the
material still used for the finest grades, is cotton in
the form of rags or cotton linters.
The cotton pulping process involves cooking the
finely-chopped cotton fibers with various chemicals
and water. During this process, the pulp slurry is
subjected to several cleaning stages prior to being
formed into finished products or half-stock sheets
destined for further processing by end users.
STRUCTURAL
BOARDS
PROCESSES
(Fiberboards)
Wood preparation
1. Producing quality fiberboard begins with the
selection and refinement of the raw materials, most of
which are recycled from shavings and chips reclaimed
from sawmills and plywood plants. The raw material is
first removed of any metal impurities using a magnet.
Next, the material is separated into large chunks and
small flakes. Flakes are separated into sawdust and
wood chip piles.
2. The material is sent through a magnetic detector
again, with the rejected material being separated for
reuse as fuel. Good material is collected and sent into
a pre steaming bin. In the bin, steam is injected to
heat and soften the material. The fibers are fed first
into a side screw feeder and then into a plug screw
feeder, which compresses the fibers and removes
water. The compressed material is then fed into a
refiner, which tears the material into usable fibers.
Sometimes the fiber may undergo a second refining

step in order to improve fiber purity. Larger motors on

the refiners are sometimes used to sift out foreign
objects from the process.
Curing and pressing
3. Resin is added before the refining step to control
the formaldehyde tolerances in the mixture, and after
refining, a catalyst is added. The fibers are then blown
into a flash tube dryer, which is heated by either oil or
gas. The ratio of solid resin to fiber is carefully
controlled by weighing each ingredient. Next, the
fiber is pushed through scalping rolls to produce a
mat of uniform thickness. This mat goes through
several pressing steps to produce a more usable size
and then is trimmed to the desired width before the
final pressing step. A continuous press equipped with
a large drum compresses the mat at a uniform rate by
monitoring the mat height. Presses are equipped with
electronic controls to provide accurate density and
strength. The resulting board is cut to the appropriate
length using saws before cooling.
Presses have counterbalanced, simultaneous closing
systems that use hydraulic cylinders to effect platen
leveling, which when operating in conjunction with a
four-point position control gives greater individual
panel thickness control. The hydraulics system can
close the press at speeds and pressures that reduce
board precure problems while shortening overall
pressing cycles.
Panel sanding
4. To achieve a smooth finish, the panels are sanded
using belts coated with abrasives. Silicon carbide has
typically been used, but with the requirement for finer
surfaces,
other ceramic abrasives
are
utilized,
including zirconia alumina and aluminum oxide.
Eighthead sanding equipment and double-sided

grading improves surface smoothness consistency.

Anti-static technology is used to remove the static
electricity that contributes to rapid loading and
excessive sanding dust, thereby increasing belt life.
Finishing
5.Panels can undergo a variety of finishing steps
depending on the final product. A wide variety of
lacquer colors can be applied, as well as various
wood-grain patterns. Guillotine cutting is used to cut
the fiberboard into large sheets (for example 100
inches wide). For smaller sheet sizes such as 42 by 49
in (107 by 125 cm), die cutting is used. Specialty
machines are used for cutting fiberboard into narrow
strips of 1-24 in (2.5 -61 cm) widths.
6. Laminating machines are used to apply vinyl, foil,
and other materials to the surface. This process
involves unwinding a roll of fiberboard material,
sending it between two rolls where the adhesive is
applied, combining the adhesive-coated fiberboard
with the laminating material between another set of
rolls, and sending the combined materials into the
laminator.
Process of Particleboards
The process of making this material begins with real
wood. Most manufacturers use waste wood products
collected from commercial woodworking factories,
although some virgin wood may be used as well. All of
this recycled wood fiber and sawdust is stored in large
containers before being processed into boards.
The wood bits are usually dried, then sorted to
eliminate overly large or small pieces. Once this
mechanical sorting has been completed, the
acceptable wood fibers move by conveyorbelt to a
blending hopper. Along the way, several overhead

nozzles spray the wood fibers with a strong liquid

resin or glue. Several different forms of resin may be
used, depending on the specific quality of particle
board desired.
The resin-soaked wood is then blended to form a
consistent paste. This combination is piped into a
forming machine, which presses out a sheet of
uncured particle board. The formed panels are then
pressed down for easier transportation to the final
curing ovens. Individual sheets are held under
pressure as the air around them is superheated. This
allows the resin to harden and form a very strong
bond with the wood fibers.
Some forms of particle board are left in this rough
state for use in flooring and other projects in which
the panels will not be visible. In situations in which
the appearance of the product is a concern, thin strips
of real wood, called veneers, may be added to the
surface of the board. Furniture manufacturers often
use veneer-covered particle board as a cheaper
alternative to natural hardwoods. Many assemble-ityourself desks and other home furnishings may also
be made from veneered particle board
Process of Paper-based laminates
a.Raw Materials The laminate production process
begins in the receiving area. Decorative paper, kraft
paper, overlay, and other raw materials arrive and are
inventoried and distributed to the appropriate holding
area.
b.Decorative Paper Decorative paper provides the
pattern, wood grain or solid color for a sheet of
laminate. Overlay paper gives laminate its surface
strength and scratch-resistance. Overlay paper is
taken to the melamine treater area where it is
saturated with melamine resin, cured and rerolled.

Both decorative paper and treated overlay paper may

be stored in rolls or cut to sheet size and stored until
needed. When the production schedule arrives in the
assembly area, sheets of decorative paper and
overlay are pulled from the rack system and
assembled in sets based on the days production run.
c.Core Paper Just as decorative papers are readied
for press, the kraft paper, which makes up the core of
laminate, undergoes a similar process. Kraft paper
arrives in the facility by rail and is placed in the kraft
paper storage area. From this staging area, the kraft
paper is taken to the phenolic treater where it is
saturated with phenolic resin, cured and rolled or cut
to size. Treated kraft paper is taken to the corestock
area where it is assembled based on the sheet
makeup required by the production schedule. Each
type of laminate (general purpose, postforming,
vertical grade) requires a slightly different core lay up.
d.Assembly/Pressing The collated material from the
corestock area is taken to the pressing department to
be collated with the decorative papers from the
assembly area. The two processes come together as
the decorative paper and core paper are assembled
at the press, and cooked for about an hour under high
heat and pressure. The decorative and kraft papers
are sandwiched between two stainless steel textured
plates which impart the tactile finish (gloss, matte,
textured) on the completed laminate sheet. Sanding
Once the press cycle is complete, the laminate is
taken to the sander. The edges of each sheet are
trimmed, and the back is sanded to provide better
adhesion in fabrication. At this stage the pattern
identification number is printed on the back of each
sheet.

e.Cut To Size Some special order sheets are cut to

size for the customer. This takes place in the cut to
size area after the laminate leaves the sander.
f.Finished Goods Once the laminate clears the
sander and cut to size areas, it is sent to the finished
goods staging area where it is stored temporarily
prior to being shipped to our market service centers,
distributors or direct accounts.
Shipping Laminate sheets are pulled from finished
goods inventory, packed on skids and loaded aboard
Wilsonart International trucks for shipment to regional
market centers.
Food Flavors and Food Additives;Fermentation,
Vegetable oil and Biofuel Industries;Sugar and
Starch Industries
Types of Food Flavoring
1.Natural
flavoring
substances: Flavoring
substances that are obtained from plant or animal
raw materials, by physical, microbiological or
enzymatic processes are classified as natural
flavoring substances. These natural flavorings can be
either used in their natural form or processed form for
consumption by human beings. substances However,
they cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial
flavoring.
2.Nature-identical flavoring substances:Natureidentical substances are the flavoring substances that
are obtained by synthesis or are isolated through
chemical processes, which are chemically identical to
flavoring substances naturally present in products
intended for consumption by human beings. These
flavorings cannot contain any artificial flavouring
substances.
3.Artificial
flavoring
substances: Flavoring
substances that are not identified in a natural product
intended for consumption by human being- whether

or not the product is processed- are artificial flavoring

substances. These food flavorings are typically
produced by fractional distillation and additional
chemical manipulation naturally sourced chemicals or
from crude oil or coal tar.
Chemicals Associated With Particular Flavours:
Chemical
Flavour
Allylpyrazine
Roasted nut
Methoxypyrazines
Earthy vegetables
2-Isobutyl-3 Methoxypyrazine
Green pepper
Acetyl-L-Pyrazines
Popcorn
2-Acetoxy Pyrazine
Toasted flavours
Aldehydes
Fruity, green
Alcohols
Bitter, medicinal
Esters
Fruity
Ketones
Butter, caramel
Pyrazines
Brown, burnt, caramel,
Phenolics
Medicinal, smokey
Terpenoids
Citrus, piney
4.Smoke flavoring substances : Although it is not
one of the basic flavorings, smoke flavoring has come
up as a significant food flavoring substance in the
world of food additives. Smoke flavoring is a natural
flavouring concentrate obtained by subjecting
untreated and uncontaminated hardwood, including
sawdust and woody plants, to one or more of these
listed processes for obtaining fractions which have
the desired flavour potential.
Basic Food Flavors
1.Flavoring Smell. Making of flavoring smells or
odors are similar to the making process of industrial
fragrances and perfumes. To make natural flavors
with desired smell, the flavorant is extracted from the
source substance through various methods like
solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to
squeeze it out. These extracts are then further
purified and added to food products in order to give
them a particular flavor. To make artificial flavors,

the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals

are identified and then mixed to produce a desired
flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavor
chemist or flavorist to give a food product a unique
flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between
different product batches or after recipe changes.
2.Flavoring Tastes.There are four basic tastes
known to human beings- sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
The substances that enhance umami and other
secondary flavors are considered to be taste
flavorants. The dictionary defines umami as- "a taste
that is characteristic of monosodium glutamate and is
associated with meats and other high-protein foods. It
is sometimes considered to be a fifth basic taste
along with sweet, sour, salty, and bitter." Therefore
flavoring tastes can be identified with flavor
enhancers that are largely based on amino acids and
nucleotides and are typically used as sodium or
calcium salts.
3.Flavoring Colors. The color of food also affect its
flavor. Therefore, food flavor suppliers have all kinds
of flavoring colors with them. Food colorings are
derived from natural sources as well as from
chemicals. The flavoring color additive regulations
around the world are different from each other.
Certain food colors that are permitted to be used in
Europe or Asia may not be acceptable in the United
States and vice versa.
few of the common processes of fragrances
1.Citrus - Cold pressed citrus oils have a high
content of terpene hydrocarbons, which do not
contribute much to the flavor and are detrimental to
the oils stability and solubility. Terpene hydrocarbons
are usually removed by vacuum distillation, thin film
evaporation or solvent extraction (a process that uses
distillation to remove the solvent before use). The
higher the vacuum of a still, the lower the boiling
point of the oil. This principle, when extended to a
short path still, results in a falling film evaporator.
Nash pumps are tolerant of process upsets and can

maintain constant vacuum levels under varying

conditions, making sure that the desired product
composition is achieved and downtime is not an
issue.
2.Vanilla - is used in a broad range of flavors and
fragrances. Vanilla extract contains more than 250
chemical components, and is generally extracted
through percolation method or the oleoresin method.
It is the second most expensive spice in the world
market, and one of the most widely used
flavors/fragrances.
Percolation method: an ethanol/water solution in the
range of 25-50:65-50 (v/v) is used as a solvent and
circulated over and through the beans under vacuum.
This process creates a four-fold strength vanilla.
Oleoresin method: whole beans are pulverized and
then ethanol is circulated over the beans, under
vacuum, at 45C. The excess alcohol is removed by
evaporation and the process yields a ten-fold strength
vanilla.
3.Cocoa and other beans- These flavors/fragrances
are also extracted through the use of solvents. In
addition to evaporation, the process can also involve
a vacuum filter, which also employs Nash vacuum
pumps. In every filtration application, a Nash liquid
ring vacuum pump or compressor can reduce
operating costs and minimize downtime.
Categories of food additives
.Acids. Food acids are added to make flavors
"sharper", and also act as preservatives and
antioxidants.
Common
food
acids
include vinegar, citric
acid, tartaric
acid, malic
acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
Acidity regulators. Acidity regulators are used to
change
or
otherwise
control
the
acidity
and alkalinity of foods.

Anticaking agents. Anticaking agents keep powders

such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming agents. Antifoaming agents reduce or
prevent foaming in foods.
Antioxidants. Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as
preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on
food, and can be beneficial to health.
Bulking agents. Bulking agents such as starch are
additives that increase the bulk of a food without
affecting its taste.
Food coloring. Colorings are added to food to
replace colors lost during preparation, or to make
food look more attractive.
Color
retention
agents.
In
contrast
to
colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve
a food's existing color.
Emulsifiers. Emulsifiers allow water and oils to
remain
mixed
together
in
an emulsion,
as
in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenizedmilk.
Flavors. Flavors are additives that give food a
particular taste or smell, and may be derived from
natural ingredients or created artificially.
Flavor enhancers. Flavor enhancers enhance a
food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from
natural
sources
(through distillation,solvent
extraction, maceration, among other methods) or
created artificially.
Flour
treatment
agents. Flour
treatment
agents are added to flour to improve its color or its
use in baking.
Glazing agents. Glazing agents provide a shiny
appearance or protective coating to foods.
Humectants. Humectants prevent foods from drying
out.
Tracer gas. Tracer gas allow for package integrity
testing to prevent foods from being exposed to
atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
Preservatives. Preservatives prevent
or
inhibit
spoilage
of
food
due
to fungi, bacteria and
other microorganisms.

Stabilizers. Stabilizers,
thickeners
and
gelling
agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example)
give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true
emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners. Sweeteners are added to foods for
flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to
keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they
have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth
decay and diarrhea.
Thickeners.
Thickening agents are substances
which, when added to the mixture, increase
its viscosity without substantially modifying its other
properties.
Process of Chewing gum
Preparing the chicle. If natural latex is to be used,
it must first be harvested and processed. The tall
32.79 yard (30-meter) chicle tree is scored with a
series of shallow Xs, enabling the chicle to flow down
into a bucket. After a significant. Chewing gum base
consists either of natural latex or a synthetic
substitute. Natural latex such as chicle is harvested
by making large X-marks on rubber trees and then
collecting the substance as it runs down the tree.
After grinding the base to form a coarse meal, the
mixture is dryed for a day or two. Next, the mixture is
heated in large kettles while the other ingredients are
added. Large machines then pummel, or "knead," the
mass until it is properly smooth and rubbery, and it is
put on a rolling slab and reduced to the proper
thickness. Amount of chicle has accumulated, it is
strained and placed in large kettles. Stirred
constantly, it is boiled until it reduces to two-thirds of
its original volume. It is then poured into greased
wooden molds and shipped.
Grinding, mixing, and drying the latex. The
natural and/or artificial gum bases are first ground
into a coarse meal and mixed to ensure uniform
consistency. The blend is then placed in a warm room
to dry for a day or two. During drying, hot air
continually passes over the mixture.

Cooking and purifying the base. Next, the gum

base is cooked in kettles at 243 degrees Fahrenheit
(116 degrees Celsius) until it has melted into a thick
syrup. To purify it, workers pass it through screens
and place it in a high speed centrifuge before
refiltering it, this time through finer screens.
Blending additional ingredients. The gum base is
now ready for additives. It is placed in kettles to be
cooked, and additional ingredients are stirred in by
large steel blades. First, extremely fine powdered
sugar and corn syrup are added. Flavorings are added
next, followed by softeners. When the mixture is
smooth enough, it is rolled out onto belts and cooled
by being exposed to cold air.
Kneading and rolling the gum. The next step is
kneading. For several hours machines gently pummel
the mass. After being dusted with powdered sugar,
the gum is scored into a pattern of rectangles,
seasoned, and broken into sticks. The gum is now
ready to be packaged and shipped to retail outlets.
Large chunks are then chopped off the mass, to be
flattened by rollers until they reach the proper
thickness of nearly .17 inches (about .43 cm). During
this process, the sheet of chewing gum is dusted with
powdered sugar to prepare it for cutting.
Cutting and seasoning the gum. A cutting
machine first scores the sheet in a pattern of
rectangles, each 1.3 inches (3.3 centimeters) long
and .449 of an inch (1.14 centimeters) wide. The
sheet is then put aside at the proper temperature and
humidity to "season."
Packaging the gum. Once seasoned, the gum
sheets are broken into sticks, wrapped in aluminum
foil or wax paper, wrapped in paper, and put into
plastic packs that are then sealed. Put into boxes or
plastic bags, the gum is ready to be shipped to retail
outlets.
Steps in the Grain Ethanol Manufacturing
Process:

Milling. The sorghum, corn or wheat first passes

through hammer mills, that grind it into a fine powder
called meal.
Liquefaction. The meal is then mixed with water and
alpha-amylase, goes through cookers, and starch is
liquefied at higher temperatures. These high
temperatures reduce bacteria levels in the mash.
Saccharification. The mash is then cooled and the
secondary enzyme (gluco-amylase) added to convert
the liquefied starch to fermentable sugars.
Fermentation. Yeast is added to ferment the sugars
to ethanol in a batch fermentation process which lasts
for up to 48 hours.
Distillation. The fermented mash, (11-14% alcohol),
the non-fermentable solids from the grain, and the
yeast cells are pumped to the distillation system
where the alcohol is distilled off. The alcohol leaves at
96% stength, and the residue mash, exits as a coproduct.
Dehydration. The alcohol then passes through a
molecular sieve to remove the remaining water from
the ethanol. The alcohol product at this stage is
approximately 99.8% purity.
Denaturation. Ethanol that is used for fuel is then
denatured with a small amount (2-5%) of petrol, to
make it unfit for human consumption.
Process of vegetable oil
1.Storage. Many steps in industrial processing find
their origin in the traditional processes. In large-scale
operations, oilseeds are dried to less than 10 percent
moisture. They may be stored for prolonged time
periods under suitable conditions of aeration with
precautions against insect and rodent infestation.
Such storage reduces mould infection and mycotoxin
contamination and minimizes biological degradative
processes which lead to the development of free fatty
acids and colour in the oil. Oil-bearing fruits such as
olive and palm are treated as quickly as possible.
Palm is sterilized as a first step in processing. Adipose
tissues and fish-based raw materials (that is, the body

or liver) are rendered within a few hours by boiling to

destroy enzymes and prevent oil deterioration.
2.Processing. Oilseeds are generally cleaned of
foreign matter before dehulling. The kernels are
ground to reduce size and cooked with steam, and the
oil is extracted in a screw or hydraulic press. The
pressed cake is flaked for later extraction of residual
fat with solvents such as "food grade" hexane. Oil can
be directly extracted with solvent from products
which are low in oil content, that is, soybean, ricebran
and corn germ. After sterilization, oil-bearing fruits are
pulped (digested) before mechanical pressing often in
a screw press. Palm kernels are removed from
pressed cakes and further processed for oil. Animal
tissues are reduced in size before rendering by wet or
dry processes. After autoclaving, tissues of fish are
pressed and the oil/water suspension is passed
through centrifuges to separate the oil.
3.Oil Refining. Refining produces an edible oil with
characteristics that consumers desire such as bland
flavour and odour, clear appearance, light colour,
stability to oxidation and suitability for frying. Two
main refining routes are alkaline refining and physical
refining (steam stripping, distillativeneutralisation)
which are used for removing the free fatty acids.
The classical alkaline refining method usually
comprises the following steps:
1.Degumming with water to remove the easily
hydratable phospholipids and metals.
2.Of a small amount of phosphoric or citric acid to
convert the remaining non-hydralable phospholipids
(Ca, Mg salts) into hydratable phospholipids.
3.Neutralising of the free fatty acids with a slight
excess of sodium hydroxide solution, followed by the
washing out of soaps and hydrated phospholipids.
4.Bleaching with natural or acid-activated clay
minerals to adsorb colouring components and to
decompose hydroperoxides.
5.Deodorizing to remove volatile components, mainly
aldehydes and ketones, with low threshold values for

detection by taste or smell. Deodorisation is

essentially a steam distillation process carried out at
low pressures (2-6 mbar) and elevated temperatures
(180-220C).
The technologies present in Biofuel Industries:
Anaerobic Digesters - anaerobic digester is a
system that takes an organic waste stream and
through the process of anaerobic digestion (meaning
without oxygen), microorganisms break-down the
waste stream which generates biogas in the process.
The biogas cannot be used due to the large amount of
impurities it contains, so the biogas must cleaned
through a biogas to biomethane process after which,
the clean biomethane, often referred to as "renewable
natural gas" is used just as natural gas, methane or
CH4.
Biogas Plants - A biogas plant is a renewable energy
system typically comprised of one or more anaerobic
digesters that "upgrade" organic waste streams to
biogas. Biogas is the "crude methane" that is
generated from landfills (landfill gas) or from an
anaerobic digester. In both landfills and anaerobic
digesters, the biogas is generated without oxygen,
hence the name, "anaerobic." A "biogas plant" refers
to having one or more "anaerobic digesters" at a
facility that is treating/processing organic waste
streams such as agricultural waste, brewery waste,
food processing waste, etc.
Biomass Gasification - is the process in which
Synthesis Gas is produced in the Biomass Gasification
process using organic wastes such as agricultural
waste and urban wood waste. The Synthesis Gas is
then used like any other fuel, such as natural gas,
which is not a renewable fuel.
Plasma Gasification - is the thermal disintegration
of carbonaceous materials into their elemental
compounds in an oxygen-starved environment using a
"plasma."

Using the technologies stated above, the following

renewable fuels will be generated:
B100 Biodiesel - is 100% Biodiesel that is produced
from oilseeds, crude vegetable oil, refined vegetable
oil and waste vegetable oil. These fuels are over 90%
less polluting than the "dirty diesel" produced from
fossil fuels and the 10% (nitrogen oxides) is easily
captured with selective catalytic reduction.
Biomethane - is the "renewable natural gas" made
from organic sources - which starts out as "biogas"
but then is cleaned up in a process called " Biogas to
Biomethane" which removes the impurities in biogas
such as carbon dioxide, siloxanes and hydrogen
sulfides (H2S).
E100 Ethanol - is 100% ethanol that can be
produced from a wide variety of biomass feedstock,
including, sugar cane, sugar beets, and other biomass
materials and waste-streams including cellulosic
biomass feedstock that is commonly referred to as
"cellulosic ethanol."
Synthetic Diesel - provides numerous economic and
environmental benefits over typical petroleum diesel.
First of all, Synthetic Diesel is sulfur-free and free of
other petroleum by-products that are found in
petroleum diesel that has been refined from crude oil.
This means that Synthetic Diesel is significantly
cleaner, cleaner-burning, and can be formulated for
superior cold weather performance and fuel system
lubricity.
Synthesis Gas - also referred to as "Syngas," is a
green renewable fuel in a gas that contains hydrogen
(h2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
Synthetic Gas - also referred to as Synthesis Gas or
"Syngas" are the names given to gas comprised of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide, generated through
Biomass Gasification plants - also known as waste to
fuel or waste-to-energy facilities.
Process of the Production of Biodiesel from
Waste Vegetable Oil:

Transportation
and
Treatment
of
Waste
Vegetable Oil. The co-op produces biodiesel mainly
from waste vegetable oil (WVO). This is the used oil
left over from restaurant fryers. The co-op collects
WVO in 200 to 250 gallon batches in large plastic
containers. The used oil is run through a screen to
filter out pieces of food, breading, or other large
particles. The used oil needs to be dried first to
remove as much of the water from the oil as possible.
Water in the oil, in the worse case, will prevent the
trans esterification process and yield a brown gel that
is unusable. Dewatering is done by putting 75 gallons
(one batch in this case) of the WVO in an insulated
vessel with a jacket heat exchanger. Hot water,
heated using solar thermal panels, is circulated
through the jacket heat exchanger. Previously, gas
was used to heat the water, but later the solar hot
water system was built from scratch to increase the
efficiency of the process. The heat helps the oil and
water to separate. After the water has settled on the
bottom, the watery oil at the bottom is drained out a
spigot leaving the dry oil in the vessel.
Titration. While the oil is drying a titration should be
done on a sample of the oil to determine how much
free fatty acid is in it, and thus how much additional
potassium hydroxide (KOH) catalyst to add to the
methanol. Free fatty acids (FFAs) are present in WVO
and will combine with KOH to produce soap. If extra
KOH isnt added to compensate for this reaction,
there would not be enough KOH available as catalyst,
and the biodiesel would not be fully converted. Too
much KOH and an unusable glop can result. It is
important that the titration be done carefully so an
accurate amount of KOH can be added. Titration is a
simple process and involves keeping track of how
much KOH/water mixture it takes to neutralize the FFA
in an oil sample. A pH indicator is used to tell when
the solution reaches about pH 8.5. The results of
titration are used to determine the amount of catalyst

to add to the methanol. At piedmont biofuels, .7477oz

of KOH is added per gallon of oil plus the extra
amount determined by titration. At this point, a liter
batch is usually made to test how the reaction will
proceed.
Mixing Methanol and Potassium Hydroxide. After
the amount of catalyst has been determined, the
catalyst needs to be mixed with methanol. Methanol
is flammable and dangerous. The safest way to
handle methanol is in a closed system which reduces
the possibility of contacting the methanol or
breathing its fumes. The methanol (22% by volume of
oil- about 16.5 gallons for the 75 gallon batch) is
piped from its storage tank directly into carboys
(sturdy HDPE plastic jugs). The amount of KOH
determined in the titration is then measured and
added to the methanol in the carboy. The carboy is
immediately re-sealed, picked up, and gently swirled
to begin dissolving the catalyst. The carboy should set
for 15-30 minutes, and then be swirled and let set
again. This process should continue until visual
inspection shows that all the catalyst has dissolved.
Transesterification.The methanol/KOH solution and
WVO are then ready to be reacted. The still hot WVO
is pumped from the drying vessel into the reaction
vessel. The reaction vessel is a 100 gallon vessel with
a circulating pump which circulates the mixture
through an external mixer that provides intimate
contact between the reactants. The lid on the
methanol carboy is replaced with a lid with a hose
barb attached. The methanol is piped to the reaction
vessel and the circulating pump agitates the mixture
for about two hours to insure a complete reaction.The
mixture is allowed to set unheated for 8-36 hours to
let the darker byproduct (mainly glycerol) settle to the
bottom. The remainder is biodiesel and some
contaminants. The glycerol and byproducts are
drained off the bottom through a spigot in the reactor

vessel. The Piedmont Biofuels batch process will yield

about 75 gallons of biodiesel (about the same as the
beginning amount of WVO used) and about 16.5
gallons of glycerol (about the same as the beginning
amount of methanol used). The glycerol at Piedmont
Biofuels is either composted or fed to goats on the
farm (apparently they love the stuff and prefer the
feed mixed with glycerin over the straight feed).
Washing the Biodiesel. Bubble washing with water
will remove most of the impurities from the biodiesel.
The biodiesel is pumped into a large bubblewashing
tub. This is a large flat-bottomed, open tub with an
aquarium air stone in the bottom attached to an
aquarium air pump. Water (about 40 gallons for the
75 gallon batch of biodiesel) is gently added to the
biodiesel so the two liquids dont mix. The water will
settle to the bottom of the biodiesel. Turn on the
aquarium air pump, and let it bubble for a few hours.
The rising air bubbles carry with them a layer of water
surrounding them. This moisture will take in soap and
water soluble contaminants. When the air bubble gets
to the surface, it pops, and the water turns into a
water droplet and falls back down to the bottom of
the tub, picking up more contaminants on the way.
Thus, the contaminants will remain in the water in the
bottom of the tub. The wash water should be drained
and
changed
to
remove
the
accumulating
contaminants. The biodiesel should be washed this
way two or three more times for about 6 to 8 hours
each bubbling. When the wash water is clear and has
the same pH as tap water and the biodiesel is clear,
the washing if finished. The biodiesel should be left in
the open tub so the water can settle and evaporate
out of the fuel. This can take a few hours to a few
weeks depending on the quality of the fuel. The better
the fuel is washed, the shorter the drying time. The
final step is to filter the biodiesel to 5 microns to
remove any abrasive particulates. The fuel is now

ready for use in any diesel engine with no

modifications.
Manufactiring Process of sugar
Cane preparation. Juice can be removed from cane
either by repeated crushing and washing (milling) or
by washing alone, with a final squeezing simply to dry
the spent fibre (diffusion). Better sucrose extraction
can be obtained by crushing finely shredded cane
rather than intact stalks and Preparation refers to
that step in which cane is finely shredded before juice
is extracted either by milling or diffusion. Cane is
prepared by passing it through one or two sets of
cane knives and then through a shredder.
Milling. A basic cane mill consists of three grooved
rollers. Prepared cane is squeezed between the
rollers, thus forcing the juice out of the fibre. The
basic work of a mill is the separation of juice from
fibre. Fibre, however, has the natural property of
always retaining approximately its own weight of juice
regardless of the pressure applied to it. To displace
retained juice, water is poured onto the cane fibre
before crushing. This is called imbibition.
Diffusion. A diffuser is an enclosed carrier through
which a bed of prepared cane is slowly dragged, while
copious quantities of water and juice percolate
through the bed to wash out the sucrose -bearing
juice. The fibre leaving the diffuser is saturated with
liquid and has to be dewatered in a mill before being
sent either to the boilers or to by-product processes.
Purification of juice. Juice from a milling tandem
contains a large amount of cane fibre that falls out
with the juice between the rollers of the mills. To
remove the fibre, juice is poured over a wire-mesh
screen, or cascaded over an inclined wedge-wire
screen). Diffuser juice, because of the screening
effect of the cane bed itself, is generally not
screened. The juice is heated and lime is added to
neutralise the natural acidity. It is then placed in a
large settling tank called a clarifier.

Evaporation. Before crystal growth can take place

the clear juice must be concentrated to syrup by the
removal of water by evaporation. To improve the
efficiency of the water removal step a process known
as multiple effect evaporation is used. Multiple effect
evaporation is the scheme where juice is boiled in
series in several vessels, with steam fed to vessel 1
only. Vapour from vessel 1 boils the juice in vessel 2,
vapour from 2 boils the juice in 3, and so on until
vapour from the final vessel goes to waste.
Sugar boiling. The syrup produced by the
evaporators is concentrated further in specially
designed
vessels
known
as
pans.
As
the
concentration rises the dissolved sugar crystallises
and the work of the pans is to grow sugar crystals
(from the sucrose in syrup) in several steps to
maximise the amount of sucrose recovered in raw
sugar.
Separation of crystals from molasses. Massecuite
leaving the crystallisers has now to be separated into
crystals and molasses. The more efficient this
separation, the more sucrose will be recovered as
sugar and the less sucrose will be lost in molasses. A
centrifugal is a machine that separates crystals from
molasses.
Centrifugation
involves
spinning
massecuite in a perforated basket; centrifugal force
acts on the molasses, forcing it through the
perforations while the sugar remains on the basket
wall. Water and steam may then be sprayed onto the
crystals to wash off the remaining molasses.
Sugar drying. Sugar leaving the centrifugals has
excess moisture which has an extremely detrimental
effect on the keeping quality of the raw sugar and
drying is therefore important. In a drier, the moisture
is driven off from the surface of the liquor layer
covering the crystal by passing heated air around the
sugar crystals. The product from the process
described so far is a raw sugar (Brown sugar) that can
be used as is, or sent to a refinery to be converted to
a white (refined) sugar.

Sugar refining. The purpose of the refinery is to

remove impurities from sugar crystals. The refinery
accepts raw sugar as its feed material. The sugar is
dissolved (melted) and the colour is removed by
various clarification processes.
The Manufactiring Process of starch
CLEANING.The raw material for wet milling is shelled
dent corn delivered in bulk. The corn is inspected and
cob, dust, chaff and foreign material are removed.
The cleaning is normally done twice before wet
processing. After cleaning the corn is transported to
the steeps.
STEEPING. A proper steeping is essential for high
yields and high starch quality. The steeping is carried
out in a continuous counter-current process. The
cleaned corn is filled into a battery of large steeping
tanks (steeps), where the corn is soaked in hot water
30 to 48 hours to begin breaking the starch and
protein bonds . The gluten bonds within the corn
begin to loosen and release the starch. The steeping
is actually a controlled fermentation. Sulphur dioxide
improves the fermentation by enhancing growth of
favourable micro-organisms, preferably lactobacillus,
while suppressing detrimental bacteria, moulds, fungi
and yeast. Solubles are extracted and the kernel
softens. The kernel swells to more than double size
and increases its moisture content from about 15% to
45%.
STEEPWATER EVAPORATION. The steepwater
containing approximately 10% dry substance is
drained from the kernels and condensed on a multistage evaporator. Most organic acids formed during
the fermentation are volatile and evaporate with the
water. The condensate from the first evaporator stage
will therefore be discharged after the heat is
recovered by preheating the entering steepwater.
SO2. The sulphur dioxide may be prepared by burning
sulphur and absorbing the gas in water. Because
modern processes call for more strict and narrow
dosage, a supply of sulphur dioxide gas under

pressure is preferred or SO2 is replaced by sodium

hydrogen bisulphite where no local gas supply is
available.

GERM SEPARATION.The soften kernels are broken

up in attrition mills to loosen the hull and break the
bonds between germ and endosperm. Water is added
to assist the wet milling. A good steeping ensures that
the germ will be freely released intact from the kernel
by a gentle milling operation with no free oil. Oil
constitutes half the weight of the germ at this stage,
and the germ is easy to separate by centrifugal force.
The lightweight germs are separated from the ground
slurry by hydrocyclones in a two step separation with
regrinding in between. The germs are washed
repeatedly counter-currently on a three-stage screen
to remove starch. Process wash water is added at the
last stage.
GERM DRYING. Surface water is removed from the
germs by a tapered screw press. The dewatered and
clean germs are fed to a rotary steam tube bundle
dryer and dried to approximate 4% moisture. Low
moisture content improves shelf life. The germs are
cooled and pneumatically transported to a germ silo
ready for bagging or oil extraction.
CORN OIL. Mechanical presses and/or solvent
extraction are used to extract the crude oil from the
germ. The crude oil is refined and filtered. A typical
yield per ton corn is 27 kg corn oil. During refining
free fatty acids and phospholipids are removed. The
finished corn oil finds uses as food and cooking oil or
as raw material for margarine. Refined corn oil has a
pleasant taste and does not develop off-flavours in
cooking
and
frying.
The
high
content
of
polyunsaturated fats is a nutritional advantage.The
residual extracted corn germ meal is used in animal
feeds or combined with the gluten feed.

FINE GRINDING AND SCREENING. After germ

separation the mill flow is finely ground in impact or
attrition mills to release starch and gluten from the
endosperm cell walls (fibres). The degerminated mill
starch leaving the fine mill is pumped to the first
stage of a fibre washing system, where starch and
gluten is screened off. The overs, hull and larger
fibres, are washed free from adhering starch and
gluten (insoluble protein) on screens in countercurrent with process wash water added at the last
stage. The last fibre washing stage has a slightly
courser screen for pre-dewatering the fibre prior to a
tapered screw press.
FIBRE DRYING. The dewatered fibres from the
dewatering press may be mixed with concentrated
steepwater and cakes from the oil press and dried to
approximate 12% moisture. The dried fibre are
pelletized to reduce bulkiness and pneumatically
transported to a silo ready for shipping.
PRIMARY SEPARATION. Crude starch milk from the
dewatering screen ahead of the fine mill and from the
first stage fibre washing are combined. The crude
starch milk contains starch, gluten and solubles.
GLUTEN RECOVERY.The gluten fraction from the
primary separator is traditionally concentrated on a
nozzle type continuous centrifugal separator - a
gluten thickener.
GLUTEN DEWATERING AND DRYING. The gluten
slurry is dewatered on a vacuum belt filter or
decanter. The decanter removes more water, but
require strict pH-adjustment to the iso-electrical point
of the gluten.
STARCH REFININGWashing with fresh clean water
refines the crude starch milk. With hydrocyclones it is
feasible to reduce fibre and solubles including soluble
protein to low levels with a minimum of fresh water.
To save water the wash is done counter currently, i.e.
the incoming fresh water is used on the very last step
and the overflow is reused for dilution on the previous
step, and so on.

CENTRIFUGES
AND
HYDROCYCLONES.
The
centrifuge obtains its gravitational force by spinning
the bowl. The hydrocyclone has no moving parts and
the separation is totally dependent on the pressure
difference over the cyclone.
STARCH DEWATERING. The purified starch milk is
discharged to a peeler centrifuge for dewatering. The
peeler filtrate is recycled to starch refining. The
dewatered starch is batch-wise peeled off and
discharged by gravity to the moist starch hopper.

STARCH DRYING. From the moist starch hopper the

starch is fed by a metering screw conveyor into a
flash dryer and dried in hot air. The inlet air
temperature is moderate. The dried starch is
pneumatically transported to a starch silo ready for
screening and bagging. The moisture of cornstarch
after drying is normally 12-13 %. Before delivery the
starch is screened on a fine sieve in order to remove
any scale formed in screw conveyors etc.
MODIFICATION. Most starch is used for industrial
purposes. Starch is tailor made to meet the
requirements of the end-user giving rise to a range of
speciality
products.
Many
and
sophisticated
techniques are applied. A most versatile principle
comprises a three step wet modification.

Steps in the
Grain
Ethanol Manufacturing
Process:

Chewing
gum