Basic Soil Mechanics

ATGB2513

Learning Outcome
Upon completion of this course, students should
be able: To differentiate the properties and behaviour
of various types of soil
To interpret a soil report
To explain various methods of dewatering
To discuss the various methods of soil testing

Basic Soil Mechanics

Core reading list
Craig, R.F., Craigs Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition,
Spon Press (2004)
Whitlow, R., Basic Soil Mechanics, 4th Edition,
Prentice Hall (2001)

Module 6
Testing, Measurement and Evaluation

Reference Text
Library ref:
624.151 36 LIU

Chapters 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 12, 14, 18 & 23

Module 1
Soil Materials

Synonym
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
USCS Unified Soil Classification System
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standards
USDA United States Department of Agriculture

Soil Materials
Soil and Soil Engineering
To a Pedologist Soil is the substance existing on
earths surface, which grows and develop plant life
To a Geologist Soil is the material in the relative
thin surface zone within which roots occur and all
the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK
irrespective of hardness
To an Engineer Soil is the un-aggregated deposits of
mineral and/or organic particles or fragment
covering large portion of the earths crust
9

Soil Materials
Soil and Soil Engineering
Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of
Civil Engineering involving study of soil, its behavior
and application as engineering material
Geotechnical Engineering Is a broader term for Soil
Mechanics

10

SOIL
Geologic definition: Loose surface of the
earth as distinguished from solid bedrock;
support of plant life not required.
Traditional definition: Material which
nourishes and supports growing plants;
includes rocks, water, snow, air.
Component definition: Mixture of mineral
matter, organic matter, water, and air.
11

Soil Formation/Nature of Soil Deposits

Soil material is a product of rock
May be defined as an accumulation of solid particles
produced by mechanical and chemical disintegration of
rock
May contain organic material
Soils are derived from the weathering of rocks and are
commonly described by external textural terms such as
gravels, sands, silts and clays.
What is rock?
Naturally occurring material
Composed of mineral particles firmly bonded
Difficult to separate; blasting, crushing, chemical
12

Engineering Soils
Soil Types
Description
Feel
Size (mm)
Characterization

Coarse-grained soils

Fine-grained soils

Boulders Gravel Sand

Hard, Gritty and Bulky
> 75 75 to 4.75

Silt

Clay

Slight Grittiness

Smooth

4.75 to 0.075 0.075 to 0.002

Particle size

< 0.002

Particle size and

mineralogy

13

Basic Geology
Knowledge of geology is important for practice of geotechnical
engineering;
The earths surface (lithosphere) is fractured into about 20 mobile plates.
Interaction of these plates causes volcanic activities and earthquakes;
The three groups of rocks are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock materials) emitted
from volcanoes that have cooled and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from sediments, animals and plant materials that are deposited in
water or on land on the earths surface and then subjected to pressures
and heat. Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earths crust
from the transformation of igneous and sedimentary rocks into denser
rocks;
Sedimentary rocks are of particular importance to geotechnical engineers
because they cover about 75% of the earths crust surface area; and
Rock masses are inhomogeneous and discontinuous.

14

 Categories of rock
Igneous rock solidification of molten material; by
intrusion or extrusion to earth surface
Sedimentary rock deposition, under water,
disaggregation, preexisting
Metamorphic rock igneous or sedimentary rock,
change or metamorphose under heat and
pressure

15

Geological process that produces soil

General controlling factors
Nature and composition of parent rock
Climatic conditions; temperature, humidity
Topographic and general terrain; degree of shelter or
exposure, density, type of vegetation
Length of time under particular prevailing conditions
Interferences by other agencies; storms, earthquakes,
action of human
Mode and conditions of transport

16

Geological process that produces soil

Weathering physical and chemical
Physicalnatural mechanical and abrasion

Coarse soil
Aggregate/gravel
Sand
Retained the same composition of parent rock

Physical weathering causes reduction in the size of the parent rock

without change in its composition.
Chemicalwater- acidic, alkaline, oxygen, carbon dioxide
Small particles, crystalline form, two dimensional, flaky
Clayey soil characteristic depends on parent rock, environment,
duration of alteration

Chemical weathering causes reduction in size and chemical

composition different from the parent rock.
17

Geological process that produces soil

Weathering effects;
Frosts within pore space; splitting, sharp and angular
Wind and water; attrition- rounded

18

 Type of soil produced by different weathering

Boulders; size
Sand (physical)
Silt (cohesive)
Clay (chemical)

Moisture
Dry, saturated (fully and partially)

Shapes and textures different

Particle size is used to distinguish various soil
textures.
19

Transportation process sorting out process

Not been transported residual soil, usually by chemical means,
flat terrain
Water alluvial soil (river deposit)
Estuarine mixture of marine and alluvial soil; favourable
foundation
Lacustrine fresh water; good foundation
Coastal, marine (blackish water); velocity, suspension,
deposition
Ice glacial soil (large to smaller)
Wind Aeolin soil
Sand dunes, loess; long distance, arid or coastal areas
Gravity... Colluvial soil (unsorted)
below slide areas, cliff base; future difficulties for foundation
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10

Soil Materials
Types of soils
a) Organic b) Residual c) Alluvial d) Colluvial
a) Organic soil is a mixture of mineral and organic material.
Usually dark in colour and with an odour.
b) Residual soil is weathered remains of rock after going
through the transportation process.
c) Alluvial soil is material (sand and gravel) deposited by
streams and rivers.
d) Colluvial soil is material transported and deposited by gravity
like landslides.

21

Loading and Drainage History

The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil;
influenced by the history of loading and unloading
since it was deposited.
Changes in drainage conditions; may have brought
about changes in water content.
Initial loading
During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil
increases as more layers are deposited over it; thus, it is
compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition
continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger.
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11

Loading and Drainage history

Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of
overlying layers. Unloading can also occur as overlying icesheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations
made by man.
Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was
initially compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said
to be overconsolidated. The degree of overconsolidation
depends on the history of loading and unloading.

23

Loading and drainage history

Drainage history
Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water
and then inundated with fresh water develop weak
collapsing structure.
In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods, cycles
of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface
to form a cemented soil.

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12

Loading and drainage history

Drainage history
Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to
large volume changes due to wetting and drying;
seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing
foundation damage, especially after exceptionally dry
summers.
Trees extract water from soil in the process of
evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore
either shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following
the removal of large trees.
25

Overburden pressure
Pressure/stress caused by weight of all material; more
dense for soil located deeper

Normal consolidation
Usually clay, subjected to pressure imposed by the
overburden since its formation; a soil which current state
corresponds to the maximum consolidation pressure

Over consolidation
Usually clay, subjected to access and extreme pressure
besides from the overburden since formation; a soil which
have present day overburden pressure less than the
highest historic consolidation pressure
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13

 Definition of clay based on stress history

Normally consolidated, whose present effective
overburden pressure is the maximum pressure that the
soil was subjected to in the past.
Overconsolidated, whose present effective pressure is less
that that which the soil experienced in the past. The
maximum effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidated pressure.

27

Clays are composed of three main types of mineral kaolinite, illite

and montmorillonite.
The clay minerals consist of silica and alumina sheets that are
combined to form layers. The bonds between layers play a very
important role in the mechanical behavior of clays. The bond
between the layers of montmorillonite is very weak compared with
kaolinite and illite. Water can easily enter between the layers in the
montmorillonite, causing swelling.
A thin layer of water, called absorbed water, is bonded to the
mineral surfaces of soils. This layer significantly influences the
physical and mechanical characteristics of fine-grained soils.
Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coursegrained soils and are responsible for the major physical and
mechanical differences between course-grained and fine-grained
soils.
The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on
mineralogical factors.
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14

 Main components of soil description

Nature of soil
Shape, size and particles distribution

State of soil
Density, relative density, water content

Fabric of soil
Homogeneity or layer sequences

29

Soil Color
Indicator of different soil types
Indicator of certain physical and chemical
characteristics
Due to humus content and chemical nature
of the iron compounds present in the soil

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15

Major Forms of Iron and Effect on Soil Color

Form

Chemical Formula

Color

Ferrous oxide

FeO

Gray

Ferric oxide
(Hematite)

Fe2O3

Red

Hydrated ferric oxide

(Limonite)

2Fe2O3 3H2O

Yellow

31

Field Classification; site exploration;

preliminary; with some in-situ testing
procedures
Identify particle size; visual and feel; proportion
of size range (shaking with water)
Course soils (British Standards)
Seen with unaided eye; Gravel > 2mm, Sand (0.06 mm <
2.0mm); gritty feeling; over 65% (coarse)
Clean sand or gravel; W or P gradation
Dirty sand and gravel; M or C gradation (fines are silty
or clayey
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16

 Field Classification
Fine soil (British Classification)

More than 35% < 0.06mm; visually

Need magnification to see grain
Silt (0.002mm < 0.06mm); slightly abrasive
Clay (< 0.002mm); greasy feel

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Field Classification
Compactness (field strength)
Hand spade, wooden peg
Loose, dense and slightly cemented

Structure; trial pit, cutting

Homogeneous; one type of soil

Inter-stratified; alternating or bands of different layers
Intact; non fissured fine soil
Fissured; direction, size and spacing

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17

 Field Classification
Cohesion, plasticity and consistency
Remove particles > 2.0mm; squeeze handful; descript
feeling; soft, firm, hard and crumbly

Dilatancy; fine sand and inorganic silt

Dry strength; high (clay), low (inorganic silt,
powdery)
Weathering; unweathered, slightly, moderately,
highly and fully

35

Soil Description and Classification

System to group soil;
Physical characteristic of soil particles
Performance of soil particles when subjected to
certain tests or condition of service

Textural classification
Assign descriptive name; e.g. clayey sand
Assign particle size limits to soil fraction and %
compositions corresponding to the descriptive
names
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Soil Description and Classification

Textural classification
Use more for construction; coarse grain soil (sand
and gravel); performance base on relative amount
of sizes of particles
Fine soil (silt and clay); produce little information
for engineering use; behavior depend more than
size eg plasticity characteristic

37

Soil Index Properties

As a guide; descriptive nature of soil constituents
Relates to engineering behavior of soil
Behavior of sands and gravels may inferred shape, size
and density
Behavior of silts and clays; interaction of particles with
water

Properties of soil that indicate the type and

conditions of soil
Provide structural properties; strength,
compressibility, permeability
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 Soil Index Properties

Particle size distribution curve for coarse grain soil
Mechanical; sieve analysis

Plasticity characteristics for fine grain soil and

relationship to natural water content
Hydrometer

Phase relationships (air, water, sand and solid) for

soil mass
Consistency limits; L.L, P.L and P.I

39

Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis is used to determine the grain size
distribution of coarse-grained soils
The particle size distribution plot is used to delineate
the different soil textures (percentage of gravel,
sand, silt, and clay) in a soil.
For fine-grained soils, a hydrometer analysis is used
to find the particle size distribution

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Soil Description

The identification and defining basic soil types, British Classification

System;
e.g. boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand, silt and clay
Including organic clay and silt or sand and peat
In terms of particle size range; Figure 1.6
Different percentage of particle sizes defines grouping
Dependent on sizes; two major groups
Coarse grain soil; > 65% sand and gravel sizes
Fine grain soil; > 35% silt and clay sizes
Sand & gravel further subdivided into coarse, medium and fine fraction;
Figure 1.6
Names in capital letter in a soil description; e.g. S for Sand
Mixture of basic soil types are referred to as composite type
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British Standard Range of Particle Sizes

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Soil Description

Sand & gravel can further described as well graded, poorly graded, uniform or gapgraded
Well graded; if there is no excess of particles in any size range and if no
intermediate sizes are lacking; smooth concave distribution curve
Poorly graded; if high proportion of particles have sizes within narrow limits;
uniform graded
Poorly graded; if particles of both large and small sizes are present but
relatively low proportion of particles of intermediate particle; gap graded
In the case of gravels, particle shape (angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded,
flat, elongated) & texture (rough, smooth, polished) can be described
Particle composition can also be described; sandstone in gravel and quartz in sand;
Table 1.1
Firmless or strength of in-situ soil description and can also be assessed by means
of tests ; Table 1.2
Description of soil structure can also be established; Table 1.3
Example of soil description;
Dense, reddish-brown, sub angular, well graded, gravelly SAND
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Table 1.1 Description of Composite Soil Types

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Table 1.2 Firmless or Strength of In-situ Soil Description

45

Table 1.3 Descriptions for Structure of Soil Deposit

46

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Soil Classification System BSCS

British Soil Classification System is shown in Table 1.4.

Soil group in the classification denoted by group symbols composed of main
and qualifying descriptive letters having meanings given in Table 1.5
Reference should also to be made to the Plasticity Chart for fine material; Figure
1.7;
Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit parameters; determined from laboratory
Determine the plasticity characteristic of fine soil represented by a point on
chart
Classification according to zone in the chart within which the point lies.
If point is above A-line, soil is Clay; and
If point is below A-line, soil is Silt
Any boulders or cobles (particles retained on a 63 mm BS sieve) are to be removed
before classification tests are carried out but their percentages in the total sample
should be determined or estimated
47

Table 1.4 British Soil Classification Systems for Engineering Purposes

48

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Table 1.5 Classifications Qualifying Descriptive Letters (BSCS)

49

Sub-group symbols in the British Soil Classification system

Primary Letters
Coarse-grained Soil
G = GRAVEL
S = SAND

Fined grained Soil

F = FINES
M = SILT
C = CLAY

Organic soils

Pt = PEAT

Secondary Letters
W = well graded
P = poorly graded
Pu = uniform
Pg = gap graded
L = low plasticity (wL < 35)
I = intermediate plasticity(wL : 35-50)
H = high plasticity(wL :50-70)
V = very high plasticity(wL : 70-90)
E = extremely high plasticity(wL >90)

O = organic

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Figure 1.7 Plasticity Chart: British System (BS 5930: 1981)

51

Soil Classification System USCS

Classification Systems vary from country to country, but most are based on
the US system (The Unified Soil Classification System, USCS), or the
British Standard Soil Classification System. The Australian Standard Soil
Classification System is similar to the British Standard, but the USCS is
widely used in Australia and the SE Asia region.
USCS with primary and secondary descriptive letter and meaning is shown
in Table 1.6.
USCS with primary and secondary descriptive letter and laboratory
classification criteria is shown in Table 1.7
The associated Plasticity Chart should be used as shown in Figure 1.8
In the USCS system, the divisions are slightly different, but given the wide
range of particle sizes, these differences are not important (for example, in
the BS system, fines includes silt and clay, and is defined as being < 60
m, but in the USCS, fines is < 75m). Australia and the SE Asia region.
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Table 1.6 Group Symbols with Primary and Secondary Descriptive Letters
(Unified Soil Classification System)

53

Table 1.7 Unified Soil Classification System

Unified Soil Classification System
CU 4
< 5% pass #200

1 CC 3

GW

CC < 1 or CC > 3

GP

< 15% sand

15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand

Well-graded gravel
Well-graded gravel with sand
Poorly-graged gravel
Poorly-graded gravel with sand

< 15% sand

15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand

Well-graded gavel with silt

Well-graded gravel with silt and sand
Well-graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
Well-graded gravel with clay & sand (or silty clay & sand)
Poorly-graded gravel with silt
Poorly-graded gravel with silt and sand
Poorly-graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
Poorly-graded gravel with clay & sand (or silty clay & sand)

< 15% sand

15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand
< 15% sand
15% sand

Silty gravel
Silty gravel with sand
Clayey gravel
Clayey grvel with sand
Silty, clayey gravel
Silty, clayey gravel with sand

< 15% gravel

15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel

Well-graded sand
Well-graded sand with gravel
Poorly-graded sand
Poorly- graded sand with gravel

< 15% gravel

15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel

Well-graded gsand with silt

Well-graded sand with silt and gravel
Well-graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
Well-graded sand with clay & gravel (or silty clay & sand)
Poorly-graded sand with silt
Poorly-graded sand with silt and gravel
Poorly-graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
Poorly-graded sand with clay & gravel (or silty clay & sand)

< 15% gravel

15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel

Silty sand
Silty sand with gravel
Clayey sand
Clayey sand with gravel
Silty, clayey sand
Silty, clayey sand with gravel

CU < 4
CU 4

Gravel
% sand < % gravel
50% or more of
coarse fraction
retained on the
4.75 mm (#4)
sieve
CourseGrained
Soils
More than
50%
retained on
the 0.075
mm (#200)
sieve

5 - 12% pass #200

ML or MH

GW-GM

CL, CH, or CL-ML

GW-GC

ML or MH

GP-GM

CL, CH, or CL-ML

GP-GC

ML or MH

GM

CL or CH

GC

CL-ML

GC-GM

1 CC 3

CC < 1 or CC > 3

CU < 4

> 12% pass #200

CU 6
< 5% pass #200

1 CC 3

SW

CC < 1 or CC > 3

SP

CU < 6
CU 6

Sand
% sand % gravel

5 - 12% pass #200

50% or more of
coarse fraction
passes the 4.75
mm (#4) sieve

ML or MH

SW-SM

CL, CH, or CL-ML

SW-SC

ML or MH

SP-SM

CL, CH, or CL-ML

SP-SC

ML or MH

SM

CL or CH

SC

CL-ML

SC-SM

1 CC 3

CC < 1 or CC > 3

CU < 6

> 12% pass #200

Flow chart for classification of coarse-grained soils

Coduto, D.P., Yeung, R.M. and Kitch, W.A. 2011. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices . 2nd edn. USA: Pearson(Adapted from ASTM D2487).

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Table 1.7 Unified Soil Classification System

Unified Soil Classification System
70% pass #200
CL

85% pass #200

70 - 84% pass #200
% sand % gravel

50 - 69% pass #200

% sand < % gravel

70% pass #200

Silts and Clays
Liquid Limit < 50%

CL -ML

85% pass #200

70 -84% pass #200
% sand % gravel

50 - 69% pass #200

% sand < % gravel
Fine-Grained
Soils

70% pass #200

More than
50% passes
the 0.075 mm
(#200) sieve

ML

85% pass #200

70 -84% pass #200
% sand % gravel

50 - 69% pass #200

% sand < % gravel

70% pass #200

CH

85% pass #200

70 -84% pass #200
% sand % gravel

50 - 69% pass #200

Silts and Clays
Liquid Limit 50%

% sand < % gravel

70% pass #200

MH

85% pass #200

70 -84% pass #200
% sand % gravel

50 - 69% pass #200

% sand < % gravel

% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand

Lean clay
Lean clay with sand
Lean clay with gravel
Sandy lean clay
Sandy lean clay with gravel
Gravelly lean clay
Gravelly lean clay with sand

% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand

Silty clay
Silty clay with sand
Silty clay with gravel
Sandy silty clay
Sandy silty clay with gravel
Gravell silty clay
Gravelly silty clay with sand

% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand

Silt
Silt with sand
Silt with gravel
Sandy silt
Sandy silt with gravel
Gravelly silt
Gravelly silt with sand

% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand

Fat clay
Fat clay with sand
Fat clay with gravel
Sandy fat clay
Sandy fat clay with gravel
Gravelly fat clay
Gravelly fat clay with sand

% sand % gravel
% sand < % gravel
< 15% gravel
15% gravel
< 15% sand
15% sand

Elastic silt
Elastic silt with sand
Elastic silt with gravel
Sandy elastic silt
Sandy elastic silt with gravel
Gravelly elastic silt
Gravelly elastic sitl with sand

Flow chart for classification of inorganic fine-grained soils

55

Coduto, D.P., Yeung, R.M. and Kitch, W.A. 2011. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices . 2nd edn. USA: Pearson(Adapted from ASTM D2487).

Figure 1.8 Plasticity Chart (Unified Soil Classification System)

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 Basic characteristic of soil constituents (British

Soil Classification System);
Majority consist of mixtures of inorganic mineral
particles, with water and air(void); solid, water
and gas phases
Rock fragments
Fairly large (> 2mm) eg sand to gravel(stone)
Soundness depends on extent of mineral
decomposition

Mineral grain
Separate particles of mineral eg sand (quartz)
Size from 2mm to clay (1m)
57

Basic characteristic of soil constituents(British

Soil Classification System)
Dependent on sizes; two major groups
Coarse grain soil; > 65% sand and gravel sizes
Fine grain soil; > 35% silt and clay sizes

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 Coarse grain

Individual grain; wet or dry condition

Particle size > 0.06mm; sands and gravels
Rounded and angular (depend on degree of wear)
Fragments of rock, quartz or jespar, iron oxide, calcite, mica
Equidimentional shape; crystalline structure of mineral
Cohesionless

Fine grain

Particle size < 0.06mm; silts and clays

Flaky shape; large surface area
Very fine sulphides and oxides
Organic (infrequent)
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British Standard Range of Particle Sizes

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Soil Classification- Basic Soil Type Group

Very coarse
soils

BOULDERS

> 200 mm

COBBLES

60 - 200 mm

G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND

Fine
soils

M
SILT

C CLAY

coarse

20 - 60 mm

medium

6 - 20 mm

fine

2 - 6 mm

coarse

0.6 - 2.0 mm

medium

0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine

0.06 - 0.2 mm

coarse

0.02 - 0.06 mm

medium

0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine

0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm

61

Gravel fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 60 mm and 2 mm. The gravel fraction is subdivided as
follows:
Coarse gravel 60 mm to 20 mm
Medium gravel 20 mm to 6 mm
Fine gravel 6 mm to 2 mm
Sand fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 2.0 mm and 0.06 mm. The sand fraction is subdivided as
follows:
Coarse sand 2.0 mm to 0.6 mm
Medium sand 0.6 mm to 0.2 mm
Fine sand 0.2 mm to 0.06 mm
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Silt fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes
of 0.06 mm (63 m) and 0.002 mm. The silt fraction is
subdivided as follows:
Coarse silt 0.06 mm to 0.02 mm
Medium silt 0.02 mm to 0.006 mm
Fine silt 0.006 mm to 0.002 mm
Clay fraction(BSCS)
The fraction of a soil composed of particles smaller

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British Soil Standard Range of Particle Sizes and Classification

Very coarse
soils

BOULDERS

> 200 mm

COBBLES

60 - 200 mm

G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND

M
SILT

Fine
soils

coarse

20 - 60 mm

medium

6 - 20 mm

fine

2 - 6 mm

coarse

0.6 - 2.0 mm

medium

0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine

0.06 - 0.2 mm

coarse

0.02 - 0.06 mm

medium

0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine

0.002 - 0.006 mm

C CLAY

< 0.002 mm

65

Unified Soil Classification System

ASTM Particle Size Classification (ASTM D2487)
Sieve Size
Passes

Particle Size
Retained on

(inch)

mm

12 in.

>12

>300

Boulder

12 in (300 mm)

3 in.

3 12

75 300

Cobble

Rock Fragment

3 in. (75 mm)

in

0.75 3

19.0 75

Coarse gravel

in. (19 mm)

#4

0.19 0.75

4.75 19.0

Fine gravel

#4 (4..75 mm)

#10

0.079 0.19

2.00 4.75

Coarse sand

#10 (2.00 mm)

#40

0.017 0.079

0.425 2.00

Medium sand

#40 (0.425 mm)

#200

0.003 0.017

0.075 0.425

Fine sand

< 0.003

< 0.075

Fines (silt + clay)

#200 (0.075 mm)

Soil

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Plasticity of fine grain soils

Ability to undergo unrecovered deformation
without cracking or crumbling
Due to presence of high clay content
Ratio of mass of water to mass of soil
Water reduction; Liquid>plastic>semi-solid
Cohesion; negative pressure>capillary
action>suction

68

34

69

Consistency Relationship of Cohesive Soil

70

35

71

72

36

 Liquid limit
Two main types of test are specified.
The first is the cone penetrometer method, which is fundamentally
more satisfactory than the alternative because it is essentially a static
test depending on soil shear strength. It is also easier to perform and
gives more reproducible results.
The second is the much earlier Casagrande type of test which has
been used for many years as a basis for soil classification and
correlation of engineering properties. This test introduces dynamic
effects and is more susceptible to discrepancies between operators.
For both types of test an alternative rapid one-point procedure is
given, which may give less accurate results.

73

Liquid limit
Cone penetration (Penetrometer) Method;
This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a
sample of soil in its natural state, or of a sample of soil from which
material retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
Proceed from drier to wetter state; range approx. from 15mm to
25mm; water content against penetration graph (20mm defines
the liquid limit)
The amount of water added shall be such that a range of
penetration values of approximately 15 mm to 25 mm is covered
by the four or more test runs and is evenly distributed.

74

37

Penetration Water Content Graph

75

Liquid limit
Casagrande Method
This is an alternative method for the determination of the liquid limit
of a sample of natural soil, or of a sample of soil from which material
retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
Flat metal cup; grove; dropping of cup
Turn the crank handle at the rate of 2 revolution/sec so that the cup
is lifted and dropped, counting the number of bumps. Continue until
the two parts of the soil come into contact at the bottom of the
groove along a distance of 13 mm, measured with the end of the
grooving tool or with a ruler. Record the number of bumps at which
this occurs.

76

38

Log N

Flow Curve - Interpolate Liquid Limit water content at 25 blows

77

Plastic limit
This method covers the determination of the plastic limit of a soil
sample, i.e. the lowest moisture content at which the soil is plastic.
The sample shall be of soil in its natural state, or of soil from which
material retained on a 425 m test sieve has been removed.
flat, glass plate, smooth and free from scratches, on which threads are
rolled. A convenient size of plate is about 10 mm thick and 300 mm
square.
A length of rod, 3 mm in diameter and about 100 mm long.

78

39

 Plastic limit
Roll the thread between the fingers, from finger-tip to the second
joint, of one hand and the surface of the glass rolling plate. Use
enough pressure to reduce the diameter of the thread to about 3 mm
in five to 10 complete, forward and back, movements of the hand.
Some heavy clays will require 10 to 15 movements when the soil is
near the plastic limit because the soil hardens at this stage. It is
important to maintain a uniform rolling pressure; do not reduce the
pressure as the thread diameter approaches 3 mm.
Pick up the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it further, form it
into a thread and roll it out again
Repeat until the thread shears both longitudinally and transversely
when it has been rolled to about 3 mm diameter, as gauged by the
rod. Do not gather the pieces of soil together after they have
crumbled, in order to reform a thread and to continue rolling; the first
crumbling point is the plastic limit.
Determine water content
79

Organic matter
Originates from plant and animal; decomposed
Topsoil < 0.5m from surface
Peat fibrous organic material
Undesirable properties (engineering)
High absorbance and compressibility (why), low bearing
capacity, settlement, shear failure
High cost for stabilization

80

40

 Water
Ever present, fundamental,
Substantial influence on soil properties
Seepage and permeability (pros and cons)

Compressibility, containment, drainage

Pressure on retaining system
Shear strength
Chemical reaction (sulphate ions; Portland cement
concrete), harmful to structures

81

Nature and structure of clay minerals

Weathering of felspars and micas
Layer-lattice minerals; small, flaky; ion of silicon,
magnesium, aluminium
Four main groups; kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite, vermiculite
Kaolinite weathering of felspar; kaolin and china clay
Illite degradation of micas under marine conditions;
shale and marine clay
Montmorillonite further degardation of illite; high
swelling and shrinkage
Vermiculite weathering from biotite and chloride;
swelling and shrinkage
82

41

 Some important properties of clay minerals

Surface area; large with lesser weight
Surface charge and absorption; ability to absorb
water
Base exchange capacity; ability to absorb water
Flocculation and dispersion; thin layer structure
and high liquid limit
Swelling and shrinkage; absorption and dispersion
of water

83

Soil quality
Detrimental effects on embedded structures;
testing samples of ground water
Soluble sulphates
Reacts with certain constituents of Portland cement;
inhibits hardening and disruption to aggregate binding
process

Organic acids; in peat soil

Reacts with lime in cement to form calcium salts;
deteriorate concrete with high water/cement content

pH value; presence of industrial waste or other

pollutants
Corrosion of buried iron, steel and some concrete
84

42

Physical Properties
of Soil
Soil texture
Soil structure
Soil color
Bulk density

85

Particle size distribution; sieve analysis;

description of type of soil eg poorly or well
graded, sandy, silty, gravel
Engineering properties
Uniformity Coefficient CU ; measure particle size range
CU = d60 / d10 ; Hazen Coefficient; permeability; d60 maximum
size of the smallest 60 % of the sample

Coefficient of Curvature or Gradation

CC or CZ or CG = ( d30 )2 / ( d60 x d10 ) ; measure the shape of the
particle size curve

Coefficient of Permeability
k = CK ( d10 )2 m/sec ; CK is coefficient of permeability range
from 0.01 to 0.015
86

43

87

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often
included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be
tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These
properties are called grading characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:
d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample
d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample
From these the grading characteristics are calculated:
Effective size
d10 , d30 and d60
Uniformity coefficient
CU = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
CC or CG or CZ = ( d30 )2 / ( d60 x d10 )

Grading characteristics
88

44

Both CU and CC or CG or CZ will be 1 for a single-sized soil

CU > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
CU < 3 indicates a uniform (one type) soil
CC between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
CC < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Two coefficients the uniformity coefficient, CU , and the coefficient of
curvature CC or CG or CZ , are used to characterize the particle size
distribution.
Poorly graded soils have uniformity coefficient < 4 and steep gradation
curves (USCS).
Well-graded soils have uniformity coefficients > 4, coefficients of
curvature between 1 and 3, and flat gradation curves(USCS).
Gap-graded soils have coefficients of curvature < 1 or > 3, and one or
more humps on the gradation curves(USCS).

89

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND

B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT
E - a typical silty CLAY
Typical grading curves

90

45

Soil Classification- British Basic Soil Type Group

Very coarse
soils

BOULDERS

> 200 mm

COBBLES

60 - 200 mm

G
GRAVEL
Coarse
soils
S
SAND

Fine
soils

M
SILT

C CLAY

coarse

20 - 60 mm

medium

6 - 20 mm

fine

2 - 6 mm

coarse

0.6 - 2.0 mm

medium

0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine

0.06 - 0.2 mm

coarse

0.02 - 0.06 mm

medium

0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine

0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm

91

Figure 1.7 Plasticity Chart: British System (BS 5930: 1981)

92

46

93

94

47

Soil Classification Example

Using British and Unified Soil Classification System
Example Using British and Unified Soil Classification System

95

For classification of Fine grained soils and Fine-grained fraction of Coarse-Grained

Soils Equation of A Line: Horizontal at PI = 4 to LL = 25.5, then PI = 0.73 (LL-20)
Equation of "U" Line: Vertical at LL = 16 to PI = 7, then PI = 0.9 (LL-8)
96

48

97

Fine- grained soils can exist one of four states: solid, semisolid, plastic and
liquid.
Water is the agent that is responsible for changing the states of soils.
A soil gets weaker if its water content increases.
Three limits are defined based on the water content that causes a change
of state.
These are the liquid limit the water content that caused the soil to change
from liquid to a plastic state;
The plastic limit the water content that cause the soil to change from plastic
to semisolid; and
The shrinkage limit the water content that caused the soil to change from a
semisolid to a solid state.
All these limiting water contents are found from laboratory tests

The plasticity index defines the range the water content for which the soil
behaves like a plastic material.
The liquidity index gives a measure of strength.
The soil strength is the lowest at the liquid state and the highest at the
solid states.
98

49

99

Liquid Limits
Ranges from 35% to 55% moisture content
Normally consolidated soils, (consolidated or densified
under their own weight). If deposited through gentle
agitation from slow moving rivers, deltaic fans, ice melt
or quiet marine shore conditions, the LL value can be
much lower. The soil can be classed as sensitive.

Ranges from 60% to 100% moisture content

Over consolidated soils, (subjected to high surcharge
loads, such as a thick layer of ice, rock formations that
have been denuded or eroded away, or subject to many
wetting and drying cycles).
100

50

 Plastic Limits
Low values below 10% tell us that the soil is
normally consolidated, but sensitive.
Values between 10% and 25% tell us that the soil
is normally consolidated and medium to low
sensitivity.
Values above 30% moisture content tell us that
the soil is over consolidated and insensitive.

101

Plasticity Chart and Classification

Low Plasticity

WL= < 35%

Intermediate High Plasticity

WL= < 35% - 50%

High Plasticity

WL= < 50% - 70%

Very High Plasticity

WL= < 70% - 90%

Extremely High Plasticity

WL= > 90%

102

51

Soil Description and Classification

Textural classification
Textural soil
classification chart
(USDA)
Index line for clay is
horizontal
Index line for silt is down
and towards the left
Index line for sand is
upwards towards the left
When all index lines
meet, the intersection
point descript the soil
103

U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes

Sieve No

Opening (mm)

Sieve No

Opening (mm)

4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30

4.75
4.00
3.35
2.80
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.88
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600

35
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
170
200
270
0.6 mm

0.500
0.425
0.355
0.250
0.212
0.180
0.150
0.125
0.106
0.090
0.075
0.053

104

52

US Standard Sieve Size

British Standard Sieve Size

3 in. (75mm)
2 in. (50.0mm)
1.5 in. (38.1mm)
3/4 in. (19.0mm)
in. (12.5mm)
3/8 in. (9.5mm)
No. 4 (4.75mm)
No. 10 (2.0mm)
No. 20 (0.85mm)
No. 40 (425mm, )
No. 60 (0.25mm)
No. 100 (0.15mm)
No. 200 (75m, 0.075mm)

75 mm
63 mm
50 mm
37.5 mm
20.0 mm
14.0 mm
10.0 mm
6.3 mm
5.0 mm
2.0 mm
1.18 mm
0.6 mm
0.425 mm
0.3 mm
0.212 mm
0.15 mm
0.063 mm
105

APERTURE SIZE
BSS Mesh
No.

ASTM Mesh
No.

(410/1969)

(11-70)

4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
22
25
30
36
44
52
60
72
85
100
120
150
170
200
240
300
350
400
500

5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
170
200
230
270
325
400

ISS

Microns

(469/1972)

BSS, ASTM and ISS

Aperture

4.00mm
3.35mm
2.80mm
2.36mm
2.00mm
1.70mm
1.40mm
1.18mm
1.00mm
.850mm
.710mm
.600mm
.500mm
.425mm
.355mm
.300mm
.250mm
.212mm
.180mm
.150mm
.125mm
.106mm
.090mm
.075mm
.063mm
.053mm
.045mm
.037mm
.025mm

4000
3353
2812
2411
2057
1680
1405
1204
1003
850
710
600
500
420
355
300
250
210
180
150
120
105
90
75
63
53
45
37
35

106

53

Phase Relationship/Basic Properties

Serve as indices for better description of soils;
physical state
Soil can be in 2 or 3 phases composition
Solid, liquid and gas; phase diagram

107

(a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of soil element
108

54

Saturated soil element with volume of

soil solids equal to one

Three separate phases of soil element

with volume of solids equal to one
109

S : Solid

Soil particle

W: Liquid
A: Air

Water (electrolytes)
Air

110

55

Phase Diagram

111

112

56

113

114

57

115

Phase Diagram

116

58

Compaction

Compaction is the densification of a soil by the expulsion of air and

rearrangement of soil particles.
The Proctor test is used to determine the maximum dry unit weight and
the optimum water content and serves as the reference for field
identifications of compaction.
Higher compaction effort increases the maximum dry unit weight and
reduces the optimum water content.
Compaction increases strength, lowers compressibility and reduces the
permeability of soils.
A variety of field equipment is used to check the dry unit weights achieved
in the field. Popular field equipment includes the sand cone apparatus, the
balloon apparatus and the nuclear density meter.

117

Compaction
Rolling and tampering
Reduction of air-void
volume
No change in solid volume
and water content;
increase in density
Effect permeability
Increase shear strength;
bearing capacity
Reduce settlement and
damage to structures

118

59

 Compaction
Effectiveness
Nature and type of soil
Water content during compaction
Maximum possible state of compaction; attainable and
field conditions
Type of construction plant

Sheep foot roller

119

Compaction
Degree of compaction
Depend on maximum dry/water content
Increase in water allows soil particles to be pack more
closely; increase in density; beyond certain water
limit/content density reduces
Maximum dry density; at optimum moisture content
Maximum possible state of compaction; attainable and
field conditions
Construction specification; 90% to 95% of the optimum
moisture content; locations and usage of fill ground
120

60

 Degree of compaction
Proper compaction is very important. The degree
of compaction depends on the soil type,
compaction method, compactive effort and the
as-compacted moisture content.

121

Compaction
When clay is compacted than optimum moisture content, clay tends to
have a flocculated fabric consisting of platy particles oriented
randomly. When is compacted wetter than optimum moisture
content, clay tends to have a more oriented or dispersed fabric, in
which platy particles are aligned parallel to one another.
Difference in soil fabric leads to differences in various soil properties,
eg. Drier than optimum moisture content will give higher hydraulic
conductivity than clay with wetter than optimum moisture content
Eg. Drier than optimum moisture content will have a greater shear
strength than wetter than clay with wetter than optimum
moisture content

122

61

123

Compaction
Effect of increased
compaction effort
Maximum dry density
increases
Optimum moisture
content decreases
Air-void content remain
the same

124

62

 Soil type and its effect

on the optimum
moisture and density
Well graded; high
density
Plasticity and % of fine
increase, lower density

125

Field Density Measurement

Core cutter method
Sand material
Steel rammer and dolly; 100mm dia. and 130mm
long

Sand replacement method

Dig a hole ; 150mm
Place in sand to measure volume of hole

126

63

Field Density Measurement

Core cutter method
Sand material
Steel rammer and dolly;
100mm dia. and 130mm
long
Sand replacement method
Dig a hole ; 150mm
Place in sand to measure
volume of hole
127

End of Module 1

64